kunfalvi 2016

opps
March 2023

problem 1

1.A. Refrigerator. (50 points) A refrigerator has been turned on in a tent for
a long time. The temperature inside the refrigerator is -13 °C, inside the tent it is
1 °C, and outside the tent it is 0 °C. What will be the temperature inside the tent
after a long time if we turn on another identical refrigerator? Assume that the
outside temperature does not change, the refrigerators function as ideal Carnot
engines, maintaining -13 °C inside, and heat conduction is directly proportional
to the temperature difference at the walls of the tent and the refrigerator.

1.B. Electric field lines. (50 points) A positive point charge is fixed at a height
of h above a large, horizontal, grounded metal plate. Where do the electric field
lines originating from the point charge intersect the plate horizontally?

1.C. Pion decay. (50 points) In one of the possible decay processes of the
positive pion (π + ), a positive muon (µ+ ) and a muon neutrino (νµ ) are created:
π + → µ+ + νµ . What is the minimum kinetic energy, in MeV, of the pion
whose decay results in the muon and the neutrino moving perpendicularly to
each other? Consider the neutrino to be a massless particle, that is, a particle
for which the relationship between energy and momentum is given by E = pc.

2. Problem: Electrodynamics of Superconductors (150 points)

2.A Meissner-Ochsenfeld Effect (50 points)

In 1911, Kamerlingh Onnes observed that certain metals, when cooled below
a critical temperature Tc (typically a few Kelvin) specific to the metal, have
their electrical resistance drop to zero. Materials with this property are called
superconductors. It seemed logical to conclude that if a superconducting mate-
rial is placed in a magnetic field and cooled below its critical temperature, then
due to the disappearing resistance, the magnetic field inside the material cannot
change (as it would induce an infinitely large current) but rather ”freezes” in
the sample.
In 1933, W. Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld experimentally discovered that con-
trary to expectations, superconducting materials in a magnetic field do not be-
have simply as ideal (i.e. zero-resistance) conductors when the critical tempera-
ture is reached. At the critical temperature, the magnetic field is expelled from

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the interior of the superconducting sample, resulting in the magnetic induction
value always being zero inside the sample regardless of its previous history (see
the figure). This statement is only true for relatively weak magnetic fields; a
strong magnetic field can destroy the superconducting state. In this problem, we
will deal with the electromagnetic properties of superconductors cooled below
their critical temperature.

2.A.1. (10 points) From an electromagnetic point of view, supercon-

ductors can be treated as if, in addition to normal electrons, there were also
ns particle density of −e charged, m mass superconducting electrons present,
which can flow completely freely (without resistance) in the material. Show
that if the electric field strength E is present at a given point inside the su-
perconductor, then the temporal variation of the current density represented
by the superconducting electrons at the same point can be described by the
relationship:
djs
= αE
dt
(Here α is a constant.) Give the value of the coefficient α using ns , e, and
m.
2.A.2. (10 points) Show that for any closed contour taken inside the
superconductor, the integral of the current density represented by the super-
conducting electrons, js , is equal to:
I
js · dℓ = βΦ
I

(where Φ is the magnetic flux passing through the contour, and β is a con-
stant). Express the value of β using ns , e, and m. (We can use the fact that
there are no magnetic fields or currents present deep inside the superconductor.)
2.A.3. (15 points) Consider a homogeneous superconducting material
that occupies the x > 0 half-space, with vacuum in the x < 0 half-space. If
the magnetic induction is everywhere in the z direction and has a magnitude
of B0 in the x < 0 half-space, then this field penetrates the interior of the
superconductor to a small extent, but...The direction towards z remains. Due
to the shielding effect of the finite current density flowing near the boundary in
the interior of the superconductor, the value of the magnetic induction decreases
to zero. Using the previous results, determine the magnitude of the magnetic
induction B(x) as a function of x inside the superconductor! Provide the answer
using B0, ns, e, and m.”
2.A.4. (10 points) Determine the magnitude and direction of the current
density js (x) flowing in the superconductor as a function of x. Give the charac-
teristic thickness λ of the layer in which this current flows. Use previous results
and the values B0 , ns , e, and m in your answer.

2.A.5. (5 points) Consider a long cylindrical superconductor of radius R.

Determine the critical current Icrit that can be passed through the wire without

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it becoming a normal conductor. Express your answer in terms of the critical
magnetic field strength Bcrit , the radius R of the wire, and universal constants.

Assume that the characteristic length λ is much smaller than any other linear
dimension (λ → 0), and that the critical field strength Bcrit of the supercon-
ductor is much larger than any magnetic field that occurs.

2.B. Levitation of a magnetic dipole (50 points)

Consider a small rod magnet of magnetic moment m and mass M that we
wish to levitate above a superconductor. The superconductor is bounded by a
horizontal plane, and the acceleration due to gravity is g.

2.B.1. (35 points) Determine the distance h (with respect to orientation)

between the small magnet and the plane of the superconductor in a stable
equilibrium position.

2.B.2. (15 points) Determine the period T of small vertical oscillations of

the magnet about its equilibrium position. Assume that the orientation of the
magnet does not change during the oscillation.

2.C. Superconducting disk (50 points)

Consider a thin superconducting disk of radius R with a circular hole of
radius r ≪ R at its center. When the disk is far away from any other material,
there are currents flowing in the disk such that a magnetic flux Φ0 passes
through the hole of radius r. Next, we approach the disk to the superconducting
half-space considered in problem 2.B so that the disk is horizontal and its
distance from the surface of the superconductor is d ≪ r.

2.C.1. (10 points) Sketch the magnetic field lines that develop between the
disk and the half-space on the answer sheet.

2.C.2. (40 points) Determine the magnetic repulsive force acting on the
disk. You may use the fact that in vacuum the energy density of the magnetic
field with induction B is w = B2/(2µ0 ).

problem 3 expanding universe 150 points

In this problem, we try to understand the dynamics of the expanding uni-
verse using Newtonian mechanics. The expansion of spacetime can be correctly
described by Einstein’s general theory of relativity, which would require deeper
knowledge of physics and mathematics. Fortunately, some of the important
results of the theory are captured by the simple model presented below.

3.1. (25 points) Let us first consider a spherical, homogeneous mass distri-
bution cloud of density ρ0 in which every dust particle has zero initial velocity.
Due to its own (Newtonian) gravitational attraction, the cloud collapses. De-
termine the time t required for the total collapse of the cloud with the help of

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ρ0 and universal constants! (Assume that ρ0 is much smaller than the density
of the dust particles.)

3.2. (15 points) The cosmological principle states that, on a sufficiently large
scale, the universe is homogeneous and isotropic, and therefore can be modeled
well with the homogeneous, spherical mass distribution cloud in the previous
subtask. However, according to observations, the initial (current) velocity of
the ”dust particles” (galaxies) is not zero but points radially outwards from
the center C of the cloud, and its magnitude is proportional to the distance
r from the center: v(r) = Hr, where H is the so-called Hubble parameter.
Determine the critical density ρcrit below which our universe will expand forever
for the current density. Provide the answer parametrically and numerically. The
current value of the Hubble parameter is H ≈ 70 kms−1 M pc−1 , where 1 M pc
(megaparsec) = 3.09 × 1019 km.

3.3. (5 points) According to modern cosmology, not only are galaxies mov-
ing away from each other, but the entire space is also expanding. Therefore, it
is worth using a coordinate system that expands with space, called comoving
coordinates, in which the coordinates that characterize the position of galaxies
are constant in time. The real physical distance between two galaxies can be
expressed in terms of the constant distance s measured in the comoving coor-
dinate system and the time-dependent scale factor a(t) as follows: r(t) = a(t)s,
where a(t) is the time-dependent scale factor.
Express the Hubble parameter in terms of the scale factor and its time
derivative.
3.4. (15 points) Using the dust cloud model of the universe, the time
dependence of the scale factor can be related to the current density ρ of the
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universe as follows: ȧ B
a = Aρ+ a2 , where A and B are constants. Determine
the value of the constant A.

3.5. (25 points) The general theory of relativity gives the same equation
as in part 3.4 for the time dependence of the scale factor, but it relates the
constant B to the curvature of the universe’s geometry. According to the most
precise measurements, the universe is ”flat” and its geometry is Euclidean, which
corresponds to B = 0.

3.6. (15 points) So far, we have only considered the effect of non-relativistic
matter that makes up the universe in the dust cloud model we have used. In
reality, radiation plays an important role, especially in the early stages of the
universe’s development, and can be considered as a gas of ultra-relativistic par-
ticles.

Let us now consider the following model: let the universe be a spherical
balloon filled entirely with radiation. The energy of the radiation in the balloon
can be characterized by the density ρ, which we define as the energy density

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multiplied by 1/c2 (where c is the speed of light). Determine the pressure p in
the balloon using the density ρ.

3.7. (20 points) Due to the expansion of the universe, the density in the
expanding balloon model changes over time. Express the rate of change of the
radiation density ρ̇ in the expanding balloon using the Hubble parameter H and
the instantaneous density ρ.

3.8. (30 points) According to the theory of relativity, the equation from
question 3.4 is valid even when the universe is largely filled with radiation instead
of matter. Using the expanding balloon model (with the assumption B = 0),
determine the age T2 of the universe for the case of a radiation-dominated
universe using the current value of the Hubble parameter, and give the result
numerically.