DEGREE PROJECT IN VEHICLE ENGINEERING,

SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS

STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2020

HEV thermal management of high

voltage battery with indirect air
cooling and regarding customer
performance

BENJAMIN ORTÉGA

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES
ABSTRACT

The automotive environment is quickly evolving due to increasingly stringent environmental

standards and the gradual reduction of the volume of diesel motorized vehicles. The volumes of electrified
vehicles are thus constantly growing and are brought to be more and more present in our streets. This
electrification of vehicles involves new specifics issues compared to conventional vehicles, depending on the
different levels of electrification, which includes notably Hybrid Electric Vehicles.

Hybridization in cars is characterized by the addition of a electrical traction and/or electrical generation system
in addition to the conventional thermal engine. However, if the complexity of vehicles with thermal traction
comes essentially from the internal combustion engine and its efficiency which are sometimes complex to
optimize, the complexity of electric traction is expressed on the other hand at the level of the battery which
supplies high voltage electricity. Indeed, while an electric machine offers high efficiency and an easy control,
the high voltage battery contains many issues linked to a complex chemistry which must be controlled, and
can be subject to overheating.

This overheating phenomenon is particularly an issue on HEV, which have smaller batteries than BEV and PHEV
applications for a comparable power demand. The conception of an efficient high-voltage battery cooling
system is therefore essential in order to avoid any danger of damaging the system or potential fires linked to
the overheating of the battery. The air cooling solution is the most common, but this could change with the
new standard of the Electric Vehicle Safety Global Technical Regulation (EVS-GTR) applicable in 2021
prohibiting the rejection of the cooling air that was in contact with the battery cells inside the passenger
compartment. Is this solution able to adapt in order to remain competitive with the water or air conditioning
cooling solutions? This study's purpose is to bring an answer to this issue.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This study is carried out as a master thesis, part of the master in vehicle engineering of the KTH Royal
Institute of Technology of Stockholm. Its development is based on an industrial project led by the Renault
group, driven by its E-Tech innovation, which is the very first hybrid vehicle project of the company. For
reasons of the company's confidentiality policy, certain values may have been hidden or modified without
distorting the reasoning. I would thus like to thank the Renault Group and François Michon for having offered
me the opportunity to take part in this project during an internship in the customer performance department.

I obviously want to express my gratitude to Pascal Beurdouche, my company supervisor who accompanied me
and provided answers to my many questions throughout my period in the company. Likewise, I would also like
to thank Marc Renaud for his daily assistance, as well as the many other interactors from the company and the
E-Tech project who contributed with their skills and knowledges to the development of my study.

Finally, I would like to thank the KTH Royal Institute of technology of Stockholm and the Arts et Métiers
Paristech for allowing me to carry out this whole double-degree training which represents a very great
contribution to my professional project. I also thank Lars Drugge for having supervised this thesis work which
concludes my training.
LIST OF ACRONYMS

AC: Air-Conditioning MFR: Mass Flow Rate

BEV: Battery Electric Vehicle MG : Motor-Generator
BJA: Renault Clio MHEV: Mild Hybrid Electric
Vehicle
BMS: Battery Management System
MOLx: Middle Of Life (x years)
BOLx: Beginning Of Life (x years)
NEDC: New European Driving
BSOC: Battery State Of Charge
Cycle
CAFE : Corporate Average Fuel Economy
NiMH: Nickel-Metal Hydride
CD: Charge Depleting
NVH: Noise, Vibrations and
CS: Charge Sustaining Harshness
CVT: Continuous Variable Transmission OCV: Operating Cells Voltage
DC: Direct Current PEB: Power Electronics Box
DCR: Direct Current Resistance PHEV: Plug-in Hybrid Electric
DCT: Dual Clutch Transmission Vehicle

EGR; Exhaust Gas Recirculation PM : Particulate Matter/Mass

EGVR: Exhaust Gas Volume Reduction PN : Particulate Number

EM : Electrical Machine PRA : Power Relay Assembly

EOL: End Of Life PWM: Pulse Width Modulation

EV: Electric Vehicle PWT: Powertrain

EVS-GTR: Electric Vehicle Global Technical Regulation RDE95: Real Driving Emissions

F2D : Fun to Drive RJI: Dacia Lodgy

GPF: Gas Particle Filter RMS: Root Mean Square

GVWR: Gross Vehicle Weight Rating SCx: product of S: Frontal area of

the vehicle by Cx: Aerodynamic
HEV: Hybrid Electric Vehicle
drag coefficient of the vehicle
HEVC/HCM: Hybrid Electric Vehicle Calculator
SDSW: SD-Switch
HSG/HvSG: High-voltage Stator Generator
SOC: State Of Charge
HV: High Voltage
SW: Software
HVAC: Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning
THS/HSD: Toyota Hybrid
HW: Hardware System/Hybrid Synergy Drive
ICE: Internal Combustion Engine USOC: User State Of Charge
EML : Energy Management Law WLTP/WLTC: Worldwide
Li-Ion: Lithium-Ion harmonized Light-duty Testing
Procedure/Cycles
LJL : Renault Arkana
WOT/FT: Whole Open Throttle/
LRR: Low Reaction Reactivity
Full Throttle
LV: Low Voltage
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 10
1.1. Context ................................................................................................................................................ 10
1.1.1. Company’s presentation ............................................................................................................ 10
1.1.2. Context of the project ................................................................................................................ 10
1.1.3. Renault’s E-Tech and battery cooling issue ................................................................................ 11
1.2. Competition overview on HV battery integration and cooling ........................................................... 14
1.2.1. Studied vehicles and competitors .............................................................................................. 14
1.2.2. Competitors battery and integration analysis ............................................................................ 16
1.2.3. Competitors cooling systems analysis ........................................................................................ 17
1.3. Battery environment and constraints ................................................................................................. 22
1.3.1. Renault’s specific points ............................................................................................................. 22
1.3.2. High Voltage battery architecture .............................................................................................. 22
1.3.3. High Voltage Battery Integration................................................................................................ 23
2. High voltage Battery cooling on BJA ............................................................................................................ 25
2.1. Cooling specifications.......................................................................................................................... 25
2.1.1. System expectations................................................................................................................... 25
2.1.2. Sizing cycles ................................................................................................................................ 25
2.1.3. Technical definition – Air cooling ............................................................................................... 26
2.2. Présentation and limits of the initial system....................................................................................... 27
2.2.1. Initial concept architecture ........................................................................................................ 27
2.2.2. Cooling efficiency depending on heat sources ........................................................................... 28
2.2.3. Cooling efficiency depending on inlet temperature ................................................................... 29
2.3. Concept system results on RDE95@35°C............................................................................................ 30
2.3.1. Testing the systèm...................................................................................................................... 30
2.3.2. First update of cooling needs specifications .............................................................................. 31
2.3.3. System consumption .................................................................................................................. 32
3. Cooling system optimisation ........................................................................................................................ 34
3.1. Heat exchanger optimisation .............................................................................................................. 34
3.1.1. Fins number optimisation .......................................................................................................... 34
3.1.2. Fins geometrical optimisation .................................................................................................... 36
3.1.3. Simulation synthesis ................................................................................................................... 39
3.2. Air circulation optimisation ................................................................................................................. 41
3.2.1. Exchanger inlet duct optimisation .............................................................................................. 41
3.2.2. Air thermal management ........................................................................................................... 45
3.2.3. Influence of air flowing under the vehicle .................................................................................. 47

4
 3.2.4. Synthesis of physical optimisations ............................................................................................ 48
3.3. Blower uses optimization .................................................................................................................... 49
3.3.1. Blower management .................................................................................................................. 49
3.3.2. Blower management maps ........................................................................................................ 51
3.3.3. Setting up an acoustic pack ........................................................................................................ 54
4. System evaluation with derating strategy ................................................................................................... 56
4.1. Setting up a derating strategy ............................................................................................................. 56
4.1.1. Study of success conditions - Without HardWare optimizations ............................................... 56
4.1.2. Second update of cooling needs specifications.......................................................................... 59
4.1.3. Derating correction regarding performance - With HW optimisations...................................... 60
4.2. Thermal study synthesis ...................................................................................................................... 62
4.2.1. Final update of cooling needs specifications .............................................................................. 62
4.2.2. Thermal solutions synthesis ....................................................................................................... 63
4.2.3. Synthesis of impacts on customer performance ........................................................................ 64
4.3. System validation ................................................................................................................................ 65
4.3.1. Validations testings .................................................................................................................... 65
4.3.2. Derating occurrences evaluation criteria ................................................................................... 68
4.3.3. BJA Occurrences evaluation ....................................................................................................... 69
5. Openings: Higher demand and other solutions ........................................................................................... 73
5.1. Air cooling adaptation to SNM ............................................................................................................ 73
5.1.1. Air intake improvement assumption .......................................................................................... 73
5.1.2. Testings results SNM .................................................................................................................. 74
5.1.3. SNM occurrences evaluations .................................................................................................... 77
5.2. Technical definition of existing cooling solutions ............................................................................... 79
5.2.1. Technical definition: Air conditioning cooling ............................................................................ 79
5.2.2. Technical definition : water cooling ........................................................................................... 79
5.2.3. Technical definition : cooling with Peltier effect ........................................................................ 80
5.3. Water and AC cooling analysis ............................................................................................................ 81
5.3.1. AC Cooling: Solution and expected cooling power ..................................................................... 81
5.3.2. Water cooling: Solution and expected cooling power ............................................................... 83
5.3.3. Practical case: Water cooling back up adaptation to SNM ........................................................ 84
6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 87
6.1. Study review ............................................................................................................................................. 87
6.2. Comparative synthesis of cooling solutions .............................................................................................. 87
6.3. SWOT of battery cooling solutions ............................................................................................................ 88

5
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Components of E-Tech's powertrain ..................................................................................................... 12

Figure 2: Architecture of E-tech dedicated hybrid gearbox.................................................................................. 12
Figure 3: Overview of hybrid topologies............................................................................................................... 13
Figure 4: Competitors high voltage battery's integration..................................................................................... 17
Figure 5: E-Tech high voltage battery ................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 6: BJA's rear architecture ........................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 7: BJA's rear architecture - Side view......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 8: RDE95 cycle presentation ...................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 9: "Severe customer 99%"cycle ................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 10: BJA's cooling loops ............................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 11: Air cooling system concept .................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 12: Cooling ducts architecture ................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 13 a, b and c: Cooling system test results: heat losses, battery temperature and vehicle speed during
RDE95 cycle .......................................................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 14: Cooling needs evaluation on RDE95 at 35°C ....................................................................................... 31
Figure 15: First correction of cooling needs ......................................................................................................... 32
Figure 16: Different studied settings .................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 17: Cooling efficiency of different settings for same MFR ........................................................................ 36
Figure 18: Temperature repartition in the initial design ...................................................................................... 36
Figure 19: Different settings for geometrical optimization .................................................................................. 37
Figure 20: Geometrical study result for 120 kg/h ................................................................................................. 38
Figure 21: Geometrical study results at low MFR ................................................................................................. 39
Figure 22: Cooling system modifications .............................................................................................................. 41
Figure 23: Soleplate inlet duct modification......................................................................................................... 41
Figure 24: MFR repartition changes between DT2 and DT3 ............................................................................... 42
Figure 25: Last MFR repartition changes between DT3 and DT4 ........................................................................ 42
Figure 26a and b: Insulation of the sole inlet conduit (left) and air intake isolation scoop (right) ...................... 46
Figure 27: Concept integration of a thermal shield .............................................................................................. 46
Figure 28: Influence from the heat of the exhaust line ........................................................................................ 47
Figure 29: Air flow behaviour around the rear axle at high speed ....................................................................... 47
Figure 30: Blower used in this study case ............................................................................................................. 49
Figure 31: Blower modulation principle with PWM25% ...................................................................................... 50
Figure 32: Blower ranges of use ........................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 33a and b: %PWM with map V6 with ICE off (left) and ICE on (right) ....................................................... 52
Figure 34a and b: %PWM with cartography NewRATA with ICE off (left) and ICE on (right) ............................... 52

6
Figure 35a and b: %PWM with mapping V7 with ICE off (left) and ICE on (right) ................................................ 53
Figure 36: Acoustic pack composition .................................................................................................................. 54
Figure 37: Roadmap acoustic pack ....................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 38: Spectral analysis of blower's acoustics ................................................................................................ 55
Figure 39: Initial derating strategies ..................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 40: Measurements for each test cycles ..................................................................................................... 59
Figure 41: Second correction of cooling needs .................................................................................................... 60
Figure 42: Maneuvering 0 to 180 km/h results with derating strategy P2 and P3 ............................................... 61
Figure 43: P4 derating strategy ............................................................................................................................ 62
Figure 44: Finals cooling needs of the system ...................................................................................................... 63
Figure 45: Battery cooling impacts on customer performance ............................................................................ 64
Figure 46: RDE 95@45°C results with derating and air conditioning ................................................................... 65
Figure 47: Repeta@ 45°C results with derating and air conditioning .................................................................. 66
Figure 48: 99%_severe_customer@40°C results with derating and air conditioning .......................................... 66
Figure 49: 99%_severe_customer@45°C results without preventive derating ................................................... 67
Figure 50: Repeta@45°C results without preventive derating and without blower ............................................ 67
Figure 51: Occurrences of derating in ambient conditions Summer Seville ......................................................... 69
Figure 52: Occurrences of derating in ambient conditions Summer Seville vs Summer Paris ............................. 70
Figure 53: Occasions of "felt" derating in a Seville summer atmosphere ............................................................ 71
Figure 54: Occurrences of "felt" derating Seville summer vs Paris summer ........................................................ 71
Figure 55: Air admission hypotheses under study ................................................................................................ 73
Figure 56: New air intake system architecture ..................................................................................................... 73
Figure 57: Comparison "Leg C" vs duct "under rear seats" on SNM HEV on cycle RDE95@35°C........................ 74
Figure 58: Comparison BJA vs SNM HEV on RDE95@35°C cycle .......................................................................... 75
Figure 59: Comparison BJA vs SNM HEV on RDE95@45°C cycle .......................................................................... 76
Figure 60: SNM on repeta @45°C cycle ................................................................................................................ 76
Figure 61: SNM 80-120 km/h depending on battery temperature at GVWR ....................................................... 77
Figure 62: Derating occurrences of different E-Tech applications at BOL ............................................................ 78
Figure 63: Principle of AC cooling [1] .................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 64: Principle of water cooling [1] ............................................................................................................... 80
Figure 65: Peltier effect principles ........................................................................................................................ 80
Figure 66: AC cooling adaptation to the system ................................................................................................... 81
Figure 67: Location of the AC cooling plate in the battery casing ........................................................................ 82
Figure 68: Dedicated AC cooling evaporator plate ............................................................................................... 82
Figure 69: Water cooling adaptation to the current system ................................................................................ 83
Figure 70: Modeling of architectural modifications SNM HEV ............................................................................. 85
Figure 71: Water exchanger soleplate .................................................................................................................. 85
7
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Different levels of electrification in vehicles [1] [2] ................................................................................ 11

Table 2: BJA and SNM vehicles characteristics ..................................................................................................... 14
Table 3: Main HEV competitors ............................................................................................................................ 15
Table 4: Benchmark of competitors HEV batteries .............................................................................................. 16
Table 5: Comparison Li-Ion vs NiMh [4] ................................................................................................................ 16
Table 6: Hyundai/Kia's HV battery cooling system ............................................................................................... 18
Table 7: Toyota's cooling system .......................................................................................................................... 19
Table 8: Honda's cooling system .......................................................................................................................... 20
Table 9: Exchanger soleplate simulation results depending on heat source ....................................................... 29
Table 10: Exchanger soleplate simulation results depending on inlet temperature ............................................ 30
Table 11: MFR and pressure drop at 90%PWM .................................................................................................... 34
Table 12: Pressure drop for each settings ............................................................................................................ 34
Table 13: Exchanger soleplate simulation results depending of the number of fins ........................................... 35
Table 14: Cooling efficiency of different settings for same MFR .......................................................................... 35
Table 15: Constant data for geometrical analysis "high MFR" ............................................................................. 37
Table 16: Geometrical study result for 120 kg/h .................................................................................................. 37
Table 17: Influence of possible sideholes fillings .................................................................................................. 38
Table 18: Constant data for geometrical analysis low MFR ................................................................................. 38
Table 19: Geometrical study result at low MFR ................................................................................................... 39
Table 20: Sensibility analysis of the parameters .................................................................................................. 40
Table 21: Experimental design table depending on fins number, type and MFR ................................................. 40
Table 22: MFR distribution at the sole inlet ......................................................................................................... 42
Table 23: Soleplate temperature depending on inlet duct setting with 120 kg/h MFR ....................................... 43
Table 24: Soleplate temperature depending on inlet duct setting with 67 kg/h MFR ......................................... 43
Table 25: DT1 and DT4 comparison ...................................................................................................................... 44
Table 26: Influence analysis of air flow under the vehicle on the soleplate at 130 km/h .................................... 47
Table 27: Synthesis of possible hardware optimizations of the cooling system .................................................. 48
Table 28: Operations points of the blower ........................................................................................................... 51
Table 29: Rating synthesis of the different settings ............................................................................................. 55
Table 30a and b: Results and settings cycle 1 and 2 ............................................................................................. 57
Table 31a and b: Results and settings cycle 3 and 4 ............................................................................................. 57
Table 32a et b: Results and settings cycle 5 and 6 ............................................................................................... 58
Table 33: Correction details of cooling needs ...................................................................................................... 59
Table 34: RDE95@35°C with/without hardware optimization ............................................................................. 61

8
Table 35: Final test result on RDE95@35°C .......................................................................................................... 62
Table 36: Thermal management solutions ........................................................................................................... 63
Table 37: BJA test synthesis .................................................................................................................................. 68
Table 38a and b: Conditions of occurrence of "felt" derating .............................................................................. 69
Table 39: SNM tests results synthesis .................................................................................................................. 77
Table 40: Derating details of different E-Tech applications at BOL ...................................................................... 78
Table 41: Modification table SNM HEV water cooling solution............................................................................ 84
Table 42: Comparison of cooling needs and potentials BJA air cooling vas SNM water cooling .......................... 85
Table 43: Cooling systems comparative synthesis................................................................................................ 87
Table 44: Cooling systems SWOT.......................................................................................................................... 88
Table 45: HEV market analysis table..................................................................................................................... 91

9
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. CONTEXT

1.1.1. COMPANY’S PRESENTATION

The Renault group is a French car manufacturer coming from the Renault company that was founded
in 1899 by the brothers Louis, Marcel and Fernand Renault.

This manufacturer, quickly distinguished itself by its innovations and made itself known by its participation in
motor races. The company was nationalized in the aftermath of the Second World War under the name of
"Régie Nationale des Usines Renault". The company is listed on the stock exchange since 1994 and
privatization was effective in 1996, following the sale of 6% of its capital by the French State.

The Renault group has been linked to the Japanese manufacturers Nissan since 1999 and Mitsubishi since
2017, through the Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi alliance. This alliance has enabled brands to keep their own
identities while offering vehicles based on the same platforms, and enabled to become, in 2019, the group of
automobile manufacturers which sells the most vehicles around the world.

The Renault group is thus the first French car manufacturer in the world, thanks to the Alliance. The group
continues to renew the automotive offer and prepares for the future by responding to both the technological
and societal challenges of tomorrow: connected, autonomous vehicle, zero emissions, alternative energies,
new mobility offers. For this, the group is committed to innovative solutions for sustainable mobility, relies on
an aggressive international deployment strategy and strengthens its partnerships: Alliance with Nissan and
Mitsubishi, partnership with Daimler, cooperation with AVTOVAZ in Russia and is allied with Dongfeng in
China.

The Renault Group today brings together more than 181,000 employees in 39 countries. In 2019, it sold more
than 3.8 million vehicles in 134 countries, manufactured at its 38 industrial sites in France and abroad. The
group's activities are carried out through 5 different brands: Renault, Dacia, Lada, Renault Samsung Motors
and Alpine. Historic manufacturer of internal combustion engines and a pioneer of electric vehicles, Renault
group is launching itself nowadays in hybrid vehicles through its E-Tech innovation.

1.1.2. CONTEXT OF THE PROJECT

The E-Tech project is a hybrid vehicles project developed in an accelerated period by the Renault Group
with the aim of positioning itself at the level of the main hybrid competitors, and motivated by several
constraints linked to the environment. Indeed, global warming has forced European authorities to impose
increasingly strict measures in terms of CO2 emissions on car manufacturers, with the presence of financial
penalties in the event of non-compliance with the objectives set.

Thus, the ambitious goal of seeing vehicles emit less and less CO2 with the European standard Euro 7 in
sight by 2024 pushes car manufacturers to adapt their strategy and sales volumes concerning electrified
vehicles. At the same time, there is a gradual and constrained decrease in the sales volume of diesel engines.
Indeed, the image of the diesel engine has deteriorated sharply since the "Dieselgate" affair, which created a
crisis of confidence between manufacturers and the authorities over it. In addition, the diesel engine is
criticized for its emissions of carcinogenic particles.

However, despite the rise in power of electric motorization, internal combustion engines have not yet said
their last word and are still undergoing major research projects. To face the environmental constraints
mentioned above, the most suitable solution to deal with sales reduction of diesel engines and reduction of
C02 emissions, consists in hybrid petrol engines. The great autonomy provided and the reduced consumption
of this solution aims to satisfy the old diesel drivers, while being in phase with the objectives of reducing CO2
emissions, and more particularly in city cycles.

It is therefore with this in mind that the E-Tech project is taking place, which is the very first hybrid powertrain
project of the Renault Group.

The electrical contribution in hybrid vehicles can be in very variable proportions depending on the applications
and add several functions contributing to fuel economy. There are therefore different levels of hybridization
before reaching a full-electrified vehicle. These levels depends on the amount of electrical energy used by the
system, such as described as described in table 1.

Table 1: Different levels of electrification in vehicles [1] [2]

Micro Mild and Soft Full hybrid Plug-in hybrid 100% electric
hybrid hybrid HEV PHEV EV
Electric Motor- 2-4 kW 5-20kW >20 kW >40kW >70 kW
Generator power
High Voltage 12V à 48V 48V à 150V 150V à 300V 300V à 600V >300V
battery voltage
range
Features that help Start-stop Start-stop Start-stop Start-stop Full electric
to save fuel function function function function driving, no fuel
Energy Energy recovery Energy recovery Energy recovery use (except when
recovery Electric Electric Electric using range
assistance and assistance and assistance and extender)
low to moderate boost Boost
boost Restricted Extended electric
electric driving driving

Potential fuel <10% <20% <40% Up to 100% in 100%

savings full electric
driving
CO2 savings 6 à 8% 8 à 12% 25 à 30% 65 à 80% and 100%
up to 100% in
full electric
driving

The development of the E-Tech system concerns HEV and PHEV applications. In this study, the analysis will
mainly focus on the HEV segment.

1.1.3. RENAULT’S E-TECH AND BATTERY COOLING ISSUE

E-Tech is a Series-Parallel hybrid system which differs from conventional motorization by adding to the
internal combustion engine the use of two additional electric machines: an electric machine for the traction
and a High voltage Stator Generator. Elements used in E-Tech motorization are described in figure 1.

11
 Figure 1: Components of E-Tech's powertrain

In fact, the main innovation and particularity of the E-Tech hybrid system lies on the architecture of the
gearbox. Indeed, this innovation allows:

- The best adaptation of the traction mode between two electric gear ratios and 4 thermal gear ratios.
- The exploitation of a hybrid configuration mixing the possibilities of a series and/or parallel
hybridization.
- The best energy use between the flows of the ICE, the electric machine and the High voltage Stator
Generator.

This system distinguished itself by the absence of clutch system. Indeed, the shifting takes place by the
different interlocking of three removable dogs clutch and offers a combination of fifteen different driving
modes. In order to ensure a good quality gear change, in terms of comfort and acoustics, the High voltage
Stator Generator allows the good synchronization of the different shafts during interconnections. The
architecture of the gearbox is described in figure 2.

Figure 2: Architecture of E-tech dedicated hybrid gearbox

This technology thus allows fifteen different combinations of driving modes and therefore represents a
completely new hybrid technology which differs from the main hybrid technologies already available on the
HEV market such as the parallel and series hybridizations of Hyundai / Kia and Nissan respectively, or the
mixed and decoupled serie-parallel hybridizations of Toyota and Honda respectively. The properties of these
four systems as well as those of E-Tech are summarized in figure 3.

12
 Figure 3: Overview of hybrid topologies

However, hybrid system also implies the integration of a high-voltage battery, which is an action that meets a
system need essential to the operation of a hybrid vehicle. This battery must be installed in the vehicle despite
significant mass and volume constraints, be able to supply high voltage electrical energy to electric machines,
manage this energy in order to optimize its use and be maintained at an acceptable thermal level by a
dedicated cooling system so as not to cause malfunction or fires [3].

Indeed, the HEV high-voltage battery is subjected to very high thermal stresses, stresses even higher than for
those of other applications of electrified vehicles. This is due to the fact that the batteries used in HEV are
power batteries, with a higher power/volume ratio than in the other electrified applications. The DCR (Direct
Current Resistance) of the battery cells thus causes heat losses proportional to this power on a small exchange
surface.

This cooling system thus represent a massive issue on HEVs because of its strong impact on the so called
“customer performance”. Customer performance represent all aspects of the vehicle that have a direct impact
on the customer’s user experience, and which can potentially be subject to complaints from the user. This
analysis will thus be carried out with attention paid to these customer performance. This point of view thus
aims to anticipate potential complaints that may be caused by the cooling system of the high voltage battery.

In the case of E-Tech high voltage battery cooling solution, air cooling is the first option due to the moderate
cost of the solution. In terms of customer performance, this solution will mainly impact directly or indirectly:

- Performance : battery's overheating can imply a degradation of the electrical performance provided
and thus a derating of the traction performance of the vehicles.
- Driving pleasure: this same decrease in electrical performance can cause a loss of EV Feeling, which
can be felt by users.
- Consumption : The cooling solution can involve elements having an electrical consumption, and
directly or indirectly impact the consumption of the air conditioning compressor.
- Thermal reliability/durability and comfort : cells overheating can affect their integrity, and also cause
thermal discomfort in the passenger compartment.
- NVH : The cooling solution includes elements capable of generating noise, vibrations and harshness.

13
However, this study also takes into account a major detail concerning the air cooling solution: GTREVS
regulation scheduled for 2021 which prohibits recirculation of air in the passenger compartment if it has been
directly in contact with battery cells during the cooling process.

The objective of this study is therefore to set up an air battery cooling system taking into account the elements
mentioned above, in order to assess the viability of this solution compared to other existing solutions, and to
identify the strengths and weaknesses for future applications.

1.2. COMPETITION OVERVIEW ON HV BATTERY INTEGRATION AND COOLING

1.2.1. STUDIED VEHICLES AND COMPETITORS

The development of the of this study revolves mainly around the first pioneering project which
concerns the new Clio E-Tech, so called BJA in this study.

As BJA is only a small city-dweller, the study will then be extended in order to take into account a vehicle with
bigger aerodynamic and mass constraints, and therefore inducing bigger solicitations on the high-voltage
battery, as an opening in section 5. This vehicle is assumed to be a SUV-crossover that will be called SNM in
this study.

These two vehicles are part of the B/I2 segment, even if SNM has dimensions that approach the ones of the
C/M1 segment.

The general characteristics of these two vehicles are presented in table 2.

Table 2: BJA and SNM vehicles characteristics

SPECIFICATION BJA HEV SNM HEV COMMUN STRUCTURE

Type City-dweller SUV crossover Hybrid configuration

Year 2020 2020 Serie-Parallel
Size 4050/1790/1440 4227/1797/1585
GVWR 1792kg 1913 kg
EV range 0-4 kms 0-4 kms

System E-Tech E- Tech

Emissions norm Euro 6 Dfull Euro6 Dfull

82 g/km /
NEDC Emissions

WTLP Emissions 96 g/km / Transmission/Gearbox

GPF Oui Oui 2 Electric gears + 4 thermic gears=
ICE Designation 1.6L 1,6L 15 kinematics modes + 3 dog-
Type Gasoline Gasoline clutches
Power 67 kW 67 kW
Torque 149 Nm 149 Nm
EM Power 35 kW 35 kW
Torque 212 Nm (4 sec) then 212 Nm (4 sec) then
205 Nm 205 Nm
Combined power 140 hp 140 hp
Traction power sum 140 hp 140 hp
Power completation 100% 100%

HSG Power 15 kW 15kW Battery position

Torque 50 Nm 50 Nm Under the trunk
Battery Type Li-Ion Li-Ion
Cooling system Air from the cabin + Air from the cabin +

14
 Fan No contact with Fan No contact with
cells from the battery cells from the battery
Capacity 1,2 kWh 1,2 kWh
Nb of cells 68 cells 68 cells
Cells supplier Hitachi Hitachi
Voltage 250 V 250 V
Output power 43 kW 43 kW
Trunk volume 306L 372L

Tank volume 39L 48L

Before going into the analysis of the EE-Tech

Tech battery cooling system, it is interesting to study the high voltage
battery cooling systems present on the others HEV on the market. A series of segment B and C vehicles more mor
or less close to the two studied vehicles aree selected. These vehicles come from the four major hybrid
topologies presented in figure 3 and their choice
choices are justified in table 3.

Table 3: Main HEV competitors

BJA HEV SNM HEV

Vehicles with Hyundai Ioniq HEV – Honda CR-V – Toyota Corolla
interesting
technology
Vehicles not particularly
close to E-Tech vehicles
but presenting a Paternity of HEV system Paternity of HEV system I-MMT First Li-Ion battery on Toyota HEV
technological interest BSG+1M2C DCT
specific to their hybrid
system.
Secondary Toyota Yaris 3 HEV - Nissan Note E-Power Toyota CH--R – Kia Niro HEV
competitors –
currently
Current vehicles having
the same target but not
Released in 2012, Released in 2012, absent Restyled in 2019 in a C-SUV larger in size
presenting the most
restyled in 2017 and from the European more upscale version than SNM, less close
recent technologies of the
about to be renewed in market than the SNM target and recent than the
competition.
2020 Kona

Front-end Toyota Yaris 4 HEV Hyundai Kona HEV

competitors
Near or recent outings
that come closest to the
studied vehicles in terms
of characteristics and Will be released in 2020 just like BJA, a significantly Released in 2019, the only true hybrid B-SUV
B on
target objective. improved version of the Yaris 3, already the market the market with dimensions close to that of SNM.
leader in hybrid city cars.

Secondary Honda Jazz I-MMT Nissan Qashqai E-Power

E
competitors – future
Other competing vehicles
to come on which
information remains too
limited for the study.

Also coming out in 2020, but still little information on First appearance of E--Power in Europe planned on
this vehicle this crossover SUV for 2021

An overview of the general characteristics of these vehicles is available through the competition analysis table
detailed in the table 45 in appendix.

15
The analysis of these competing vehicles will first focus on the high voltage battery itself and its integration,
before then looking in more detail at the different cooling systems used.

1.2.2. COMPETITORS BATTERY AND INTEGRATION ANALYSIS

A general overview of the known characteristics of competing batteries is presented in the table 4.

Table 4: Benchmark of competitors HEV batteries

TOYOTA
Corolla 122ch CH-R
R 122ch Yaris 3 Yaris 4

Cells supplier: PEVE Cells supplier: PEVE

Battery Type: Li-Ion
Pack energy: 1,3 kWh
Number of cells: 168
Battery Voltage:2O7V
Output Power:
KIA/HYUNDAI
Ioniq – Niro - Kona
Cells supplier: PEVE Cells supplier: PEVE
Battery Type: Ni-Mh
Battery Type: Ni-Mh Battery Type: Li-Ion
Pack energy: 1,3 1,31 kWh
Pack energy: 0,94 kWh (50% Pack energy: 1 kWh
(66% USOC)
USOC) Number of cells: 48
Number of cells: 28 x 6
Number of cells: 20 x 6 Battery Voltage: 177,6 V
Battery Voltage:2
Voltage:202V
Battery Voltage:144V Output Power:
Output Power:
Output Power:
NISSAN HONDA
Note E--Power CR-V Fit Jazz

Cells supplier: LG chem Cells supplier: Hitachi Cells supplier: General Motors Cells supplier: General Motors
Battery Type: Li-Ion Battery Type: Li-Ion Battery Type: Li-Ion Battery Type: Li-Ion
Pack energy: 1,56 kWh (60% Pack energy: 1,
1,5 kWh Pack energy: 1,5 kWh Pack energy: 0,9 kWh
USOC) Number of cells: Number of cells: Number of cells:
Number of cells: 4x16 Battery Voltage
Voltage: 310V Battery Voltage: Battery Voltage:
Voltage
Battery Voltage:240V Output Power: 40kW Output Power: 27kW Output Power:
Output Power: 42kW

These batteries can thus be categorized into two general categories according to the type of chemistry
chemist used.
This is summarized in table 5 which also presents the strengths and weaknesses of each chemistry.

Table 5: Comparison Li-Ion vs NiMh [4]

LITHIUM-ION BATTERY NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE

IDE BATTERY
Nissan Note E-Power X
Hyundai/Kia Ioniq, Niro et Kona X
Toyota Corolla 122ch, Yaris 2020 CH-R 122ch, Yaris 2012
Honda CR-V, Jazz 2020 X
Benefits -No
No "memory" effect, better resistance to wear -Economic
-Better
Better ratio of energy quantity and power / -Less
Less subject to overheating: the exchange surface
volume is enlarged
ged for a similar power
-Less
Less maintenance and upkeep requirements -Less
Less security constraints related to the product
Disadvantages - Danger of short circuit in case of contact -Lower
Lower power / energy volume ratio
between the electrolytes - Memory effect which reduces the lifespan during
- Price repeated charges / discharges
- Overheating

16
It can be seen that every HEV competitors are now using Li-Ion batteries. This increases the stress on thermal
control of the battery because this type of chemistry is more strongly subject to overheating, since the same
amount of heat is dissipated over a smaller area [5]. This highlights the importance of the battery cooling
system.
Before installing the cooling system, it is also important to take into account the placement of the high voltage
battery in the vehicle. The figure 4 presents a summary of the high voltage battery competitor's location
choices, specifying their characteristics, strengths and weaknesses in terms of security, comfort and
inhabitancy.

Figure 4: Competitors high voltage battery's integration

However, the location of the battery also has impacts on its cooling system. These solutions have different
volumes available as well as a different distance from the passenger compartment and the fresh air
conditioning outlet. These different factors can have an influence on the installation and efficiency of air
cooling.

A row 1 location of the high voltage battery implies a short length of duct and a better proximity of the fresh
air leaving the air conditioning at the expense of a reduced implantation volume of the solution. A row 2
location offers more space but an air intake further away from the fresh air from the air conditioning. Location
under the trunk also provides additional space but involves a greater length of intake duct.

It is by knowing the subtleties linked to each type of integration that it is now possible to carry out studies of
the various HEV battery cooling systems on the market.

1.2.3. COMPETITORS COOLING SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

The studies of the HEV battery cooling systems on the market will focus more particularly on the most
common solutions from vehicles integrating their batteries in the rear unit of the vehicles, either at the level of
row 2 or the trunk.

• HYUNDAI/KIA :

Like the high voltage battery, the battery cooling system of the Hyundai / Kia HEV systems is a common item to
the HEV and PHEV versions, with a second battery and a second cooling unit simply added under the trunk
floor in the latter.

17
The air is thus sucked inside the cabin by a fan on the level of the left side of the rear seat. The air therefore
cross the battery pack and therefore performs convection cooling tran
transversely
sversely to the cells, making it possible
to obtain a large surface area for heat exchange. The air intake blower is located downstream of the other side
of the battery. This fan is controlled by the Battery Management System which evaluates the cooling needs.
ne

The air is then directed into a hollow body, which helps to extract it outside without depressurizing the
passenger compartment. It is therefore judicious to be able to evacuate this hot air so as not to heat the
passenger compartment and therefore th thee air captured for cooling the battery. In addition, the short length of
the conduits makes possible to limit the pressure drops and therefore to optimize the cooling rate.

This system used in the three Hyundai / Kia vehicles in the study is summarized in table 6.
6

Table 6: Hyundai/Kia's HV battery cooling system

Hyundai/Kia cooling system

Cooling Type Air cooling
Thermal Transfer type Direct forced convection with a fan
System overview

Location Under row 2

Air inlet Beside the left rear sseat

Air outlet Inside the hollow body at the right of row 2
Blower's location Downstream – air sucked into the battery
Air circulation

Cells

Hollow
body

18
 Strengths • Short duct length - Small pressure drop
• Large exchange area
• Good distribution of air flow
• Direct convection - Efficient cooling
• Favored hot air extraction
Weaknesses • Possible entry of dirt in the battery pack - Filtration required
• Potential entry of dangerous gases into the cabin during degassing of the
battery
•Non compliance with GTREVS 2021

• TOYOTA :

The cooling system used by Toyota is also an air-cooling system by direct air convection on the cells to cool the
HV battery located in row 2. The process varies slightly depending on the model:

- For the Corolla 122ch, the air is sucked through the inlet duct located on the left of row 2. After
passing through a long duct probably involving significant pressure drops, the air reaches the blower
located upstream then is pushed into the battery by its inlet at the top left. Air is rejected everywhere
near the battery by the casing which is not sealed since there are no other duct outlets.
- For the CH-R, the air is sucked into the inlet duct by the blower located just behind the intake grille
located to the right of row 2 then pushed into the battery by its inlet at the bottom right of the
battery and comes out at the top right after being in contact with the cells placed vertically. This short
CH-R outlet duct directly rejects air near the battery.
- For the Yaris 3, the air is sucked into the inlet duct by the blower located just behind the intake grille
located to the left of row 2, then pushed into the battery by its inlet at the bottom left from the
battery and comes out at the top right after being in contact with the cells placed vertically. The
outlet duct rejects the air in the hollow body to the right of row 2, which helps it to be extracted
outside without depressurizing the passenger compartment.

Interestingly, Toyota still chooses to push air into the battery with the blower. In addition, it can be seen less
and less effort in redirecting hot air at the battery outlet over vehicles. Toyota just rejects the hot air near the
battery, and questions about the impact of hot air redirection. The cooling systems of Toyota vehicles are
summarized in table 7.

Table 7: Toyota's cooling system

Toyota's cooling system

Vehicle Corolla 122ch CH-R 122ch Yaris 3
Cooling Air cooling
type
Thermal Direct convection forced with a fan
Transfer
type
System
overview

Location Under row 2

Air inlet Under left rear seat Under right rear seat Under left rear seat
Air outlet In the hollow body at the left of row 2

19
 Blower's Upstream – Air pushed into the battery
location
Air  Air conditionning  Air conditionning  Air conditionning
circulation  Passenger  Passenger compartment  Passenger
compartment  Right sided inlet compartment
 Left sided inlet  immediate blower  Left sided inlet
 Long duct  Bottom right sided battery  Immediate blower
 Blower inlet  Bottom left sided
 High left sided  High left sided battery battery inlet
battery inlet outlet  Sortie haut à droite
 Random rejection  Rejection near battery batterie
- casing not  Rejet dans corps
sealed creux
Strengths • Short duct length for Yaris and CH-R - reduced pressure drop
• Large exchange area
• Direct convection - Efficient cooling
• Hot air extraction favored for Yaris
Weaknesses • Possible entry of dirt in the battery pack - Filtration required
• Presence of large bends - increase pressure losses
• Length and complexity of Corolla conduits
• Loss of efficiency due to the rejection of hot air near the battery for Corolla and CH-R
• Potential entry of dangerous gases into the cabin during degassing of the battery
• Possibility of NVH related to the proximity of the blower for Yaris and CH-R
• HONDA :

Honda cooling systems remain quite similar to the systems described above, using air cooling by direct
convection on the cells forced by a blower.

In the case of the CR-V, air is taken into the cabin through an inlet located on the hollow body next to the right
rear seat. The location of the battery in the trunk involves a duct long enough to reach the blower located
upstream of the battery. The duct then splits into two ducts which come laterally and symmetrically at both
side of the battery. The air enters from above, sprinkles the cells transversely and exits further through a duct
located at the bottom of the rear face of the battery, directly in the trunk. Air sprinkling thus appears to be
inconsistent.

The system used on the previous Honda Fit Jazz is relatively similar, but with only one lateral battery inlet and
the blower is located downstream of the battery.

The Honda CR-V's cooling system is summarized in table 8.

Table 8: Honda's cooling system

Honda's cooling system

Cooling type Air cooling

Thermal Transfer type Forced direct convection with a fan

20
 System overview

Location Under the trunk

Outlet inlet
conduit conduit

Air inley In the hollow body located at the right of the rear seats

Air outlet In the trunk

Blower location Upstream – air pushed into the battery

Air circulation
Passenger
compartment

TRUNK

Strengths • Large exchange area

• Direct convection - Efficient cooling
Weaknesses • Long length of inlet duct with elbow - Pressure losses
• Possible entry of dirt in the battery pack - Filtration required
• Potential entry of dangerous gases into the cabin during degassing of the
battery
• Questionable distribution of air flow
• Noise from air intake similar to "poorly closed door noise"
In summary, the points to observe on the different cooling systems are:

• The different air intakes / intakes - which affect the air inlet temperature.
• Different releases of hot air - which can also affect the air inlet temperature if the hot air is rejected
too close from it.
• The different distributions and paths of the air flow inside the battery - which affect the uniformity
and distribution of the cooling.

21
 • The different lengths of ducts - Which favors pressure drops.
• The complexity of the ducts - With potential bends and change of sections which can be sources of
pressure losses.

The advantages of cooling by direct air contact on the cells compared to indirect air cooling are:
• Great cooling power as there are no intermediate exchange surface between air and cells.
• Large exchange area as air is in contact with each faces of the cells.
• Direct air convection provide more efficient cooling than conduction through aluminum.

The disadvantages of direct air cooling are:

• Non-compliance with the new regulation in EVS-GTR applicable in 2021.

• Potential entry of dangerous gases into the cabin during degassing of the battery.
• Possible entry of dirt in the battery pack so filtration is required.

1.3. BATTERY ENVIRONMENT AND CONSTRAINTS

1.3.1. RENAULT’S SPECIFIC POINTS

In this study, the battery environment must respect specific constraints stemming from the choices of
the Renault Group and which differentiate the system from the competitors:

- The battery must be located outside the passenger compartment, this architecture is in accordance
with Renault's process of Articulated Mechanical Section assembly. This results in the chosen
positioning of the battery under the trunk, with its associated cooling system, and therefore involving
a longer and more complex cooling duct than location such as under row 2, with the potentially
associated pressure drops.
- The SD-Switch which is in charge of turning off the high voltage electricity should be accessible by the
firemen without any movement of the passenger, it thus should not be inside the passenger
compartment.
- The main feature of the cooling solution is to anticipate the new regulation on EVS-GTR applicable in
2021: the air present in the battery should never be discharged into the passenger compartment, this
point will be more fully detailed and constitutes the major problem of the system E-Tech.

It is therefore very important to keep these three points in mind when studying the cooling solution since
these are the points that will generate additional constraints on the whole battery environment that vehicles
on the market do not currently have. The main constraints arise from the last point mentioned.

1.3.2. HIGH VOLTAGE BATTERY ARCHITECTURE

The battery designed for E-Tech GEN1 is made up of 68 cells supplied by Hitachi in parallelepiped
casing in reinforced aluminum of 560mm * 330mm * 205mm of which only the bi-polar SD-Switch exceeds 58
mm in height. The modeling of this battery is available in figure 5.

22
 Figure 5: E-Tech high voltage battery

This battery thus totals a capacity of more than 1.2 kWh while the sizing criteria point a need in the range of
User State Of Charge of 0.55 kWh in order to ensure the optimization of both performance and consumption.consumption
This oversizing of the battery ensures that there is always this USOC of 0.55 kWh available in the battery, even
after aging . The initial specifications require full availability of this USOC at Middle Of Life
ife 8 years.

This battery provides a maximum voltage of around 250V distributed over 2 rows of 34 cells connected in
series. Each cell provides a maximum voltage of around 3.65V and has a variable DCR resulting in heat losses
which must be removed by the dedicated cooling system.

1.3.3. HIGH VOLTAGE BATTERY INTEGRATION

The high-voltage
voltage battery is placed at the rear of the vehicle,
le, just like the low voltage battery, which
no longer finds a place in the powertrain box as on a conventional vehicle because of the large size of the
hybrid motorization.. There is therefore a strong problem concerning the integration of batteries which is
expressed on several points:

- Do not impact passenger comfort

- Do not significantly impact the trunk volume
- Do not significantly impactt the volume of the tank
- Allow the incorporation of the spare wheel
- Ensure good protection and electrical insulation of the whole system
- Ensure good accessibility to the SD
SD-Switch
- To be efficient at assembly with AMS (Articulated Mechanical Section) so with
h the battery
b under body

In order to meet these criteria,, the choice is made to place the two ba
batteries
tteries side by side under the trunk floor,
between the rear wheels. This arrangement keeps the same tank volume as on the conventional vehicle, and
does not affect
fect passenger comfort as it could have been by reducing the thickness of the foam in the rear seats
to place the battery underneath. The architecture chosen for the location of the high and low voltages
batteries is described in figure 6.

High Voltage
Fuel tank Battery

Low Voltage
Battery

Figure 6: BJA's rear architecture

23
The other problems linked to the installation of the battery concern access to the SD-Switch and the
integration of the spare wheel. With this type of battery location, the choice was initially made to offer access
to the SD-Switch outside the passenger compartment unlike many competing vehicles. From a safety point of
view, this allows rapid and certain access to the device in the event of an accident without having to first move
the occupants of the passenger compartment. The particularity of this SD-Switch is its protuberance of 58 mm
above the battery, and after integration of the spare wheel, this protuberance must not result in an increase of
58 mm in the boot floor with the significant reduction of associated trunk volume.

In order to satisfy this, the spare wheel is placed horizontally above the battery floor while the SD-Switch is
housed in the hollow body of the wheel, the spare wheel is then held by an anti-intrusion bar. The
arrangement chosen is described in figure 7.

SD-Switch

Spare wheel
Rear axle

HV Battery with
reinforced aluminium

Figure 7: BJA's rear architecture - Side view

This arrangement therefore makes it possible to limit the height of the trunk floor while allowing access to the
SD-Switch with a simple removal of the spare wheel, but this wheel must nevertheless be very strictly
stabilized so as never to decapitate this SD-Switch by shock.

24
 2. HIGH VOLTAGE BATTERY COOLING ON BJA

2.1. COOLING SPECIFICATIONS

2.1.1. SYSTEM EXPECTATIONS

The specifications of the cooling system aims to size the power to be dissipated from the battery to ensure
stable electrical performance regardless of customer usage.

The validation criterion for these specifications lies in the system's ability to allow the vehicle to follow the
RDE95 cycle at 35 ° C without derating of the electrical performance. It means that the electrical performance
of the battery should never be limited because of overheating.

The criterion for in-depth validation of the system consists in checking the good repeatability of the system
performance under more severe conditions up to 45 ° C ambient on more demanding cycles, without any
immobilizing failure linked to the overheating of the high voltage battery. The cycles evaluated, in addition to
the RDE, are the "Repeta" cycle which simulates severe use by repetitive charges and discharges between 80
and 120 km/h and the "severe customer 99%" cycle, the most severe customer derived from a customer
profile database. These cycles will be described more in depth in section 2.1.2.

In terms of protection of the high-voltage battery and therefore of the system, the specifications define that
the cell temperature must not exceed 60 ° C. The Battery Management System also includes a curative
derating strategy which gradually decreases the battery's electrical performance and goes so far as to cut them
at 65 ° C, causing an immobilizing failure. It hence the importance of limiting the rise in temperature.

2.1.2. SIZING CYCLES

In order to better understand the specifications of the vehicle, it is important to know the three cycles
mentioned in the construction of the validation criteria of the specifications.

The design cycle defined by the specifications is therefore the RDE95 cycle [6]. This severe cycle does not
necessarily reflect customer behaviour, but it is a standard sizing cycle also used by competitors to ensure high
reliability of the vehicle. This cycle assesses the vehicle's capabilities through accelerations and decelerations
over 3 phases: Urban, Road and Motorway. This cycle is described in figure 8.

REPETABILITY/
URBAN ROAD
MOTORWAY

Figure 8: RDE95 cycle presentation

The second cycle used for the validation is called Repeta cycle. This cycle is even more severe than the RDE 95.
It is not a conventionnal cycle but it consists of maximum demand on vehicle performance by repeating 20
charge and discharge cycles, oscillating between speeds of 80 to 120 km/h Whole Open Throttle, followed by a
full torque deceleration.
Finally, a final validation cycle was added afterwards and concerns the 99% severe customer cycle. This cycle is
company specific and corresponds to the most severe customer profile from a database of eighty five segment
B customer profiles and will also be used to carry out the final validation of the cooling system. This last cycle is
shown in figure 9.

Speed (kph)
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
-20

Figure 9: "Severe customer 99%"cycle

In order to successfully follow these cycles, it is important that the battery is capable of delivering its full and a
factor limiting this power is thus the heating of the battery, in the event of excessive heating. It hence once
again that it is important to develop an efficient cooling system for the high-voltage battery.

2.1.3. TECHNICAL DEFINITION – AIR COOLING

As seen in the competitors analysis, air cooling system is the most commonly used system in HEV. The
principle is simple, the air is sucked from the cabin, aiming to get the maximum of fresh air coming from
the air conditioning, in order to use it to cool the battery cells. Air is generally released into the trunk. As
seen on the competitors system, this air is generally captured at a temperature below 35 ° C, and is
directly sucked in by forced convection of a fan through the freely accessible surfaces of the battery cells.
However, this solution has drawbacks such as:
- A relatively low cooling efficiency compared to solutions by water or AC.
- The air sucked into the passenger compartment crosses the battery while heating up, the
different areas of the battery pack are therefore not cooled in the same way.
- The air ducting can be complex, because it is bulky and it is forced to bypass other elements such
as the low-voltage battery for example, and this can cause pressure losses and therefore cooling
flow losses.
- The use of the fan can generate a noise which can be annoying at high power.
- The air ducts directly connect the air in the passenger compartment with that of the battery. This
raises a safety issue, with for example the risk of gas entering from the battery into the cabin
during degassing of the battery.
- There is a non-negligible danger of dirt entering the battery pack since the air in the passenger
compartment contains dust. Dust can settle between the cells and form a bond with the
condensed moisture of the air a conductive layer. This layer promotes the generation of leakage

26
 currents in the battery. Filtration can however be added to circumvent this risk, but involves
pressure drops. [1] [7]

Today, the majority of air cooling applications present this solution of direct contact with the cells of the
battery, this is authorized, but this is brought to evolve for the security reasons mentioned in the last two
points. As a result, the Renault Group has chosen to allow itself an additional constraint for the air cooling of
the E-Tech battery: the air taken into the cabin for cooling must not be in contact direct with the battery cells,
in accordance with the EVS-GTR new regulation planned for 2021.

This is where the whole complexity of sizing the E-Tech cooling system comes from. The solution then chosen
is to pass the air through an heat exchanger located under the battery packs in order to allow cooling by
conduction and not by direct convection of the air on the surface of the cells.

The air cooling system is completely independent of the various vehicle cooling loops of the vehicles [7] which
are shown in figure 10.

Figure 10: BJA's cooling loops

2.2. PRÉSENTATION AND LIMITS OF THE INITIAL SYSTEM

2.2.1. INITIAL CONCEPT ARCHITECTURE

The study of the cooling system developed for E-tech Gen1 start from a concept system of air cooler
consisting of a double oblong duct interspersed with a exchanger of 32 fins in total as illustrated in figure
11.

Figure 11: Air cooling system concept

27
This exchanger is positioned below the battery pack. The air is supplied there by ducts and by the aspiration of
a blower located downstream of the exchanger. The air is captured in the passenger compartment in the
hollow body called "pied C" on the left of row 2, and is then rejected into the hollow body at the level of the
right car tail light. The architecture of the complete system is described in figure 12.

Figure 12: Cooling ducts architecture

The purpose of the sub-floor architecture chosen for the installation of the high-voltage battery was to
guarantee good compactness with the possibility of incorporating the low-voltage battery just next to the
high-voltage battery. However, the compactness of the assembly and the placement under the floor implies
complex, long cooling conduits and with the presence of elbows implying significant pressure losses.

Another important point inherent in this conduction cooling system concerns the exchange interface between
the bottom of the battery cells and the exchanger. This interface is important because it must provide the
answer to 3 functions:

- Attach the cells packs to the exchanger.

- Provide strong thermal conduction in order to maximize the heat exchange and therefore the cooling
efficiency.
- Electrical insulation to prevent any danger from high voltage electricity contained in the battery.

In order to achieve these three objectives, the solution adopted is thermal paste, also called "gap filler". Its use
is more widely known in electronics and in particular for the fixing and cooling of computer processors.

The choice of thermal paste for the system is mainly motivated by the price. This has a thermal conductivity
between 2 and 4 W/K.m².

Taking this interface into account, it is estimated that the temperature difference between the soleplate of the
exchanger and the top of the cells is about 10 ° C. So to simplify the specifications during simulations, it can be
considered that the temperature of the soleplate of the exchanger, should never exceed 50 ° C.

2.2.2. COOLING EFFICIENCY DEPENDING ON HEAT SOURCES

The following simulations carried out on the Star CCM software are intended to demonstrate the ability of
the system to limit the temperature in the soleplate to 50 ° C, and therefore by hypothesis to limit the
temperature at the head of cells to 60 ° C, while removing the 350W defined by the initial specifications by
ambient 35 ° C. This first simulation takes into account an air inlet temperature of 28 ° C, which corresponds to
a hypothesis of air inlet temperature with active air conditioning at 35 ° C ambient. The simulations in table 9
therefore evaluate the system's capacity to evacuate the 350W at high blower MFR (120 kg/h) and even its
capacity to dissipate an even higher power (420W).

28
 Table 9: Exchanger soleplate simulation results depending on heat source

DATA
Inlet Mass Flow (kg/h) 120 120
Inlet temperature (°C) 28 28
Number of fins 32 32
Ambient Temperature 35 35
(°C)
Heat Transfer 10 10
Coefficient (W/m²-K)
Heat Source (W) 350 420
RESULTS
Solid temperature
distribution

Tmin (°C) 36.10 37.99

Tmax (°C) 44.61 48.98
It is thus possible to note that with 28 ° C of air inlet temperature and according to the simulations, the system
would be able to evacuate more than 350W while keeping the soleplate below 50 ° C. One degree would
correspond to 15.9W of power dissipated: by hypothesis and according to simulations, with active air
conditioning, the system would be able to evacuate up to 436W while maintaining the temperature in the
soleplate at 50 ° C.

2.2.3. COOLING EFFICIENCY DEPENDING ON INLET TEMPERATURE

New simulations were also carried out in order to compare the results obtained with an air inlet
temperature of 28 ° C corresponding to active air conditioning, with a simulation performed for an air inlet
temperature of 37 ° C which corresponds to the absence of air conditioning in the passenger compartment.
The results are presented in table 10.

DATA
Inlet Mass Flow (kg/h) 120 120
Inlet temperature 28 37
(°C)
Number of fins 32 32
Ambient Temperature 35 35
(°C)
Heat Transfer 10 10
Coefficient (W/m²-K)

29
Heat Source (W) 350 350
RESULTS
Solid temperature
distribution (°C)

Fluid temperature
distribution at outlet
(°C)

Tmin (°C) 36.10 44.49

Tmax (°C) 44.61 52.63
Table 10: Exchanger soleplate simulation results depending on inlet temperature

It is thus possible to note that the system is not able to evacuate the 350W while limiting the temperature at
the soleplate of the battery to 50 ° C without air conditioning. A difference of 9 ° C at the air inlet generates a
difference of 8°C at the soleplate, the system would therefore be able to evacuate the 350W while limiting the
temperature to 50°C at the soleplate for inlet temperatures up to 34 ° C.

These results are only the result of simulations and rely on the power to dissipate 350W defined by the
specifications. However, these values should be verified when testing the system.

2.3. CONCEPT SYSTEM RESULTS ON RDE95@35°C

2.3.1. TESTING THE SYSTEM

In order to check the capacity of the initial system to comply with the specifications which consist in
the RDE95 at 35°C without derating of the electrical performance, tests in an aeroclimatic enclosure were
carried out in August 2019, while checking the temperature in the cells of the battery. With a blower blowing
at 120 kg/h throughout the test like in the simulations, a cooling requirement of 459W on average is obtained,
with peaks exceeding 500W.

In addition, the lack of cooling capacity leads to a derating of battery performance over almost the entire
“highway” phase of the RDE95 since the limit temperature of 60 ° C in the battery cells has been reached. The
results of these tests are presented in figure 13.

30
 Losses (W)

Figure 13 a, b and c: Cooling

ooling system test results
results:: heat losses, battery temperature and vehicle speed during RDE95 cycle

These preliminary tests therefore highlight a llack of cooling power causing a derating.. It thus appears that the
system in the state suffers from a big deficit in cooling capacity.

The 350W to dissipate initially defined by the specifications are therefore unde
undersized
rsized and these tests highlight
the need to redefine the power requirement to dissipate to follow the RDE95 @ 35 ° C without derating
performance while limiting the temperature in the cells at 35 ° C.

2.3.2. FIRST UPDATE OF COOLING N

NEEDS SPECIFICATIONS
In order to update the cooling requirement of the specifications, several configurations of RDE95 @ 35 ° C
cycle simulations were performed with different evacuated powers:

- A 350W evacuation system without d derating corresponding to the initial specification

- A systemm evacuating power to fill the specifications without derating. This power value is obtained
after several iteration of simulations.
- A system evacuating the power to fill the specifications with a derating performance at 23 kW
constant. This power value is also obtained after several iteration of simulations.

The result of the simulations is presented in figure 14.

Figure 14: Cooling needs evaluation on RDE95 at 35°C

Two configurations allow to limit the maximum authorized battery temperature at 60°C
60° while following the
RDE95 @ 35 ° C: 480W of cooling power with a derating performance furnished byy the battery from 43kW

31
initially to 23kW and 580W of cooling power if there is no derating. On the other hand, a dissipated power of
350W leads to a battery temperature of 71 ° C, which confirms the lack of power of the initial cooling system
demonstrated during the tests.

These results thus make it possible to construct the diagram of the cooling needs for BJA at different aging as
presented in figure 15.

SNM

Figure 15: First correction of cooling needs

Several remarks concerning figure 15:

- It represents an image of the cooling needs estimated at this time t of the study and will change
during the development of the analysis, these needs defined by the simulation must be confirmed
with the tests.
- The need at MOL8 is estimated by considering a 30% increase in battery DCR with age, this need may
be reduced by the implementation of a new version of the Energy Management Law.
- The requirements for other application like SNM are assumed to be higher due to the larger mass and
aerodynamical constraints. A difference of 90W of cooling needs between BJA and SNM at BOL is
therefore needed.

A clear need for additional cooling power is therefore emphasized. The cooling system is not capacitive and it
will not be possible to follow the RDE95 @ 35 ° C cycle while limiting the temperature in the cells of the
battery to 60 ° C without implementing a performance derating strategy.

In order to limit the influence of this derating strategy on customer performance, it is necessary to optimize
the system as much as possible on two aspects:

- Physical optimization of the cooling system to improve its ability to dissipate power.
- Optimization of blower control in order to allow the most efficient use of cooling flow while
respecting the thermal / NVH compromise in terms of customer performance.

2.3.3. SYSTEM CONSUMPTION

The air cooling system is an energy-consuming system. Indeed, if its own consumption is linked solely to
the use of the blower, the system requests the performance of the air conditioning compressor to cool the
cooling air flow. In addition, the cooling system's air intake is located very far from the fresh air exhausted by

32
the air conditioning. This implies a very poor Coefficient Of Performance between the energy consumed by the
air conditioning and the energy returned to the air which actually enters the cooling ducts.

As a reminder :

𝐶𝑂𝑃 = (1)

This COP varies according to the cooling solutions:

• AC cooling: COP ~ 4 high because the work of the compressor is directly transmitted to the freon
which propagates to the battery in ~ 10 sec.

• Water cooling: COP ~ 3 because of efficient transmission of energy by freon then in water with an
inertia of ~ 3 min to reach the battery.

• Air cooling: COP ~ 2 or less because there is a long time for air conditioning before cooling the
passenger compartment, especially at the point of air intake, especially after chambering where the
seats remain warm for several minutes close to the air intake.

In addition, the high power requirement of the air conditioning compressor can also imply the use of the
powertrain box cooler which consumes up to 200W. The total consumption balance linked to the air cooling
solution must therefore take into account:

 The consumption of the blower: 80W maximum (See 3.3.1.)

 The additional consumption of the air conditioning compressor: for 480W to dissipate, 480 / COP
(~ 2) = 240W
 The potential consumption of the powertrain box cooler: 200W max

This gives a consumption ranging from 320 to 500W for 480W of heat to dissipate.

33
 3. COOLING SYSTEM OPTIMISATION

3.1. HEAT EXCHANGER OPTIMISATION

3.1.1. FINS NUMBER OPTIMISATION

From the initial cooling system, it was possible to conduct an optimization study on certain
characteristics of the exchanger such as the number of fins, taking into account a homogeneous flow at the
inlet. The different configurations of exchanger used for the study are composed of 32, 37, 43 and 48 fins as
illustrated in figure 16.

Figure 16: Different studied settings

The first step was to validate the possibility of using these different numbers of fins on the pressure drop
criterion. This is to ensure that these numbers of fins do not imply a pressure drop such as the blower is no
more able to reach an air flow of 120kg/h at 90% of its power. With the reference value of 32 fins, the total
pressure drop of the initial system is 768Pa. The results of studies of the blower at 90% of its power are thus
shown in table 11.

Table 11: MFR and pressure drop at 90%PWM

Percentage of Pmax blower (PWM) Mass Flow Rate (kg/h) DP_total (Pa)
90% 147.7 768.0 (Reference)
90% 120.0 843.3
Thus, the maximum pressure drop tolerated in the system to ensure a flow rate of 120 kg/h at 90%PWM is
843.3 Pa. It must therefore be ensured that the numbers of fins retained do not imply losses of higher loads in
the system. The losses calculated for each of these fins number have been listed in table 12.

Table 12: Pressure drop for each settings

Number of fins Mass Flow Rate DP_Soleplate (Pa) DP_total (Pa)

(kg/h)
32 120.0 46.0 768.0 (Reference)
 37 120.0 61.7 783.7
43 120.0 84.7 806.7
48 120.0 108.3 830.3
None of the fins adopted therefore implies that the total pressure losses of the system exceed 843.3 Pa.

After verifying compliance with this limiting criterion, it was therefore possible to simulate the impact on
cooling of each of the digital configurations of the exchanger fins. The data used for this study as well as the
impact results of each of the different numbers of fins on the soleplate temperature of the battery and of the
air outlet are listed in table 13.

Table 13: Exchanger soleplate simulation results depending of the number of fins

DATA
Inlet Mass 120 120 120 120
Flow (kg/h)
Inlet 35 35 35 35
temperature
(°C)
Number of 32 37 43 48
fins
Ambient 35 35 35 35
Temperatur
e (°C)
Heat 10 10 10 10
Transfer
Coefficient
(W/m²-K)
Heat Source 350 350 350 350
(W)
RESULTS
Solid
temperature
distribution
(°C)

Fluid T_air_outlet=46.82°C T_air_outlet=46.80°C T_air_outlet=46.90°C T_air_outlet=47.24°C

temperature
distribution
at outlet (°C)
Tmin (°C) 44.08 43.48 42.50 41.76
Tmax (°C) 52.76 51.73 50.85 50.57

These results are synthesized in a table 14 and figure 17.

Table 14: Cooling efficiency of different settings for same MFR

Nb of fins MFR_air Tmin (°C) Tmax(°C) T_air_out (°C)

32 120 44.08 52.76 46.82
37 120 43.48 51.73 46.80
43 120 42.50 50.85 46.90
48 120 41.76 50.57 47.24

35
 55
52,76 51,73
50 50,85 50,57

Temperature (°C)
46,82 46,8 46,9 47,24
45
44,08 43,48 42,5 41,76
40
32 37 43 48

Number of fins

Tmin(°C) Tmax(°C) T air out(°C)

Figure 17: Cooling efficiency of different settings for same MFR

If the blower is controlled so as to always maintain a flow rate of 120 kg/h, the design of the cooler with 48 fins
seems to be the best.

3.1.2. FINS GEOMETRICAL OPTIMISATION

Still on the optimization of the exchanger, it is now the geometry of the fins of the exchanger that has
been studied to ensure the most efficient cooling possible.
This study is justified by the results of simulations concerning the temperature distribution in the initial
exchanger presented in figure 18.

Figure 18: Temperature repartition in the initial design

In view of these results, it is possible to note two problems with the current system:
- Fresh air is wasted on the sides of the cooler, this air circulates on the side and is only slightly subject
to heat exchange.
- The heat distribution on the exchange surface of the soleplate is not uniform, there is a lack of
homogeneity in the cooling.
In order to correct these points as well as possible, five configurations were thus studied, including as first
variable the two best possibilities of number of fins resulting from the previous study: 43 and 48 fins.

36
The second variable of this study concerns the pure geometry of the fins, with two new design possibilities
which are added to the initial Type 1 design:
- Type 2 fins in the shape of trumpets oriented towards the battery, with the objective of maximizing
the exchange surface between the air and the bottom of the cells.
- Type 3 fins, still in the shape of trumpets, but largely shortened, in order to limit the area of air
passage and increase its speed. This is to allow the air to reach the end of the battery more quickly
without having had time to warm up too much in order to ensure more homogeneous cooling over
the whole of the battery cells.
With these new geometries, the choice has also been made to add closures in order to prevent air from
circulating through the ducts on each side of the cooler, where the heat exchange is the weakest, in order to
avoid the waste of fresh air.
The five different configurations studied and their particularities are presented in figure 19.

Figure 19: Different settings for geometrical optimization

This study was carried out under the conditions given in table 15.

Table 15: Constant data for geometrical analysis "high MFR"

DATA VALUE
INLET MASS FLOW (KG/H) 120
INLET TEMPERATURE (°C) 37
HEAT SOURCE (W) 350
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (°C) 35
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (W/M²-K) 10
The study was therefore carried out on each of the 5 configurations, in addition to the initial configuration
concept setting, with the results presented in table 16.

Table 16: Geometrical study result for 120 kg/h

Nb of fins MFR_air Tmin(°C) Tmax(°C) T_air_out(°C) Pressure Drop (Pa)

32 120 44,08 52,76 46,82 46
43 120 42,5 50,85 46,9 84,7
43 type 2 120 42,23 50,19 47,3 162,1
48 120 41,76 50,57 47,24 108,3
48 type 2 120 41,5 49,1 47,2 225
48 type 3 120 41,32 49,03 46,71 1001,3

37
 54
52,76
52
50,85 50,57 Tmax=50°C
Temperature (°C) 50 50,19
49,1 49,03
48
46,9 47,3 47,24 47,2
46,82 46,71
46

44 44,08
42,5 42,23
42 41,76 41,5 41,32
40
32 43 43 type 2 48 48 type 2 48 type 3

Number of fins

Tmin(°C) Tmax(°C) T_air_out(°C)

Figure 20: Geometrical study result for 120 kg/h

It is therefore possible to note that only two configurations would allow staying below 50 ° C at the base of the
cells: 48 type 2 and 48 type 3.
However, the pressure drops an order of magnitude larger in configuration 48 type 3 lead to a significant
reduction in flow. Design type 3 is therefore definitively eliminated for the rest of the study.
At the same time, the configuration with 43 type 2 fins was evaluated with and without obturation of the
lateral air ducts, in order to be able to better measure the influence of these ducts on the cooling.
The results are shown in table 17.
Table 17: Influence of possible sideholes fillings

Nb of fins MFR_air Tmin (°C) Tmax T_air_out Pressure Drop

(kg/h) (°C) (°C) (Pa)
43 type 2 (Open sideholes) 120 42.84 51.13 47.77 126.7
43 type 2 (Close sideholes) 120 42.23 50.19 47.30 162.1

It can thus be seen that closing the lateral pipes of the initial radiator is a very effective means of improving
the cooling capacity.

In order to continue the analysis of the influence of the geometry of the fins previously carried out at high flow
(120 kg/h), the study now assesses these same configurations with a lower MFR (67 kg/h).

The study parameters are thus described in table 18.

Table 18: Constant data for geometrical analysis low MFR

DATA VALUE
INLET MASS FLOW (KG/H) 67
INLET TEMPERATURE (°C) 37
HEAT SOURCE (W) 350
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (°C) 35
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (W/M²-K) 10

The results of the low-MFR cooling study in the different geometric configurations are presented in table 19
and figure 21.

38
 Table 19: Geometrical study result at low MFR

Nb of fins MFR_air Tmin(°C) Tmax(°C) T_air_out(°C) Pressure Drop (Pa)

32 67 47,96 60,25 53,68 19,6
43 67 45,79 58,19 53,94 35,6
43 type 2 67 46,27 57,31 54,08 63,6
48 67 45,03 58,21 54,52 45,2
48 type 2 67 44,72 56,39 53,96 90,8

65

60 60,25
58,19 58,21
57,31
Temperature

56,39
55 54,52
53,68 53,94 54,08 53,96

50
47,96
45,79 46,27
45 45,03 44,72

40
32 43 43 type 2 48 48 type 2

Number of fins

Tmin(°C) Tmax(°C) T_air_out(°C)

Figure 21: Geometrical study results at low MFR

Again, the 48 type 2 configuration allows the most efficient cooling. In addition, due to the low flow rate of 67
kg/h, the pressure drops in the soleplate of the exchanger are greatly reduced.

At high MFR, optimizing the geometry of the fins with the use of type 2 fins would therefore allow a potential
gain of around 1 ° C of cooling.

However, the supplier also raises an alert on the feasibility of this solution. It will be difficult to increase the
number of fins while producing the exchanger with the geometrical modifications of type 2 fins and obturation
of the lateral conduits.

3.1.3. SIMULATION SYNTHESIS

In order to synthesize these thermal simulations, a sensitivity analysis makes it possible to evaluate the
influence of each simulation parameter on the cooling efficiency of the exchanger, as well as an idea of the
equivalence in cooling power of each unit. stake and the resulting need to limit the temperature at the base of
the cells to 50 ° C. The analysis table is presented in table 20.

39
 Table 20: Sensibility analysis of the parameters

OPERATING CONDITIONS SENSIBILITY ANALYSIS

Mass Flow Inlet Air Heat Source Geometry Control Value Tmax Difference Equivalence To Reach the
Rate Temperature Difference Target
Tmax=50°C
Required Value
120 kg/h 28°C 350/420W 32 Fins 70W 4.4°C 15,9W/°C 436W
120 kg/h 28/37°C 350W 32 Fins 9°C 8.0°C 1,125°C inlet/°C 34.1°C
batt
67/120 kg/h 37°C 350W 32 Fins 53 kg/h 7.5°C 7,1 kg/h 140 kg/h
120 kg/h 37°C 350W 32/37/43/48 5/6/5 fins 1.1°C/0.8°C/0.3°C (0,1375°C/fins) (52 Fins)
Fins decreasing impact

In addition, the two levers of physical optimization studied of the exchanger in battery sole are therefore the
number and the geometry of the fins. However, and as seen above, the supplier places a reservation on the
feasibility of both increasing the number of fins and improving the geometry of the fins.

Thus, it can arise a question of arbitration on the prioritization of these optimizations. It is therefore necessary
to specify and quantify the gains linked to each optimization solution in order to define which would be the
most effective if only one of them was feasible.

An analysis of experimental design carried out on the basis of test results makes it possible to quantify the
specific effects and the effects of interactions of each parameter on cooling, this analysis thus includes:

- The number of fins as factor A, with a coefficient of -1 for a configuration with 43 fins and a
coefficient of 1 for a configuration with 48 fins.
- The type of fins as factor B, with a coefficient of -1 for standard type 1 fins and a coefficient of 1 for
type 2 trumpet shaped fins.
- The flow rate of the blower as factor C, with a coefficient of -1 for a flow rate of 67 kg / h and a
coefficient of 1 for a flow rate of 120 kg / h.

The experimental design table is thus presented in table 21.

Table 21: Experimental design table depending on fins number, type and MFR

Settings A: Nb of B: Type of C: Mass AxB AxC BxC AxBxC Tmax

fins Fins Flow Rate (en °C)
1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 58,19
2 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 58,21
3 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 57,31
4 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1 56,39
5 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 50,85
6 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 50,57
7 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 50,19
8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 49,1
Denominator 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Effect °C -0,57 -1,21 -7,35 -0,44 -0,12 0,14 0,03
W -9,03 -19,21 -116,89 -6,96 -1,87 2,27 0,52

It is thus not surprising to note that the most important influencing factor for cooling is the flow rate of the
blower, hence the importance of optimizing the blower use as studied in section 3.3.

40
It is interesting to focus on the other two factors in order to be able to arbitrate in the event of a potential
choice to be made between the geometric optimization of the exchanger and the digital optimization of the
fins. In order to optimize the cooler as much as possible, the analysis was carried out for a study for 43 and 48
fins. It can be seen that adopting type 2 fins is more than twice as effective as increasing the number of fins
from 43 to 48, despite a slight interaction effect penalty when combining this with the increase of MFR.

Improving the geometry of the fins must therefore take precedence over the increase in the number of fins.

3.2. AIR CIRCULATION OPTIMISATION

3.2.1. EXCHANGER INLET DUCT OPTIMISATION

Another point of improvement of the system concerns the aerodynamic optimization of the system in order to
better distribute and standardize the cooling. For this, it is the air inlet pipe of the soleplate which has been
tested in four different configurations:
- The 32-fin initial cooler with its initial sole inlet duct (DT1)
- The optimized cooler with 43 fins with a first iteration of modification of the exchanger inlet duct
(DT2)
- The optimized cooler with 43 fins with a second iteration of modification of the soleplate inlet duct
(DT3)
- The optimized cooler with 43 fins with a third iteration of modification of the soleplate inlet duct
(DT4)
The change initially made between DT1 and DT2 are depicted in figure 22.

Inlet exchanger duct

Outlet exchanger duct
Figure 22: Cooling system modifications

Thus, the DT2 soleplate entry has differences in geometry with the old inlet as described in figure 23.

Figure 23: Soleplate inlet duct modification

41
In addition, the DT3 soleplate inlet has a flow distribution in the duct different from that of DT2 as described in
figure 24.

Figure 24: MFR repartition changes between DT2 and DT3

A fourth DT4 configuration is also implemented and derived from DT3 with again a slight modification of the
soleplate inlet duct as shown in figure 25.

Figure 25: Last MFR repartition changes between DT3 and DT4

The distribution of the inlet flow in each part of the soleplate obtained with these different soltuions is
obtained in table 22.

Table 22: MFR distribution at the sole inlet

Top Half Mass Flow Bottom Half Mass Flow

Current Design (DT1, 32 44% 56%
fins)
New Design (DT2, 43 fins) 46% 54%
New Design (DT3, 43 fins) 50% 50%
New Design (DT4, 43 fins) 58% 42%

The DT3 therefore offers the most homogeneous distribution of the flow, which does not necessarily mean
homogenization of the cooling, it is therefore necessary to subject these configurations to a thermal study.

The most important thing is to assess the thermal contributions of these optimizations, the configurations DT2,
DT3 and DT4 were thus subjected to simulations for two different flow rates: the “low” flow rate of 67 kg/h
and the higher flow rate of 120 kg / h .

Simulations under Star CCM now take into account the distribution involved by the sole inlet duct and no
longer a uniform distribution as in the previous simulations. The simulations thus made it possible to evaluate

42
several parameters such as the temperature obtained in the battery soleplate and the temperature of the
outgoing air for the two flow rates evaluated.

Table 23 presents the results at 120 kg / h.

Table 23: Soleplate temperature depending on inlet duct setting with 120 kg/h MFR

DATA
DT 2 3 4
Inlet Mass 120 120 120
Flow (kg/h)
Inlet 35 35 35
temperature
(°C)
Number of 43 43 43
fins
Ambient 35 35 35
Temperature
(°C)
Heat 10 10 10
Transfer
Coefficient
(W/m²-K)
Heat Source 350 350 350
(W)
RESULTS
Solid
temperature
distribution
(°C)

Fluid T_air_outlet=46.40°C T_air_outlet=46.36°C T_air_outlet=46.42°C

temperature
distribution
at outlet (°C)

Tmin (°C) 41.02 41.15 41.66

Tmax (°C) 51.75 51.49 51.34

The same study is repeated at 67 kg / h in order to obtain the results presented in table 24.

Table 24: Soleplate temperature depending on inlet duct setting with 67 kg/h MFR

DATA
DT 2 3 4
Inlet Mass 67 67 67
Flow (kg/h)
Inlet 35 35 35
temperature
(°C)
Number of 43 43 43
fins
Ambient 35 35 35
Temperature
(°C)
Heat 10 10 10
Transfer
Coefficient

43
(W/m²-K)
Heat Source 350 350 350
(W)
RESULTS
Solid
temperature
distribution
(°C)

Fluid T_air_outlet=52.77°C T_air_outlet=52.76°C T_air_outlet=52.84°C

temperature
distribution
at outlet (°C)

Tmin (°C) 44.22 44.37 45.10

Tmax (°C) 58.97 58.70 58.54

Table 24 highlights the distribution of the cooling linked to each DT and its influence on the maximum final
temperature. In view of this table, the DT4 thus seems to offer the most uniform cooling and makes it possible
to minimize the maximum temperature despite greater pressure losses and whether for a flow rate of 120
kg/h or 67 kg/h.

The gains brought by this aerodynamic and thermal optimization are more widely highlighted when comparing
this DT4 to the initial DT1 as in table 25, with the initial 32 fin exchanger.

Table 25: DT1 and DT4 comparison

DATA
DT 1 4
Inlet temperature 37 37
(°C)
Number of fins 32 32
Ambient 35 35
Temperature (°C)
Heat Transfer 10 10
Coefficient (W/m²-
K)
Heat Source (W) 350 350
RESULTS – 67KG/H
Solid temperature
distribution (°C)

Tmin (°C) 42.29 47.34

44
Tmax (°C) 62.83 61.17
RESULTS – 120KG/H
Solid temperature
distribution (°C)

Tmin (°C) 43.28 43.19

Tmax (°C) 55.08 53.84
There is thus a clear improvement in terms of distribution and therefore the cooling efficiency with the DT4
which is therefore adopted. This optimization allows a gain of approximately 1 ° C in cooling.

Another simple aerodynamic optimization of the duct consists of the removal of the inlet temperature sensor
and its support, which allows a reduction in pressure losses implying a gain of 1 ° C in cooling.

3.2.2. AIR THERMAL MANAGEMENT

Air cooling also raises a major problem concerning the management of the system's intake and exhaust air.

In fact, the cooling system rejects hot air which must be controlled in order to limit as much as possible the
rise in temperature of the passenger compartment and the cooling air inlet. Several constraints must therefore
be considered:

- It is inconceivable to reject the air directly into the passenger compartment as this would cause a rise
in temperature of the passenger compartment and therefore a thermal inconvenience and a loss of
cooling efficiency of the air collected in the cabin.
- It is impossible to reject the hot air directly to the outside, this could create a depressurization of the
passenger compartment.
- It's important not to heat the incoming cooling air ducts with the heat rejected by the system in order
to get the more efficient cooling possible.
- In the same way, it is necessary that the air collection is a maximum isolated from the hot air rejected
in order to guarantee the best possible cooling.

Several solutions have thus been implemented in order to respond to these issues. Thus, hot air is expelled
inside the hollow body of the right tail light in order to promote the circulation of air up to the level of the right
rear extractor of the vehicle. This favors its evacuation without depressurizing the passenger compartment
while knowing that the left rear extractor remains available.

However, since this hollow body is not completely sealed, it does not prevent hot air from propagating in the
trunk. In addition, the battery also emits heat and this will more particularly accentuate the last two problems
mentioned in the previous list.

Indeed, the heat emitted by the battery radiates on the floor of the trunk and heats the air intake duct. There
is thus a significant difference in air temperature between the inlet cooling duct and the inlet of the battery

45
exchanger. To reduce this, thermal insulation is placed around this conduit. This solution therefore allows a
potential gain estimated to 2 to 5 ° C in cooling, or 30 to 75W of dissipated power.

In order to isolate the air intake from the hot air discharged into the trunk, a technical solution was also
adopted. Thus, an isolation scoop was designed to partition the air capture area and capture the maximum of
air in the passenger compartment. This insulation could allow a gain of 4°C of cooling at the inlet, or 60W of
cooling power. However, it is necessary to pay attention to the risk of potential loss of flow during capture
which would make the gain of 60W unproven.

These two solutions are shown in figures 26a and 26b.

Figure 26a and b: Insulation of the sole inlet conduit (left) and air intake isolation scoop (right)

As part of the reduction of the thermal radiation of the battery on the floor and the conduits, a solution
envisaged consisted in installing a thermal screen on the upper cover of the battery as described by the
modeling in figure 27.

Figure 27: Concept integration of a thermal shield

This screen can make it possible to envisage a gain in temperature of the order of 0.5 degrees at the entry of
the battery, but its installation in the very reduced space described by the figure is complex. The cooling gain/
complexity ratio pushes to abandon this possibility.

In conclusion :

- Rejection of hot air in a hollow body to promote its extraction without depressurizing the
passenger compartment.
- Insulation of the sole inlet conduits provide a gain of 30 to 75W of cooling.
- Installation of an air intake isolation scoop provide a gain of 60W of cooling.
- Thermal screen on battery not adopted because of unfavorable gain/complexity ratio.

46
 3.2.3. INFLUENCE OF AIR FLOWING UNDER THE VEHICLE
The battery being located under the trunk floor, the bottom soleplate exchanger is directly exposed to the
outside ambient air circulating under the vehicle. The objective of this investigation is therefore to measure
the influence of this air flow on the battery, more particularly at high speed where the battery is exposed to
high thermal stresses.

The challenges of this study are multiple and allow to consider several possible optimizations such as:

- Increase the air intake surface under the soleplate by adding fins under it, in the direction of
flow. However, it is important to remain attentive to the impact on the aerodynamics and
therefore the consumption of the vehicle linked to this solution.
- Isolate the soleplate from the potential influence of the hot air released by the exhaust line,
again within the limit of a potential aerodynamic impact. The influence of the heat flow from
the exhaust on the battery is illustrated by the modeling in figure 28.

Figure 28: Influence from the heat of the exhaust line

- Optimizing the exchange surface in the event of a heavy vehicle load, when the battery will
be highly thermally stressed, since the body will be very low on its rear axle. The modeling in
figure 29 makes it possible to better visualize the flow of air in movement and its behavior
compared to the rear axle.

Figure 29: Air flow behaviour around the rear axle at high speed

Up to now, the modeling of the battery cooling has been carried out in stationary regime by considering no
special speed of the cooling air, and the given coefficient of thermal conduction to which the cooler was
subjected and associated with this speed was then 10 W/m²-K .

By considering the speed of movement of the vehicle at 130 km/h which corresponds to a speed at which the
battery undergoes a high thermal load, it is now necessary to take into account a dynamic conduction
coefficient which governs the heat exchange with the circulating air under the body.

Thus, aerodynamic experts define this coefficient of heat exchange on the battery soleplate at 42 W/ m²-K, a
value more than quadrupled compared to a steady state.

This new data makes it possible to carry out new comparative simulations in order to measure the influence
of this coefficient as shown in table 26.

Table 26: Influence analysis of air flow under the vehicle on the soleplate at 130 km/h

47
 DATA
Inlet Mass Flow 120 120
(kg/h)
Inlet temperature 37 37
(°C)
Number of fins 32 32
Ambient 35 35
Temperature (°C)
Heat Transfer 10 10
Coefficient
(W/m²-K)
Heat Source (W) 350 350
RESULTS
Solid temperature
distribution

Tmin (°C) 44.09 42.44

Tmax (°C) 52.76 49.10
With this dynamic coefficient, the simulations thus demonstrate an important influence of the air circulating
under the vehicle on the temperature of the battery. This potential must therefore be analyzed during an in-
depth study.

However, care must be taken with the aerodynamic impact of any potential changes under the vehicle, since a
loss of 0.020m² of SCx can generate an additional 1gCO2/km emission on WLTP cycle.

3.2.4. SYNTHESIS OF PHYSICAL OPTIMISATIONS

Several solutions have thus been issued to improve the design of the cooling system, these physical
solutions described above are summarized in table 27, as well as the potential cooling gains and the DT
adopted.

Table 27: Synthesis of possible hardware optimizations of the cooling system

OPTIMIZATION GAIN GAIN OVERVIEW DECISION

[°C] [W]
Inlet air Intake duct scoop 4 60 Adopted
temperature
reduction

Thermal insulation of 2-5 30-75 Adopted - but not taken into

conduits account during the study with
hardware optimization in 4.2.
Battery thermal shield 0,5 7,5 Rapport gain/complexité trop
faible

48
Aerodynamical Reduction of pressure 1 15 Adopted
optimizations losses: Elimination of
temperature sensor
Homogenization of 1 15 Adopted - but not taken into
exchanger input flow account during the study with
repartition hardware optimization in 4.2.
Exchanger fins Increase of the number of 1 15 Feasibility subject to supplier
optimization fins
Optimization of the shape 1 15 Feasibility subject to supplier
of the fins

Total 8-11 120-165

As said before, an electrical performance derating strategy should be implemented as these t hardware
optimizations do not make it possible to validate the cooling specifications alone.. However,
However together with the
optimization of the blower use, these optimizations reduce the impact of the derating strategy implemented
on customer performance.

3.3. BLOWER USES OPTIMIZA

OPTIMIZATION

3.3.1. BLOWER MANAGEMENT

Before proceeding with the optimization study of the use of the blower in charge of forcing the
cooling air intake, it is important to characterize its operating limits. The blower is mainly limi
limited by:

- Its input voltage which is limited to 14V supplied by the low voltage battery.
- Its volume, because it must be able to be housed in the hollow body near the right rear light.
- Its NVH characteristics in use, because it must not present any acoustic inconvenience for the
customer.

The selected blower for this study is provided by Valeo and shown in figure 30.

Figure 30: Blower used in this study case

The input signal used to control this blower is the Pulse With Modulation (PWM) 'Low Side'. The principle is
therefore to modulate the input voltage supplied by the low voltage battery in order to vary the speed of
rotation of the fan motor.

49
"Low side" meansans that the control is low. Thus, the motor is at full speed (PWM
PWM 90%) if motor control signal
low level is at 90%. This blower offers a frequency ranging from 100 to 300 Hz and its linear zone of use is
between 20% PWM and 90% PWM.

Figure 31 illustrates the modulation principle with the PWM25% case.

Figure 31: Blower modulation principle with PWM25%

This blower was characterized by Vale

Valeoo on four points in order to define the possible operating ranges for each
%PWM
PWM as a function of the flow rate and the pressure as shown in figure 32.

Figure 32: Blower ranges of use

The precise operating points located on these ranges for BJA HEV were then evaluated during tests and are
symbolized by the orange points in figure 31 above, and more precisely described by table 28.

%PWM U I motor MFR N

mot
motor[V] Measured Measur
sured
(multimeter)
90 13 6,1 144,6 4338
80 13 5,3 139,6 4188

50
 75 13 3,8 127,2 3816
70 13 3 118,1 3543
65 13 2,3 108,6 3258
60 13 1,8 100 3000
50 13 1 83 2490
40 13 0,5 67,1 2013
30 13 0,3 51,5 1545
20 13 0 37,4 1122
Table 28: Operations points of the blower

This denotes a maximum flow rate of the blower of 144 kg/h for PWM90%. The flow rates of 67 kg/h and 120
kg/h used for the previous thermal simulations therefore correspond to 40% PWM and 70% PWM respectively.

These flow rates obtained vary with the system pressure drops and therefore differ depending on the
applications.

3.3.2. BLOWER MANAGEMENT MAPS

As explained above, one of the drawbacks inherent in air cooling systems is related to the use of the fan.
When this is used at high power, it can be noisy and present an acoustic inconvenience for the user. The
objective is therefore to offer the best possible management of the fan power as a function of the battery
temperature in order to minimize these acoustic inconveniences.

To do this, several maps of blower use have been studied. These maps define the %PWM for controlling the
blower as a function of the temperature of the high-voltage battery and the speed of the vehicle, at ICE off and
ICE on. These maps are evaluated according to their ability to respond to the following thermal and NVH
services:

- Ability to offer sufficient battery cooling to follow the RDE95 @ 35 ° C cycle by limiting the
cell temperature to 60 ° C.
- Ability to maintain a level and sound quality acceptable to the user, NVH performance rating
superior to 5.5.

The reference map for this study is the V6 map, set up after different tests. This cartography is presented by
figures 33a and 33b.

Battery temperature [°C] Battery temperature [°C]

51
 39 40 50 60 39 40 50 60
0 0 20 20 56 0 0 30 30 60
5 0 24 24 57 5 0 34 34 61
30 0 36 36 64 30 0 43 43 67
Vehicle speed

Vehicle speed
40 0 40 40 66 40 0 47 47 69
[km/h]

[km/h]
50 0 45 45 69 50 0 51 51 71
80 0 59 59 78 80 0 63 63 78
120 0 75 75 87 120 0 76 76 87
140 0 80 80 90 140 0 80 80 90
160 0 80 90 90 160 0 80 90 90
NVH 😊 😐 NVH 😊 😐
Figure 33a and b: %PWM with map V6 with ICE off (left) and ICE on (right)

This mapping has rather satisfactory acoustic characteristics, especially at low battery temperature, but the
induced air flows do not allow the heating of the battery to be limited to 60 ° C the RDE95 cycle @ 35 ° C, even
with the use of a performance derating strategy.

A new alternative to this problem would therefore be to keep this V6 mapping at a battery temperature below
55°C in order to keep the good NVH ratings in this area, then to operate the blower at full PWM in order to
prevent the achievement of the limit battery temperature of 60 ° C.

The new mapping known as "NewRATA" is detailed in figures 34a and 34b.

Battery temperature [°C] Battery temperature [°C]

39 40 50 60 39 40 50 60
0 0 20 20 100 0 0 30 30 100
5 0 24 24 100 5 0 34 34 100
30 0 36 36 100 30 0 43 43 100
Vehicle speed

Vehicle speed

40 0 40 40 100 40 0 47 47 100
[km/h]

[km/h]

50 0 45 45 100 50 0 51 51 100
80 0 59 59 100 80 0 63 63 100
120 0 75 75 100 120 0 76 76 100
140 0 80 80 100 140 0 80 80 100
160 0 80 90 100 160 0 80 90 100
NVH 😊 ☹ NVH 😊 ☹
Figure 34a and b: %PWM with cartography NewRATA with ICE off (left) and ICE on (right)

52
With this mapping, it is potentially possible to follow the RDE95 @ 35 ° C cycle with a battery temperature
below 60 ° C, but this implies a complete sacrifice of acoustic approval at high battery temperature. As it
stands, such an acoustic annoyance is unacceptable for the good viability of the car. It is therefore a question
of finding a better compromise between these first two maps.

With this in mind, a new so-called “V7” cartography that aims to be more balanced has been studied. This
includes, like NewRATA mapping, an increase in PWM at high battery temperature, but this increase is less
important than for NewRATA mapping.

On the other hand and contrary to the NewRATA cartography, the V7 cartography also counts on an increase
in the %PWM compared to the V6 cartography at battery temperature below 55 ° C, in order to prevent the
temperature rise.

The details of this mapping are presented in figures 35a and 35b.

Battery temperature [°C] Battery temperature [°C]

39 40 50 60 39 40 50 60
0 0 30 30 60 0 0 35 35 70
5 0 35 35 60 5 0 40 40 70
30 0 50 50 70 30 0 55 55 80
Vehicle speed
Vehicle speed

40 0 55 55 80 40 0 60 60 90
[km/h]

[km/h]

50 0 60 60 90 50 0 67 67 90
80 0 75 75 90 80 0 75 75 90
120 0 85 85 90 120 0 85 85 90
140 0 90 90 90 140 0 90 90 90
160 0 90 90 90 160 0 90 90 90
NVH 😐 ☹ NVH 😐 ☹

Figure 35a and b: %PWM with mapping V7 with ICE off (left) and ICE on (right)

If this mapping degrades the acoustic performance which was good at low battery temperature in the other
maps, but it has the merit of potentially allowing the enough flow rates to follow the RDE95@35°C cycle with
battery temperature under 60°C and increasing slightly the acoustic performance at high battery temperature
compared to NewRATA mapping.

As with NewRATA mapping, the acoustic performance is not acceptable as it stands, but has the advantage of
being closer to the acceptability limits.

53
The use of an acoustic pack can improve the NVH ratings of these maps in order to make them potentially
acceptable.

3.3.3. SETTING UP AN ACOUSTIC PACK

An acoustic pack is therefore put in place to improve the hardware's current acoustic performance of the
cooling system. The components of the acoustic pack are shown in figure 36.

Acoustic pack

1. Porous outlet cap 2. Absorbents 3M Thinsulate AU402- 3. Right rear light

Wecosta FP1 IPP800 min 6 at air inlet and outlet access hatch closure

Figure 36: Acoustic pack composition

With the use of these three elements of acoustic package, complementary and inseparable, it is an acoustic
gain in level of the order of 4 dB to the ears at 120 kg/h which is expected. The detail of this level gain is
presented in figure 37.

Figure 37: Roadmap acoustic pack

This acoustic pack configuration is therefore combined with the two maps presented in figure 36 and capable
of passing the RDE95 cycle at 35 ° C: the" New RATA" map and the" V7" map. In addition to the reduction in
level of decibels, we can also note a very significant gain in sound quality due to suppression of high sound
frequencies as described in figure 38.

54
 Without acoustic pack With acoustic pack

Figure 38: Spectral analysis of blower's acoustics

There is therefore a real and significant gain brought by the acoustic pack, by the reduction of the sound level
and the gain in sound quality. This is reflected in terms of NVH ratings by the comparison of the different
configurations shown in table 29.

Table 29: Rating synthesis of the different settings

Setting Map RDE95@35°C Acoustic Tbatt<50 Tbatt<50 Tbatt>50 Tbatt>50

GMV possible with Pack Rear seats Rear seats
Front Front
Tbat<60°C
seats seats
1 VnewRATA Yes No 7 6,5 4,5 4
2 V6 NVH No No 8 7 5,5 5
3 V7 NVH Yes No 6 5,5 5 4,5
4 V7 NVH Yes Yes 8 7 5,5 5
5 VnewRATA Yes Yes 8 7,5 4,5 4
It can thus be seen with these results that the acoustic pack makes it possible to gain overall one point of NVH
rating. In terms of acoustics, only the V6 and V7 maps with acoustic package are applicable to the vehicle
because satisfactory in NVH.

However, the V7 NVH mapping accompanied by the complete acoustic pack allows pulsating approximately
10% stronger PWM compared to the V6 mapping with acoustic iso-performance. V7 NVH mapping with
acoustic pack therefore seems to be the optimization to adopt.

55
 4. SYSTEM EVALUATION WITH DERATING STRATEGY

4.1. SETTING UP A DERATING STRATEGY

4.1.1. STUDY OF SUCCESS CONDITIONS - WITHOUT HARDWARE OPTIMIZATIONS

The initial concept system is not able to allow the vehicle to follow the RDE 95 @ 35 ° C cycle without
the implementation of an electrical performance derating strategy. The objective is therefore to define,
through the tests, the conditions of success in order to follow the RDE95@35°C with battery temperature
under 60°C by including a derating strategy. This study is carried out without taking into account the hardware
optimizations described in 3.2.4.

To achieve this, several configurations have been evaluated according to several levers of impact on battery
temperature. The variable parameters are therefore:

- Blower's mapping, which defines the percentage of PWM as a function of the vehicle speed
and the battery temperature.
- The preventative derating strategy employed, which limits the output power of the battery
to a certain level for a given battery temperature.
- The level of air conditioning.

There are also certain external parameters to take into account during the tests:
- The ambient temperature outside.
- The sunshine power in W.
- The road law, describing the pulling force necessary to move the vehicle.

The type of air extraction is assumed to have no influence on the cooling capacity of the system regarding
complementary tests performed.

The different blower calibrations studied are the V6 and NewRata maps defined in section 3.3.2. The different
derating strategies that have been evaluated beforehand are described in figure 39 below alongside the
curative derating strategy of the Battery Management System which cut the battery power in case of too high
battery temperature, and can lead to an immobilizing failure of the vehicle.

Studied derating strategies

50
battery power (kW)

40
30
20
10
0
45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

batterie temperature (°C)

P1 P2 P3 Curative BMS

Figure 39: Initial derating strategies

56
Four RDE95 @35 °C tests were thus initially performed with the initial cooling system on BJA without hardware
optimizations of the cooling system:

• Test 1: Configuration aimed at preserving the vehicle's customer performance as much as possible,
in NVH with the use of V6 mapping but also in performance with a P1 derating which aims to degrade
performance the less as possible, and so put significant thermal stresses on the battery.
The road law used is a severe Rata+100N road law covering any use case. The air conditioning is at 18
°C and the sunshine is 700W.
Result: the vehicle cannot follow the cycle, nor limit the battery temperature below 60 ° C, despite
the absence of an immobilizing failure of the vehicle.
These results are presented in table 30a.

• Test 2: Conditions less severe thermally than cycle 1 with a change of calibration of the blower with
NewRata mapping more efficient for cooling but less satisfactory in terms of NVH.
Results: Here again, the specifications are not respected, despite the absence of an immobilizing
failure of the vehicle.
These results are presented in table 30b.

Table 30a and b: Results and settings cycle 1 and 2

Settings Cycle 1 Settings Cycle 2

Blower's map V6 -------------------- Blower's map Rata
Derating P1 Derating P1 -----
Air conditionning 18°C Air conditionning 18°C
Road law Rata (+100N) Road law Rata (+100N)
Air extraction Open rear hatch -------------------- Air extraction Outside -----
Cycle RDE 95 Cycle RDE 95
T° ambient 35°C T° ambient 35°C
Sunshine power 700 W Sunshine power 700 W
Results Results
T°max battery 62,5°C T°max battery 61,5°C
Cycle passed No Cycle passed No
Immobilizing failure No Immobilizing failure No

• Test 3: again aims to reduce the thermal constraints compared to cycle 2. By using the derating
strategy P2 intervening at a lower battery temperature and therefore earlier, reducing the thermal
stresses on the battery.
Results: Here again, the specifications are not respected, despite the absence of an immobilizing
failure of the vehicle.
These results are presented in table 31a.

• Test 4: New reduction of constraints using the more realistic and less severe “Perfo-Conso” road
law. In return, addition of thermal constraints on the other parameters of the test: calibration blower
V6, derating strategy P1, air conditioning at 20 ° C and sunshine power at 1000W.
Results: In this configuration, the derating strategy is capable of keeping the battery temperature
below 60°C, always without immobilizing failure, but still does not allow the following of the RDE95
cycle@35°C.
These results are presented in table 31b.

Table 31a and b: Results and settings cycle 3 and 4

Settings Cycle 3 Settings Cycle 4

Blower's map Rata --------------------- Blower's map V6 -----
------ Derating P2 --------------------- Derating P1 -----

57
 Air conditionning 18°C --------------------- Air conditionning 20°C
Road law Rata (+100N) --------------------- Road law Perfo-Conso
------ Air extraction Closed rear hatch --------------------- Air extraction Open rear hatch
Cycle RDE 95 Cycle RDE 95
T° ambient 35°C T° ambient 35°C
Sunshine power 700 W --------------------- Sunshine power 1000 W
Results Results
T°max battery 61,8°C T°max battery 59,8°C
Cycle passed No Cycle passed No
Immobilizing failure No Immobilizing failure No

The conclusion of these four tests is that the derating strategies P1 and P2 cannot allow the realization of the
specifications. Even if these strategies can keep the battery temperature below 60 ° C, derating generates a
decrease in electrical performance up to 10kW which is not sufficient to follow the cycle at high battery
temperature.

The P3 derating strategy is being studied, it recommends entering derating earlier, from 45°C battery
temperature, but limits derating to 23kW instead of 10kW for P1 and P2. Two new tests are thus carried out:

• Test 5: The test conditions for cycle 4 with this P3 derating strategy and the NewRata blower
calibration.
Results: The vehicle manage to follow the RDE95 cycle while narrowly limiting the battery
temperature to 60°C, all without immobilizing failure, these are the limit conditions for passing the
cycle.
These results are presented in table 32a.

• Test 6: A final test is carried out in order to visualize how the vehicle would behave on RDE95@45°C
while compensating for this rise in temperature with a drop in the air conditioning level to 18°C.
Results: Under these conditions, the cycle is followed, the battery temperature logically exceeds 60°C
but the test has not ended due to a failure of the electric machine.
These results are presented in table 32b.

Table 32a et b: Results and settings cycle 5 and 6

Setting Cycle 5 Setting Cycle 6

----- Blower's map NewRata Blower's map NewRata
----- Derating P3 Derating P3
Air conditionning 20°C --------------------- Air conditionning 18°C
Road law Perfo-Conso Road law Perfo-Conso
Air extraction Closed rear hatch Air extraction Open rear hatch
Cycle RDE 95 --------------------- Cycle RDE 95
T° ambient 35°C --------------------- T° ambient 45°C
Sunshine power 1000 W Sunshine power 1000 W
Results Results
T°max battery 59,8°C T°max battery 63°C
Cycle passed Yes Cycle passed Yes
Immobilizing failure Yes Immobilizing failure Yes (EM failure)

Tests show that the P3 derating strategy combined with the NewRata blower calibration and air conditioning
at 20 ° C allow the RDE95 @ 35 ° C cycle to be followed without HW optimization, but remaining just below 60
°C of battery temperature.

However, these solutions must be validated from the point of view of the following customer performance:

- NVH for NewRata blower's mapping.

- Performance and approval for the P3 derating strategy.
- Comfort and reliability for the use of air conditioning at 20°C.

This study will be carried out in section 4.1.3. considering hardware optimizations.

58
 4.1.2. SECOND UPDATE OF COOLING NEEDS SPECIFICATIONS
The series of 6 previous tests also made it possible to know the detail of the temperature as a function of time
at the inlet of the intake duct, at the inlet of the battery exchanger and in the battery but above all the power
evacuated by the system for each cycle. These results are presented in figure 40.

Duct inlet temperature Dissipated power

Exchanger inlet temperature Battery cells temperature

Figure 40: Measurements for each test cycles

These results first accentuate the need for insulation of the cooling air intake ducts, in view of the significant
difference in air temperature between the intake and the entry into the battery soleplate.

In addition, the cycle 5 test has a power to evacuate which reaches a peak of 560W despite the
implementation of a derating strategy. This therefore implies a shift with the value of 480W simulated
previously and supposed to allow the following of the RDE95 @35 ° C with battery temperature limited to 60°C
at BOL with derating at 23kW.

The diagram of the cooling power requirement is therefore updated again taking into account this difference
of 80W between simulations and tests, for BOL cases with and without derating. The estimated value at MOL8
with an increase in DCR of 30% is therefore also updated from the 560W obtained during the tests. This is
shown in table 33 and figure 41.

Table 33: Correction details of cooling needs

BJA SNM
Intensity RMS required RDE95@35°C 53A -> 64A 53A -> 69A
Pcooling needed Simulation 480 W For same Energy
RDE95 35°C @BOL Tests 560 W Management
Pcooling needed without Simulation 580 W Law, impacted
derating strategy Projection tests 660 W GVWR &SCx
RDE95 35°C @BOL only
Pcooling needed Projection Simulation 624 W Approximately
RDE95 35°C @MOL8 Projection tests 730 W 90W difference
Pcooling needed without Projection Simulation 754 W at BOL
derating strategy Projection tests 858 W
RDE95 35°C @MOL8

59
 SNM

Figure 41: Second correction of cooling needs

4.1.3. DERATING CORRECTION REGARDING PERFORMANCE - WITH HW OPTIMISATIONS

The tests carried out in part 4.1.1 therefore made possible to identify three conditions for success of
the specifications in order to pass the RDE95@35°C with battery temperature limited to 60°C without
hardware optimizations:

- The P3 derating strategy - Provided that it is acceptable in terms of performance and

approval.
- NewRata blower mapping - Provided that it is acceptable in terms of NVH.
- Air conditioning operation at 20 ° C auto - Provided that this is acceptable in terms of comfort
and reliabilty.

The last point does not really pose a problem in terms of comfort but results from the action of the client. Air
conditioning at 20 ° C is not robust enough as a condition of validation of the specifications. For more
robustness, the system must therefore be able to fulfill the specification with air conditioning of at least 21°C.

In addition, the calibration of the NewRata blower is already set as unacceptable in terms of NVH as said in
section 3.3.2. The use of V7 mapping with acoustic package is therefore required. Two new tests were
subsequently carried out taking these two modifications into account:

- A test on RDE95@35°C without hardware optimizations.

- A test on RDE95@35°C with hardware optimizations mentioned in 3.4.2.

These test results are shown in table 34.

60
 Table 34: RDE95@35°C with/without hardware optimization

WITHOUT HARDWARE OPTIMIZATION WITH HARDWARE OPTIMIZATION

Setting Setting
Blower's map V7 Blower's map V7
Derating P3 Derating P3
Air conditionning 21 auto Air conditionning 21°C
Road law Perfo-conso Road law Perfo-conso
Air extraction Closed rear hatch Air extraction Closed rear hatch
Cycle RDE 95 + urbain Cycle RDE 95
T° ambient 35°C T° ambient 35°C
Sunshine power 1000 W Sunshine power 1000 W
Results Results
T°max battery 61°C T°max battery 56°C
Cycle passed Yes Cycle passed Yes
Immobilizing Immobilizing
failure No failure No

With a blower map and an air conditioning setpoint that is more thermally constraining the system is no longer
able to comply with the specifications without hardware optimizations. These optimizations allow the battery
to provide a maximum of performance with a temperature below 60°C on the RDE95@35°C.

However, the P3 derating strategy is also subject to an unfavorable customer performance evaluation. On a 0-
180km/h maneuver, this derating strategy generates an unacceptable acceleration dip in terms of vehicle
performance below 70 km/h, which was not the case with the previous P1 and P2 derating strategies. This
phenomenon is described in figure 42.

P2 (not allowing to pass the

Acceleration dip
RDE95 cycle @ 35 ° C)
under 70 km/h
P3 (allowing to pass the RDE95
cycle @ 35 ° C)

Figure 42: Maneuvering 0 to 180 km/h results with derating strategy P2 and P3

A new preventive derating strategy is therefore implemented to avoid this lack of performance at low speeds.

This new derating strategy takes advantage of the significant improvements in the cooling capacity of the
system, proven during tests thanks to hardware optimizations and the new blower mapping, to offer more
severe demand on battery power and reduce the impact on performance.

Indeed, this P4 derating strategy makes it possible to exploit the full power of the battery until the
temperature of the latter reaches 55 ° C, a stronger power reduction than that of the P3 derating strategy is
then applied to limit the rise in temperature of the battery, down to 15kW from 60°C battery.

This strategy is illustrated and compared with the curative derating of the BMS in figure 35.

61
 Figure 43: P4 derating strategy

With this new derating strategy, the tests results on RDE95@35°C are presented in table 35.
35

Table 35: Final test result on RDE95@35°C

Configuration
B
Blower's map V7
Derating P4
Air conditionning 21°C
Road law Perfo-conso
Air eextraction Trappe fermée
Cycle RDE 95 + urbain
T° ambient 35°C
Sunshine power 1000 W
Results
T°max batte
battery 58°C
Cycle passed Oui
Immobilizing failure Non

The change in derating

rating strategy generates a 2°
2°CC increase in maximum temperature in the battery cells than
with P3 derating strategy.. However, the temperature remains below 60°C C and the vehicle's low speed
performance is greatly improved.

This derating strategy relies on the fact that normal customer use will only cause a batt
battery temperature rise
above 55°C in very few w occurrences and that the custo
customer
mer will never be in severe derating at 15 kW where
loss of electrical performance may be felt. It is therefore important to set up a study of these occurrences of
derating as well as to push the test conditions to high levels of severity to definitively vvalidate this derating
strategy.

4.2. THERMAL STUDY SYNTHE

SYNTHESIS

4.2.1. FINAL UPDATE OF COOLING N

NEEDS SPECIFICATIONS
The cooling requirement defined on RDE95 @ 35 ° C as a function of the temperature limitation was
variable throughout this study, state itself a function of variable parameters. A final correction of the
requirement is therefore carried out by taking into account the last intensity RMS requirements, the actual

62
value of the DCR, the latest version of the EML, the GVWR and in correlation with the various tests. The bar
diagram of the final power requirement tto be dissipated on RDE95@35°C is presented in figure
figur 36.

SNM

Figure 44: Finals cooling needs of the system

This final diagram distinguishes between the average powers and the peak powers to be dissipated. It can thus
be retain that:

• A maximum power to be dissipated from 520W at BOL in order to comply with the specifications of
battery temperature below 60°C . This power to be dissipated is limited to 450W by the P4 derating
strategy.
• Maximum power to be dissipated from 550W at BOL so as never to exceed 55 ° C on the battery and
an
therefore never go into derating of the electrical performance provided by the battery.
battery
• A maximum power to dissipate of 810W at MOL8 considering a 30% degradation of the DCR.
• A maximum power of 900W to dissipate on SNM at MOL8 considering the difference in mass and SCx
with BJA.

4.2.2. THERMAL SOLUTIONS SY

SYNTHESIS
The various levers that ultimately make up the thermal menu set up to ensure proper following of the
RDE95@35°C cycle with battery temperature below 60°C are summarized in table 36.

Table 36: Thermal management solutions

Variable Solutions Impact

Thermal - Air intake scoop Potential gain in cooling power from
optimizations - Insulation of conduits 120 to 165W
hardware - Removal of the temperature sensor
- Modification of the sole inlet duct
NVH Setting up of an acoustic
coustic pack Gains in level and acoustic quality
optimizations allowing the use of V7 mapping
hardware

Rear right Closed Negligible impact on cooling but

extraction hatch necessary for acoustic pack
Air conditioning 21°C Assumption: Robust if the client uses
the air conditioning at 35 ° C

63
Blower's mapping V7 Rated from 5 to 8 in NVH depending
on battery temperature and passenger
rank with acoustic pack.
pack

Derating strategy P4 Full battery power up to 55 ° C battery

then degradation of electrical
performance up to 15kW at 60°C.
60
70W reduction in power to dissipate.

The derating strategy is the key to limiting the rise in battery temperature, but the optimization of other
factors also play a major role in limiting the impact of this derating strategy on the performance.
performance

4.2.3. SYNTHESIS OF IMPACTS ON CUSTOMER PERFORMANCE

The objective of this summary of services is to understand the system and then better understand its
impact on services.

This study therefore made it possible to obtain an overview of the various service risks involved when
establishing the final thermal menu
enu in order to better understand the service issues linked to this type of
system. This is summarized in figure 45.

Battery's
overheating

Figure 45: Battery cooling impacts on customer performance

64
 4.3. SYSTEM VALIDATION

4.3.1. VALIDATIONS TESTINGS

In the current state of the study, BJA HEV is therefore able to pass the RDE95@35°C while limiting the
temperature in the cells to 60 ° C with the thermal menu synthesized in 4.2.2. and therefore to respect the
specifications with derating strategy.

The objective of the following tests is to validate in an aero-climatic enclosure the ability of the vehicle to
repeat its performance without any immobilizing failure at ambient temperatures up to 45°C on RDE95,
"Repeta" and "99% severe customer" cycles.

The first cycle carried out is an RDE95 @ 45 ° C with derating strategy and V7 blower calibration, the results
are presented in figure 46.

Figure 46: RDE 95@45°C results with derating and air conditioning

On this cycle, the vehicle is not subject to an immobilizing failure and follows the cycle correctly despite the
severe derating linked to a battery temperature exceeding 60°C. A return to urban driving is then made after
the cycle in order to check that the battery temperature starts to decrease again.

The second cycle carried out is a Repeta@45 ° C with derating strategy and V7 blower calibration, the results
are presented in figure 47.

65
 Figure 47: Repeta@ 45°C results with derating and air conditioning

Again on this driving profile, the vehicle is not subject to an immobilizing failure even if the speed of execution
of the 80-120km/h decreases due to the severe derating linked to a battery temperature exceeding 60°C.

The third cycle performed is a 99%_Severe_Customer@40°C with derating strategy and V7 blower calibration,
the results are presented in figure 48.

Figure 48: 99%_severe_customer@40°C results with derating and air conditioning

On this cycle again, the vehicle is not subject to an immobilizing failure and follows the cycle correctly despite
the severe derating linked to battery temperature exceeding 60°C.

The fourth cycle carried out is a Client_sévère_99% @ 45 ° C with calibration blower V7 but this time without a
derating strategy, the results are presented in figure 49.

66
 Figure 49: 99%_severe_customer@45°C results without preventive derating

Despite the absence of a derating strategy, the vehicle does not break down and correctly follows the cycle by
limiting the maximum temperature to 63 ° C.

The last cycle carried out is a Repeta @ 45 ° C without any derating strategy or use of the blower, only the
curative derating strategy of the BMS is active. The results are presented in figure 50.

Figure 50: Repeta@45°C results without preventive derating and without blower

The repetition of 80-120km/h was quickly stopped but the objective of this test was above all to solicit the
vehicle in order to ensure that the curative derating of the BMS alone is capable of preventing a immobilizing
failure. The battery temperature is thus limited to 64 ° C and it can even be made sure that the Vmax of the
vehicle is still available as seen around the 1200s despite the curative derating.

The results of the various tests are summarized in table 37.

67
 Table 37: BJA test synthesis

Cycle Blower Derating Air Cycle Max Immobilizing

mapping strategy conditioning following Tbat failure

Specifications RDE95@35°C V7 P4 21 °C OK 58°C No

Test 1 RDE95@45°C V7 P4 21 °C OK 62°C No

Test 2 REPETA@45°C V7 P4 21 °C / 63°C No

Test 3 99% SEVERE V7 P4 21 °C OK 63°C No

CUSTOMER
@40°C

Test 3 99% SEVERE V7 None 21 °C OK 63°C No

CUSTOMER
@45°C

Test 5 REPETA@45°C Blower None 21 °C / 64°C No

OFF

In conclusion :

• The RDE95 @ 35 ° C specifications are respected with battery temperature under 60 ° C.

• On the Repeta @ 45 ° C, the maximum speed is always available even without a blower or derating
strategy.
• The curative derating of the BMS alone protects the battery from an immobilizing failure, because
without a preventive derating strategy or blower, the battery temperature always remains below
65°C.
• The vehicle can follow the cycles of the RDE and the 99% severe customer even at 45 °C ambient.

4.3.2. DERATING OCCURRENCES EVALUATION CRITERIA

The implementation of a performance derating strategy is a compromise made on the specifications
initially defined. The study therefore proposes to assess the real impact of this derating strategy on the user's
driving experience in order to confirm that this solution is viable. The aims of this study is to assess the
frequency of occurrence of these derating.

For this, the database of eighty-five profiles of customer behavior associated with segment B vehicles
mentioned above is used. For the evaluation of the frequency of occurrence of derating, the three most severe
profiles are thus retained:

- Customer profile n°8, more severe than 99% of other customer profiles (99% severe
customer), corresponding to the profile of the 99%_severe_customer cycle described above.
- Customer profile n°9, more severe than 98% of other customer profiles (98% severe
customer).
- Customer profile n°21, more severe than 96% of other customer profiles (96% severe
customer).

These occurrences are evaluated at several phases of battery life:

- BOL, Beginning Of Life

68
 - MOL3, 30 000 km/year, 90 000 km/3 year.
- MOL8, 20 000 km/year, 160 000 km/8 year.

In order to be consistent with the rest of the study, these occurrences are evaluated in the ambient conditions
of Seville in summer (32 to 38 ° C) which corresponds to one of the hottest areas of the markets on which
vehicles E-Tech are sold.

To deepen this study, it is also possible to distinguish the derating not felt by the client from the derating felt
by which are divided into two categories according to a sensitivity analysis:

- The sensitive derating felt by the customer by a loss of electrical performance at any speed as soon as
the power supplied by the battery drops below 25 kW.
- The critical derating which is also felt by a loss of pleasure due to the loss of EV feeling at speeds
below 70 km/h and a power supplied by the battery below 25 kW.

These sensitivity criteria are summarized in the dials in tables 38a et 38b.

Table 38a and b: Conditions of occurrence of "felt" derating

Available power (kW) Available power

(kW)
[0…25] [25…45] [0…25] [25…45]
[0…70] Derating [0…70] EV
Vehicle speed

Vehicle speed

Feeling
(km/h)

(km/h)

[70…180] [70…180]

4.3.3. BJA OCCURRENCES EVALUATION

Using the three most severe customer profiles under ambient temperature conditions Summer Seville.
The results of occurrences are obtained as described in figure 51 for BJA HEV.

Figure 51: Occurrences of derating in ambient conditions Summer Seville

69
It is therefore possible to note:

• 5% of derating occurrences to BOL in the worst case (99% customer).

• 0% of cases of severe derating (Tbattery > 60 ° C) with performance limitation to 15kW
• The maximum temperature tolerated in the battery is respected even in the worst cases.

These occurrences of derating are also evaluated in less severe ambient conditions such as summer in Paris (20
to 24 °C) such as described in figure 52.

Figure 52: Occurrences of derating in ambient conditions Summer Seville vs Summer Paris

In these less severe conditions in Summer Paris, it can therefore be obtained a frequency of derating
50% less. Over the entire year, this reduction would even be greater than 50%. As regards now the
occurrences of derating considered as really "felt" by the criteria of sensitivity analysis defined previously, the
results obtained are described in figure 53.

70
 Figure 53: Occasions of "felt" derating in a Seville summer atmosphere

The "felt" derating will be noted over a duration of less than 2% of the time at BOL, with a degradation of the
EV feeling over a duration of less than 0.5% of the time, even with the most severe customer profile. If the
worst case is then used with a battery at MOL8, the time when the derating occurs never reaches 10%.

In a profile of the Paris Summer atmosphere type, these results are divided by more than 6 compared to the
Seville atmosphere as can be seen in figure 54.

Figure 54: Occurrences of "felt" derating Seville summer vs Paris summer

71
To conclude, the specifications are respected and it is possible to observe very low derating occurrence
frequencies for BJA which allow to consider the air cooling solution without direct contact with the cells as a
viable solution in terms of customer performance for this application.

However, it may be that the specifications are no longer respected for a vehicle with aerodynamic constraints
and higher mass such as SNM. In addition, the occurrences of derating linked to the strategy put in place may
prove to be more numerous and severe and therefore present a greater impact in terms of customer
performance.

72
 5. OPENINGS: HIGHER DEMAND AND OTHER SOLUTIONS

5.1. AIR COOLING ADAPTATION TO SNM

5.1.1. AIR INTAKE IMPROVEMENT ASSUMPTION

Based on the difference in aerodynamic and mass between BJA and SNM, an additional 90W cooling
requirement for SNM is estimated. As the cooling capacity of the current system is already limited for BJA, it is
necessary to look for additional cooling optimization solutions for the SNM application and one of them
consists in optimizing the air intake duct.

The objective of this study is to study the hypothesis of using an air intake duct under the bench so called
"under rear seats" instead of the "leg C" intake duct used on BJA. Figure 55 presents the two hypotheses
therefore put to the test.

Figure 55: Air admission hypotheses under study

The challenge of this system is to avoid too many pressure drops in the duct due to changes in sections. The
interface section between this conduit and the floor under which the battery and its cooler is located is 19.28
cm², the objective would therefore be to have a conduit whose section is never less than 19.28 cm² .

The new architecture is thus implemented in order to meet these criteria as much as possible with regards to
the vehicle architectural constraint as much as possible as described in figure 56.

Figure 56: New air intake system architecture

73
This solution " under rear seats " is homogeneous in section despite that it does not fully meet the section>
19.28 cm² criterion. It was therefore compared with admission "leg C" on two SNM HEV vehicles during an
RDE95 cycle at 35 °C and results are presented in figure 57.

Figure 57: Comparison "Leg C" vs duct "under rear seats" on SNM HEV on cycle RDE95@35°C

The test with "leg C" is carried out in truncated RDE95: it is an RDE95 without the "Road" phase considered
negligible after finding an almost constant battery temperature level during this phase.

It can thus be seen that the solution of admission "under rear seats" has a certain contribution since it is
possible to note that it allows to dissipate 20% more power with a difference of 5 °C in air temperature at the
battery exchanger inlet, and thus causes a derating start 2400s later on the RDE95@35 ° C.

However, the final temperature reached during the cycle remains 61 ° C whatever the solution and therefore
does not allow to respect the specifications by limiting the battery temperature under 60°C.

5.1.2. TESTINGS RESULTS SNM

The objective of the following tests is to validate in an aero-climatic enclosure the capacity of the
vehicle to fulfill the specifications on RDE95@35 ° C, and never to fall in immobilizing breakdown in more
severe operations such as RDE95@45 ° C and Repeta @45°C.

The first test therefore makes it possible to compare the results of SNM HEV with intake duct under bench seat
to those of BJA HEV on RDE95@35 ° C and to assess whether the vehicle complies with the specifications with
battery temperature below 60 °C .The results are presented in figure 58.

74
 Figure 58: Comparison BJA vs SNM HEV on RDE95@35°C cycle

The duct "under rear seats" allows an air inlet temperature up to 3 ° C lower than BJA compensated by a much
higher temperature gradient on SNM than BJA and an absence of battery temperature stabilization on the
road part of the cycle. The battery temperature reaches 61 ° C on SNM, which is not satisfactory since the
specifications are not respected.

The second test allows this same comparison on RDE95 with this time an ambient temperature raised to 45°C.
The results are presented in figure 59.

75
 Figure 59: Comparison BJA vs SNM HEV on RDE95@45°C cycle

The very high battery temperature gradient at high speed of SNM, once again reduces the gain related to the
inlet temperature difference compared to BJA HEV. The temperature is however maintained at 62 ° C by the
derating strategy for the two cases.

The last test consists of evaluating the behavior of SNM and the thermal heating of its high-voltage battery on
the most severe cycle: Repeta @ 45 °C. The results are depicted in figure 60.

Figure 60: SNM on repeta @45°C cycle

76
It is possible to note that the entry into derating occurs after 6 repetas, then that the temperature of the
battery reaches 60 ° C after 12 repetas, with therefore a loss of 30% of overall power since the electrical
performance of the battery are limited to 15kW by the derating strategy.

As a reminder, the announcement of 80-120km/h for SNM is 7.5s and the same 80-120km/h is measured at
12s in GVWR. With SNM in GVWR and a battery temperature above 60 ° C therefore electrical performance
limited to 15 kW, the measure for the 80-120km/h is at 18s. The results of 80-120 km/h as a function of the
battery temperature at GVWR are expressed in figure 61.

Figure 61: SNM 80-120 km/h depending on battery temperature at GVWR

These results therefore raise an alert on vehicle performance in the event of a critical derating at 15 kW of
electrical performance.

The overall results of the tests are summarized in table 39.

Table 39: SNM tests results synthesis

Cycle Cycle following Tbattery max Immobilizing failures

Specifications RDE95@35°C OK 61°C No

Test 1 RDE95@45°C OK 62°C (like BJA) No

Test 2 REPETA NOK 61°C No

In conclusion:

• The RDE95 @ 35 °C success specifications are not respected since the battery temperature
exceed 60°C.
• The vehicle's severe derating performance (Tbat> 60 ° C) is considerably degraded

5.1.3. SNM OCCURRENCES EVALUATIONS

From the three most severe client profiles in the previous database of eigthy-five customer profiles
(99%, 98% and 96% customer) and under severe ambient conditions (Summer Seville), the objective is again to
assess the occurrences of performance derating on SNM compared to BJA at BOL.

These results are presented by figure 63 and table 40.

77
 Figure 62: Derating occurrences of different E-Tech applications at BOL

Table 40: Derating details of different E-Tech applications at BOL

BJA SNM SNM

(no opti) (opti)

Tbat>55°C Nb customer 8 22 22

% Time 3% 14% 11%

Worst case 5% 21% 16%

Tbat>60°C Nb customer 0 2 1

% Time 0,0% 0,3% 0,1%

Worst case 0,0% 0,3% 0,3%

From these results, it is possible to note that even with optimized cooling:
• 22 out of 85 customer of the database will be subject to derating on SNM.
• A SNM customer will be in severe derating with battery temperature over 60°C and will present
degraded performance with only 15 kW of electrical performance supplied by the battery during
0.3% of the time.
• An SNM client will also spend 16% of its time with derating of electrical performance.
The case to avoid would be that a customer cannot safely enter a roundabout at the exit of the motorway,
after having thermally stressed the battery. This case is possible with SNM in cases of severe derating with
electrical performance at 15kW, even if it represents less than 0.5% of the time in the worst use cases.
SNM is therefore at the limit of acceptable performance. Considering the fact that this study concerns a BOL
battery, and an air conditioning set temperature at 21 ° C, it is necessary to compare the present air cooling
solution with other existing battery cooling solutions.

78
 5.2. TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF EXISTING COOLING SOLUTIONS

5.2.1. TECHNICAL DEFINITION: AIR CONDITIONING COOLING

The concept of AC cooling is that an evaporator plate is directly incorporated into the packaging of the
battery and connected to the main air conditioning circuit located in the vehicle. This is done during a so-called
splitting process on high and low pressure side via ducts and a pressure reducer. Thus, the passenger
compartment evaporator and the battery evaporator plate are connected to a single circuit. Freon refrigerant
gas is directly expanded on contact with the battery pack.

The air conditioning circuit must therefore assume the power requirements of the two evaporators, it
emerges from the various requirements for refrigerant flow. While passenger compartment air conditioning
must meet passenger comfort requirements, the high-voltage battery requires varying degrees of cooling,
depending on the driving situation and the ambient temperature. All these needs entail complex regulation of
the quantity of evaporated refrigerant and therefore carry more important electronics than the other cooling
solutions. The principle of this solution is described in figure 63.

Compressor

Evaporator
Evaporator
Condenser

plate
Battery

Air conditioning

Figure 63: Principle of AC cooling [1]

This solution has the advantage of guaranteeing sufficient cooling potential for all applications, and above all
of presenting fairly low architectural and volume constraints with no additional components in the powertrain
box other than the freon conduits.

However, the problem posed by this AC cooling solution is that this solution has never been studied for the
moment within the Renault group, and it is planned to modify the shape of the battery quite strongly to
integrate the various modifications (battery thickness, displacement of electrical connectors), and therefore to
modify the architecture of the rear unit.

This solution is therefore very restrictive in terms of costs and planning despite its great efficiency.

5.2.2. TECHNICAL DEFINITION : WATER COOLING

In the battery pack, an integrated cooling plate is crossed by coolant which is composed of water and
glycol. The coolant passes through a chiller. In this, the vehicle air conditioning coolant is evaporated. The heat
can also be transmitted very compact and with a high power density of the secondary circuit on the
evaporated refrigerant. Additional cooling back from the refrigerant takes place. The use of the chiller allows
the battery to be operated in the temperature range with an optimal degree of action.

The chiller is a special heat exchanger, connected to the coolant circuit and to the refrigerant circuit, which
allows the coolant temperature to be lowered further using the air conditioning refrigerant .

The principle of this solution is described in figure 64.

79
 Refrigerant
Compressor circuit
battery cooling

Evaporator
Condenser

Evaporator

plate
Battery

Chiller

Air conditioning

Figure 64: Principle of water cooling [1]

This solution has the advantage of being a known solution at Renault since it is a solution already being used
on PHEV applications.. In addition, other vehicles developed at Renault have already used this type of cooling
solution. This solution also promis
promiseses satisfactory cooling efficiency for almost all use cases. However, this
solution requires the incorporation of certain elements in the powertrain box that might not be compatible
with every vehicle.

5.2.3. TECHNICAL DEFINITION : COOLING WITH PELTIER EFFECT

This solution consists in cooling the battery directly, or indirectly with a secondary fluid, using Peltier
effect modules. Concretely, an electric current flows in a chain of pairs of semiconductors, composed of
materials with different conductive propert
properties
ies and connected by copper connections, and the assembly is
placed between two heat conducting plates. One of these plates will then charge positively with less electrons
and heat up, while the second plate will charge negatively with more electrons and b become
ecome cold.

The idea is therefore to absorb the heat to dissipate with the cold side of the Peltier module to reject it by the
hot side, preferably outside the vehicle [8].

The principle of this solution is described in figure 65.

Cold surface

Hot surface

Figure 65: Peltier effect principles

This solution is quite simple in terms of integration, but its cooling efficiency is limited by its size, mass and
price. For an HEV application, it would therefore be difficult to hope for more than 100W of cooling since the
exchange volume linked to the battery is low. This solution also has low efficiency (0.2 <η < <0.7 depending on
the type of exchange) implying
mplying high electrical consumption. This sol solution
ution is not viable alone for a HEV
application, both in terms of price and efficiency.

80
 5.3. WATER AND AC COOLING ANALYSIS

5.3.1. AC COOLING: SOLUTION AND EXPECTED COOLING POWER

The previous technical definitions made it possible to identify two solutions making it possible to offer
a cooling capacity greater than that of the air cooling system studied: the water and AC cooling solutions.

The AC cooling solution is distinguished by the best potential cooling efficiency. The advantage of this
technology is that its cooling potential is not limited in terms of power. Indeed, it is the cells themselves which
will limit the use of AC cooling according to two criteria defined by the battery specialists:

- The temperature gradient between the bottom and the top of the battery cells must be less than
10°C.
- The temperature gradient in the cells must be less than 2.4 °C/min.

By respecting these two criteria, the limitation of the maximum cooling potential is 1400W at peak for four
minutes maximum, with a possible power to dissipate continuously of maximum 1130W.

The complexity of this system lies in the fact that it is an innovation for the Renault Group and to this is added
the fact that the price of this solution is much higher than the air system studied because of the many
electronic control components required. The cost of such a system is estimated to be around 200 euros per
vehicle compared to around 120 euros for the air cooling system studied.

To realize this system, the solution is to integrate a solenoid valve on the current air conditioning circuit and to
add a new circuit of pipes containing freon. These pipes would bring the freon to an evaporating plate in the
battery with an integrated regulator. The freon is thus relaxed directly at the level of the battery and not in a
secondary fluid as in a water cooling system.

The solution thus imagined for the AC cooling integration from the existing system is described in figure 66.

Figure 66: AC cooling adaptation to the system

Thus, it's just a matter of bringing air conditioning pipes to the evaporator plate in contact with the battery.
The contact between the evaporator and the battery cells can be made directly, since there is no risk of water
leakage or special prohibitions as on water cooling systems and air. This evaporator plate is located below the
battery and directly in contact with the base of the cells and inside the casing of the battery as described in
figure 67.

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 Figure 67: Location of the AC cooling plate in the battery casing

This example evaporator plate comes from Valeo and therefore consists of 6 duct modules through which the
freon circulates. There are therefore 3 conduits for each row of cells: 2 outward conduits and a return conduit,
as described in figure 68. This makes it possible to homogenize the temperature gradient in the cells as well as
possible, since this is the point to care of with this type of solution.

Figure 68: Dedicated AC cooling evaporator plate

The power available in this cooling system is therefore significant but directly linked to the power of the air
conditioning compressor. AC cooling therefore directly impacts the refrigerant gas circuit of the air
conditioning.

Indeed, when the vehicle is put into action, the air conditioning requests the power of the compressor for 20
minutes, but then the system is in overcapacity and it is possible to request the full power of the cooling. It is
however necessary to check the impact of this system on the thermal feeling of the air conditioning by the
customer, The system must be able to regulate the air conditioning on the battery side without feeling in the
passenger compartment during these first 20 minutes .

In terms of consumption now, AC cooling is the cooling system with the best overall efficiency, since it does
not require a pump or blower, and will therefore only use the compressor power.

In addition, the interaction between the compressor and the freon being done directly, this solution benefits
from a very good COP close to 4, so it need less power coming from the compressor than the other solutions
for a same cooling efficiency.

For 1130W to dissipate and with a COP of 4, the resulting consumption will be only around 280W.

82
This type of cooling offers the best cooling capacity, the best energy efficiency and also has few architectural
constraints and can therefore be incorporated into HEVs of any size. This solution however involves more
control electronics and therefore higher costs.

5.3.2. WATER COOLING: SOLUTION AND EXPECTED COOLING POWER

The water cooling solution can be considered as a good compromise between the efficiency of an AC
cooling solution and the price of the air cooling solution. Indeed, the cost price of such a system on a HEV is
from 150 euros and the most efficient systems can dissipate up to 1200W of heat according to the battery
specialists.

For Renault, the advantage of choosing the water cooling solution lies in the fact that the PHEV versions of E-
Tech are already equipped with a water cooling system. The idea is therefore to modify the circuit derived
from the PHEV version, the battery is changed and the charger is removed, to set up a simplified version. It is
therefore a question of adding to the conventional cooling loops:

 A valve to add a new loop on the air conditioning circuit with a chiller and a TXV regulator.
 A secondary coolant loop connected to the chiller with expansion tank, water pump and the
exchanger located under the battery.

The diagram of the adapted cooling system to the conventional cooling loops is presented in figure 69.

Figure 69: Water cooling adaptation to the current system

The addition of air conditioning and water pipes should also be considered, in addition to modifications to the
soleplate and the addition of the water pump, chiller and expansion tank. This is not a problem for vehicles the
size of SNM, but it can be a problem for vehicles limited in size such as BJA.

Indeed the size of the powertrain box does not allow to incorporate a pump without major modification of the
front unit of the vehicle and it would be necessary to deport the production of cold at the rear unit, therefore
the chiller and the pump, but bring back a degassing pipe and an expansion tank at the front, which is not
feasible on BJA.

83
 Like the AC cooling solution, this solution directly draws on the power of the air conditioning compressor, and
care must therefore be taken to ensure that this does not disturb the thermal comfort in the passenger
compartment during the first 20 minutes. As a reminder, the air cooling solution previously studied has the
merit of using the same air which cools the passenger compartment and therefore does not divert the work of
the compressor, this can however be a problem if the customer does not use air conditioning.

The consumption involved in a water cooling solution turns out to be moderate and several aspects have to be
taken into account compared to other systems:

 Pump consumption: maximum 60W for this kind of application.

 Compressor consumption: which has a good Coefficient of Performance (~ 3) since the power uses
only a fast intermediate (freon) to switch from the compressor to the coolant. This COP is therefore
lower than during direct cooling by freon but higher than for air cooling which has a worse power
transmission between the compressor and the air which finally enters the cooling ducts. For 1200W
dissipated, the power consumed by the compressor is approximately 400W.
 The increase in mass linked to the system and to the use of water compared to other systems could
also be a factor of overconsumption to take into account, but is considered as negligible in this study.

The system consumption can thus be estimated at approximately 460 W for a power to dissipate of 1200W.

This solution therefore guarantees moderate consumption, good cooling power and a lower price than an AC
cooling solution, but has architectural drawbacks which do not allow it to be installed on all types of vehicles.

5.3.3. PRACTICAL CASE: WATER COOLING BACK UP ADAPTATION TO SNM

The objective of this practical case is to be able to set up a back-up cooling solution which can be
compared in terms of price and planning with the air cooling solution presented. These criteria de facto
exclude the AC cooling solution and it is therefore a water cooling solution limited in potential by costs and
planning which is studied. The objective would be to be able to reach a cooling power between 750 and 950W.

This practical case takes place on the SNM vehicle which is more restrictive in terms of masses and
aerodynamics than BJA and which have sufficient space in the powertrain box to integrate this type of
solution.

The principle of integration remains the same as presented in section 5.3.2. This involves installing the
expansion tank, chiller and pump at the front and then taking the water pipes without the rear unit. Table 41
and figure 70 give an overview of the different parts added in each zone of the vehicles to incorporate this
water cooling system.

Table 41: Modification table SNM HEV water cooling solution

FRONT UNIT CENTRAL UNIT REAR UNIT BATTERY

- Regulator inlet - Fuel supply hose - Fuel tank : fixations modifications -Weter collectors
pipe - Fuel vapor hose - Go water hose rigid part - Machining of extruded parts
- Go water hose rigid part - Return water hose rigid part adapted to the battery
- Return water hose rigid part - Cable trunking 250V - New water tips
- TRF Rear left Wheel - Left support leg hose on battery
- TRF Rear right wheel - Right support leg hose on battery
- 250V wiring
- Thermal tunnel shield

84
 Figure 70: Modeling of architectural modifications SNM HEV

In order not to involve fundamental modifications to the tank, the water pipes will enter on either side of the
battery soleplate in an "I" and not "U" exchanger. In addition, this exchanger located in the battery sole
completely differs from that used for air cooling. The new exchanger uses water collectors which supply 8
water pipes, 4 pipes per row of cells. The new exchanger is shown in figure 71.

Figure 71: Water exchanger soleplate

This solution is controlled to allow a coolant temperature of 20 ° C to limit the battery temperature to 55 °C
°
with a flow rate of the pump p used of approximately 1000l/
1000l/h.

Under these conditions, the simulations make it possible to define the cooling potential of this solution as well
as the needs over
ver different cycles. Table 42 below presents these results and puts them in comparison with
the results obtained by the air cooling system used on BJA.

Table 42: Comparison of cooling needs and potentials BJA air cooling vas SNM water cooling

SNM water cooling simulations BJA air cooling results

 Tbatt max =55C  Tbattmax=55C
Tbattmax=55
Cooling Power
 Twater =20C  Air conditioning: 21C
 Pump flow: 1000l/h  MFR: 120kg/h

RDE95 35C 520W

Battery MOL8 650W (Limited
Limited to 450W by triggering the
derating strategy)
strategy

20 Repeta 80-120km/h 35C

980W -
Battery BOL

Potential cooling power of the 770W 450W

85
solution

The comparable water solution in planning and price would dissipate 770W, which is more than enough to
limit the cell temperature to 55 ° C on an RDE95@35°C but which would not prevent any occurrence of
derating, even if these would be little felt by the customer, on a more severe cycle such as Repeta@35 ° C.

A maximum consumption of the system is thus estimated at approximately 320W for a power to dissipate of
770W considering a COP of 3 and water pump consumption to 60 W at 1000 l/h.

86
 6. CONCLUSION

6.1. STUDY REVIEW

High-voltage batteries are specifics elements of electrified vehicles and implies cooling requirements
which are particularly illustrated on HEVs. Contrary to appearances, this cooling system can have multiple
impacts on the customer performance of the vehicle, and therefore deserve special attention.

The GTREVS regulations planned for 2021 announce major changes in terms of battery cooling since it will call
into question air cooling systems, which are preferred for their moderate costs by almost the entire HEV
market today. The air cooling solution is therefore brought to evolve to survive with for example the use of
exchanger system in order to avoid any contact between the cooling air and the cells of the battery.

This study shows that even optimized the cooling capacity of this type of solution will be greatly reduced
compared to direct air cooling, but may however be suitable for vehicles with the least thermal constraints
such as BJA in this study. It shows that this kind of solutions still got a future on HEVs despite new regulations.
This is made possible by a complementary thermal management solution: the strategy of derating of the
electrical performance provided by the battery as a function of the temperature in the cells. This solution has
the advantage of not presenting any additional cost but exposes the vehicle to a risk of "perceived"
degradation of performance on vehicles with more thermal stresses such as SNM in this study.

For vehicle such as SNM, the future of high voltage battery cooling may lie in more efficient but more
expensive solutions such as water and AC cooling. There is thus no perfect battery cooling solution for HEV
manufacturers today, the solutions are more or less adapted to each type of vehicle according to price,
architecture or efficiency criteria.

6.2. COMPARATIVE SYNTHESIS OF COOLING SOLUTIONS

This study makes it possible to draw up a comparative synthesis of the various existing high-voltage
battery cooling solutions as presented in table 43.
Table 43: Cooling systems comparative synthesis

INDIRECT AIR COOLING WATER COOLING AC COOLING

Cooling power Up to 450W Up to 1200W - Limited to 770W by Up to 1400W instantaneous - 1130 W

price and planning continuous

Type of contact with cells Indirect (Anticipation GTREVS 2021) Indirect (No risk of short circuit in the Direct
event of a water leak)

Cooling activation time >5 minutes 2-3 minutes ~ 10 secondes

Modifications of cooling loops None + 1 loop on air conditioning circuit + 1 + 1 loop on air conditioning circuit
loop of secondary cooling liquid

Architectu Powertrain box None - Expansion tank None other than AC conduit to be connected
ral impact - Chiller to the air conditioning compressor.
- Water pump

Conduits Long and large conduits Air conditioning circuit in the front unit Air conditioning ducts to bring to the rear till
in the rear unit only. till the chiller then water channels the evaporator plate.
brought to the rear unit (see 5.3.3.)

Battery Air exchanger as a battery soleplate Water collectors and pipes as a battery Evaporator plate as a battery soleplate
soleplate

Rear unit Blower None None

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 Consumption - Blower: 80W at - Water pump: 60 W at - Impact on AC compressor:
90%PWM 1000L/h 1130W/COP (~4) = 280W
- 450W/COP (~2) = 220W - Impact on AC compressor: for Pcooling=1130W
- Front cooler: 200W max 770W /COP (~3) = 260W
- Total:~500W for - Total:~320W for
Pcooling=450W Pcooling=770W

NVH Loud noises related to the use of Very slight noises linked to the Very slight noises linked to the compressor
the blower. compressor use. use.
Strong compromise in thermal
management / NVH

Thermal specifications Tmax battery RDE95 @35°C: BJA <55°C in almost all use cases <55°C in all use cases
58°C, SNM 61°C – Hot air rejection

Performance - Derating BJA: Client 99% -> 5% of time in None with 1200W None
occurencies derating Possible in extreme cases with 770W
SNM: Client 99% -> 14% of time in
derating

Part costs Total: ~120€ Total~150 € Total: ~200 €

(Exchanger soleplate: 16 €, Blower (Water soleplate: 30 €, Chiller: 80 €, (Evaporator soleplate, conduits, electronics…)
SED: 60 €, Conduits…) water pump: 20 €, expansion tank,
conduits…)

6.3. SWOT OF BATTERY COOLING SOLUTIONS

Each types of cooling solutions has thus its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities or threats that make
them more or less relevant for the various HEV applications. This is described in a SWOT matrix in table 44.

Table 44: Cooling systems SWOT

AIR COOLING WATER COOLING AC COOLING

- Moderate costs - High cooling power - High cooling power
- No impact on powertrain box - Low NVH constraints - Low NVH constraints
architecture - Low impact on powertrain box
STRENGTHS

- - No refrigerant or gas architecture

- Low activation time
- Efficiency and energy consumption
- Faiblesse de refroidissement - Number of powertrain box - Price
WEAKNESSES

- High NVH constraints components - Complexity of flow distribution /

- Conduits volume - Water inertia and mass battery temperature gradient.
INTERNAL

- Efficiency and energy

consumption
- Compatible with small vehicles - Reuse of the chiller for - Refroidissement par contact direct
- Well known solution cooling the low temperature possible
OPPORTUNITIES

circuit of the powertrain box - Utilisation sur porte à faux court et

- Well known solution long
- Compatible with big vehicles - Compatible with all vehicles

- - Lack of robustness if the air
conditioning is not used
- - Cabin air temperature cooling
inertia by air conditioning.
THREATS
- Potential impact on air - Potential impact on air conditioning
conditioning comfort comfort
- Direct contact: Risk of short - Not well known solution
circuit in case of water - Potentially too large temperature

- GTREVS 2021 : No rejection of leakage. delta in cells

EXTERNAL

air from the battery in the

passenger compartment

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In fact, the choice of a battery cooling system will depend of the need and priorities of each applications.
Applications with thermal constraints which favor the cost price of vehicles will more generally be oriented
towards air cooling. Vehicles with high cooling needs and favoring customer performance at the expense of
cost will go more widely towards AC cooling. Water cooling offers a good compromise of these two solutions
but also presents greater architectural constraints which are not compatible with all vehicles.

89
REFERENCES

[1] HELLA, Thermo-management in hybrid vehicles. Web: https://www.hella.com/techworld/us/Technical/Car-

air-conditioning/Thermal-management-in-electric-and-hybrid-vehicles-1725/

[2] THANH-HA TRAN, Études thermiques du stockeur d'énergie électrique automobile [Thermal studies of
automotive electrical energy storage] , UVHC, 2014. Web: http://ged.univ-
valenciennes.fr/nuxeo/site/esupversions/8e3f8683-fd84-41d1-a36e-9f2a47690ee4

[3] KARTIK GOPAL, Thermal Issues In Battery Packs For Electric Vehicles, Auto Tech Review, 2019. Web:
https://autotechreview.com/opinion/guest-commentary/thermal-issues-in-battery-packs-for-electric-vehicles-
guest-commentary-august-2019

[4]PONTUS SVEN, Lithium-ion battery systems for electrified vehicles, SCANIA, 2018.

[5]CHARLES-VICTOR HEMERY, Etudes des phénomènes thermiques dans les batteries Li-ion [Studies of thermal
phenomena in Li-ion batteries], Grenoble university, 2006. Web: https://tel.archives-
ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/968666/filename/THESE_CharlesVictor_HEMERY.pdf

[6] ADRIAN CLENCI, Real Driving Emissions: Enjeux et défis [Real Driving Emissions: Enjeux et défis], Pitesti
University, Paris CNAM, 2016. Web: http://turbo-moteurs.cnam.fr/publications/pdf/conference4_2018.pdf

[7] ALESSANDRO BIZZARI, Thermal management for batteries in E-mobility applications, Priatherm, on behalf
of Batenburg Mechatronica, 2018. Web: https://batenburgmechatronica.nl/wp-
content/uploads/2018/06/11.00-Priatherm-Batenburg.pdf

[8] UWE ELECTRONICS Die 30 goldenen Regeln der Peltiertechnologie [The 30 golden rules of Peltier
technology] .Web:
http://www.uweelectronic.de/images/datenblaetter_temp/regler/30_goldene__Regeln_Handout.pdf

[9] MM RAHMAN, Liquid cooled plate heat exchanger for battery cooling of an electric vehicle (EV), IOP
Conferences series, 2016. Web: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/32/1/012053/pdf

[10] VALERIE SAUVANT-MOYNOT, Seminaire batteries de tractions: principes, avancées et challenges [traction
batteries: principles, advances and challenges], IFP Energies nouvelles, 2018. Web: http://turbo-
moteurs.cnam.fr/publications/pdf/conference2_2018.pdf

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 APPENDIX.
Table 45: HEV market analysis table

SPECIFICATION HYUNDAI IONIQ KIA NIRO HEV HYUNDAI KONA TOYOTA COROLLA TOYOTA CH-R HEV YARIS 3 HEV YARIS 4 HEV HONDACR-V HONDA FIT JAZZ HONDA NISSAN NOTE E- BJA HEV SNM HEV
HEV HEV HEV 122ch JAZZ I-MMT POWER
Type Sedan SUV crossover SUV Crossover Sedan/break SUV crossover City-dweller City-dweller SUV crossover City-dweller City-dweller City-dweller City-dweller SUV crossover
Segment C / M1 C / M1 B / I2 C / M1 C / M1 B / I2 B / I2 C / M1 B / I2 B / I2 B / I2 B / I2 B / I2
Configuration Parallel Parallel Parallel Serie-Parallel Serie-Parallel Serie-Parallel Serie-Parallel Serie-Parallel Parallel Serie- Série Serie-Parallel Serie-Parallel
Parallel
Year 2016 2018 2019 2019 2017 2012 then 2017 2020 2019 2013 2020 2012 then 2016 2020 2020
Price 2019/ Esti 2020 from 24250e from 28990e from 24750e from 24100e from 25300e from 18350e from 20950e from 34900e from 18000e
Size 4470/1820/1450 4355/1805/1535 4165/1800/1565 4370/1790/1435 4360/1795/1555 3945/1695/1510 3940/1750/1470 4598/1858/1680 3955/1965/1525 4140/1695/1535 4050/1790/1440 4227/1797/1585
Euro NCAP rating 5* 4* ? 5* 5* 5* ? 5* No HEV in EU ? No HEV in EU target 5* target 5*
(5*ICE) (4* ICE)
EV range 0-2/3km 0-2/3km 0-2/3km 0-3/4km 0-2km 0-2km 0-2 km 0-2/3km 0-4 kms 0-4 kms
System BSG+1M2C DCT BSG+1M2C DCT BSG+1M2C DCT THS THS THS THS i-MMT i-MMT e-Power E-Tech E- Tech
emissions norm Euro 6 Euro 6 Euro 6Dtemp Euro 6Dtemp Euro 6 Euro 6 Euro 6 Dfull Euro 6 Dtemp Euro 6 Dfull Japan Euro 6 Dfull Euro6 Dfull
NEDC consumption 3,4L/100km 4,4L/100km 3,9 à 4,3 3,7L/100km 4,1L/100 km 3,7l/100 km 5,3l/100 JC08 cycle 33.6 JC08 cycle
L/100km? km/L
NEDC emissions 84 g/km 86 g/km 90 g/km 78 (85 en 2L) g/km 86 g/km 84/91 g/km 67 g/km 120/126 g/km JC08 cycle 33.6 JC08 cycle 82 g/km
km/L
WLTP consumption 4,6 L/100km 4,6 L/100km 6,9l/100 JC08 cycle 33.6 4,5L/100 5,5l/100
km/L
WLTP emissions 102-103 g/km 110 g/km 122g/km 100/113 g/km 110/112 g/km 108/113 g/km 86 g/km 156 g/km JC08 cycle 33.6 102 g/km JC08 cycle 96 g/km
km/L
FAP Non Non Oui Non Non Non Oui Oui
ICE designation 1.6 GDi 105ch 1.6 GDi 105ch 1.6 GDi 105ch 1.8L L4 NA 1.8L L4 NA L4 NA 1.5L L3 NA 2L 4 cylindres LEB 1.2 79 3 cylndres 1.6L 1,6L
ISG DCT6 ISG DCT6 ISG DCT6
ICE type Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline
ICE power 77,2kW 77 ,2kW 77,2kW 72 kW 72 kW 54 kW 67kW 107 kW 81 kW 58 kW 67 kW 67 kW
ICE torque 147 Nm 147 Nm 147 Nm 142 Nm 142 Nm 111 Nm 120Nm 175 Nm 134 Nm 103 Nm 149 Nm 149 Nm
Electric traction 32 kW 32 kW 32 kW 53 kW 53 kW 45 kW 59kW 135 kW 22 kW 80 kW 35 kW 35 kW
motor power
Electric traction 170 Nm 170 Nm 170 Nm 163 Nm 163 Nm 169Nm 141 Nm 184 Nm 160 Nm 254 Nm 212 Nm (4sec) 212 Nm (4sec)
motor torque then 205 Nm then 205 Nm
Combined announced 141 hp 141 hp 141 hp 122 hp 122 hp 100 hp 115 hp 184 hp 109 hp 79 hp 140 hp 140 hp
power
Traction power sum 148 hp 148 hp 148 hp 170 hp 170 hp 136 hp 171 hp 280 hp 140 hp 79 hp 14O hp 140 hp
Power completation 95% 95% 95% 72% 72% 74% 67% 66% 100% 100% 100%
Electric alternator / / / 23 kW 23 kW 19 kW / 55 kW 15 kW 15 kW

91
power
Electric alternator / / / 40 Nm 40 Nm 40Nm / 108 Nm 50 Nm 50 Nm
torque
Gearbox/Transmission Automatic 6 Automatic 6 Automatic 6 Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Clutch + Rapport Automatic 7 Clutch + None 2 Electric gears + 2 Electric gears +
speeds + Dual speeds + Dual speeds + Dual Variable Variable Variable Variable unique ICE speeds dual unique 4 thermic gears= 4 thermic gears=
clutch clutch clutch transmission transmission transmission transmission clutch transmission 15 kinematics 15 kinematics
transmission transmission transmission (Planetary (Planetary (Planetary (Planetary transmission ratio modes modes
gear+EM) gear+EM) gear+EM) gear+EM)
Battery type Li-on-Polymer Li-on-Polymer Li-on-Polymer Li-on NiMH NiMh Li-on Li-on Li-Ion Li-Ion Li-on Li-on Li -on
Battery position Under row2 Under row2 Under row2 Under row2 Under row2 Under row2 Under row2 Under row2 Under the trunk Under the Under row1 Under the trunk Under the trunk
trunk?
Battery cooling Air from the Air from the Air from the Air from the cabin Air from the cabin Air from the cabin Air from the Air from the Air from the Air from the Air from the cabin
system cabin + Fan cabin + Fan cabin + Fan + Fan + Fan + Fan cabin + Fan cabin + fan cabin cabin + Fan + Fan Indirect
Indirect
Battery capacity 1,56 kWh (60% 1,56 kWh (60% 1,56 kWh (60% 1,3 kWh 1,3 kWh 0.94 kWh 1 kWh 1,5 kWh 0,9 kWh 1,5 kWh 1,2 kWh 1,2 kWh
USOC)° USOC)° USOC)° (66%USOC)
Battery nb of cells 64 cells 64 cells 64 cells 28modules*6accus 28modules*6accus 20modules*6accus 48 cells 68 cells 68 cells
Battery cells supplier LG chem LG chem LG chem Primearth EV Primearth EV Primearth EV Primearth EV General Motors General Motors General Hitachi Hitachi Hitachi
Energy Energy Energy Energy Motors
Battery voltage 240 V 240 V 240 V 207V 202V 144V 177,6 V 310V 250 V 250 V
Output power 42 kW 42 kW 42 kW 27 kW 40 kW 43 kW 43 kW
LV Battery position Under row2 Under row2 Under Row2 Under the front Under the front Under row1 Under row2 Under front Under front Under the trunk Under the trunk Under the trunk
hood hood hood hood
Trunk volume 443L 421L 361L 361L 377L 279L 497L 197L 298L 325L 306L 372L
Tank volume 45L 45L 38L 43L 43L 36L 57L 32L 41L 39L 48L

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TRITA - SCI - GRU 2020:244

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