Calculus - MA2024 - 2020 Batch – University of Moratuwa

Disclaimer: These notes have been prepared for the sole purpose of teaching this course and
have not been subjected to the usual scrutiny reserved for formal publications. They may be
distributed outside this class only with the permission of the instructor. Notes may be updated
periodically with suggestions from students, new ideas etc.

5 Vector Calculus

5.1 Vector Fields

Definition 5.1.1: A vector field in ℝ3 is a function 𝐅 that assigns a vector to each
point in its domain. A vector field with domain 𝐷 in ℝ3 has the form

𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 + 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐤

where the scalar functions 𝑀, 𝑁 and 𝑃 are called the components of 𝐅. A continuous vector field
𝐅 is one whose components 𝑀, 𝑁 and 𝑃 are continuous, and a differentiable vector filed is one
for which all partial derivatives of 𝑀, 𝑁 and 𝑃 exists.

Definition 5.1.2: If 𝐫 is a radius vector in 2-space or 3-space, and if 𝑐 is a constant, then a

vector field of the form
𝑐
𝐅(𝐫) = 3 𝐫
||𝐫||

is called an inverse-square field.

Example: Coulomb’s Law.

Definition 5.1.3: If 𝜙 is a function of three variables, then the gradient of 𝜙 is defined as

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
∇𝜙 = 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
This is called the gradient field of 𝜙 and ∇ is known as the del operator.

Definition 5.1.4: A vector field 𝐅 in 2-space and 3-space is said to be conservative in a region
if it is the gradient field for some function 𝜙 in that region, that is
𝐅 = ∇𝜙 .
The function 𝜙 is called a potential function for 𝐅 in the region.
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Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
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Definition 5.1.5: Divergence

If 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 + ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐤 , then
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑔 𝜕ℎ
𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝐅) ∶= ∇ ⋅ 𝐅 = + + .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Definition 5.1.6: Curl

If 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 + ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐤 , then

i j k
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝐅) ≔ ∇ × F = | |.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑓 𝑔 ℎ
Definition 5.1.7: The Laplacian ∇2

2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇ ∶= ∇ ⋅ ∇= + +
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2 𝜕𝑧2

2
𝜕2 𝜙 𝜕2 𝜙 𝜕2 𝜙
∇ 𝜙= + +
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2 𝜕𝑧2
∇2 𝜙 can also be expressed as 𝑑𝑖𝑣(∇𝜙). The equation ∇2 𝜙 = 0 is called the Laplace’s equation.

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Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
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 Calculus - MA2024 - 2020 Batch – University of Moratuwa

5.2 Line Integrals

Definition 5.2.1: If 𝑓 is defined on the smooth curve 𝐶 with parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) ,
𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) , 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡), then the line integral of 𝑓 over 𝐶 is defined as

∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑠 = lim 𝑓(𝑥𝑘∗ , 𝑦𝑘∗ , 𝑧𝑘∗ )Δ𝑆𝑘

𝐶 max{𝛥𝑆𝑘 }→0

provided this limit exists and does not depend on the choice of partition or on the choice of
sample points.
It can be shown that the limit that defines the line integral ∫𝐶 𝑓 𝑑𝑠 always exists if 𝑓 is continuous
at each point of 𝐶. Also, since the curve 𝐶 is smooth, the component functions 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) and
𝑧(𝑡) will all be continuously differentiable. So, we will have

𝑑𝑠 = √[𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡 .

So, the line integral can be expressed in terms of 𝑡 in the following fashion,
𝑏

∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)) √[𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡 .

𝐶
𝑎

Remark: If 𝐶 is a curve in the 𝑥𝑦 - plane and 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a non-negative continuous function

defined on 𝐶, then ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑠 can be interpreted as the area 𝐴 of the "sheet" that is swept out
by a vertical line segment that extends upward from the point (𝑥, 𝑦) to a height of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
and moves along 𝐶 from one endpoint to the other.

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Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
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Examples (A):
1. Evaluate the line integral ∫𝐶 𝑥 2 𝑧 𝑑𝑠 ; where 𝐶 is the helix 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 2𝑡 , 𝑧 = sin 𝑡,
for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜋.

2. Evaluate the line integral

∫[𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑧 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑧] ;
𝐶
where 𝐶 is the curve with parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑡 ; for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1.

3. Find the area of the surface extending upward from the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 in the
𝑥𝑦 −plane to the parabolic cylinder 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑥 2 .

Definition 5.2.2: If 𝐹 is a vector field and 𝐶 is a piecewise smooth oriented curve

parameterized by the vector-valued function 𝐫, then the line integral of 𝐹 along 𝐶 is defined as

∫ 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝐫 .
𝐶

Examples (B):

1. Let 𝐅 = 𝑦 𝐢 + 𝑥 𝐣 and let 𝐶 be the top half of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 traversed counter-
clockwise from (2,0) to (−2,0). Evaluate the line integral ∫𝐶 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝐫 for each of the
following parametrizations of the curve 𝐶.

a) 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃 ; 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
b) 𝑥 = −𝑡 , 𝑦 = √4 − 𝑡 2 ; −2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2

2. Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝐫 ; where 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝑦𝐢 + 𝑥𝐣 and where 𝐶 is the given oriented curve.
a) 𝐶: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 3 (0 ≤ 𝑥, 𝑦)
b) 𝐶: 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑡𝐢 + 2t𝐣 (0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1)

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Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
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5.3 Independence of path: Conservative Vector Fields

Definition 5.3.1: Suppose that under the influence of a continuous force field 𝐅 a particle
moves along a smooth curve C and that C is oriented in the direction of motion of the
particle. Then the work performed by the force field on the particle is

∫ 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝐫 .
𝐶

Theorem 5.3.1: The Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals

Let 𝐶 be a piecewise smooth curve that is parametrized by the vector function 𝐫(𝑡); for
𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏, and let 𝐅 be a vector field that is continuous on 𝐶. If 𝜙 is a scalar function such that
𝐅 = ∇𝜙, then
∫ 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝐫 = ∫ ∇𝜙 ⋅ 𝑑𝐫 = 𝜙(𝐫(𝑏)) − 𝜙(𝐫(𝑎)) .
𝐶 𝐶

Proof: Will be done in class.

Definition 5.3.2: A parametric curve 𝐶 that is represented by the vector-valued function 𝐫(t) for
𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 is said to be closed if the initial point and the terminal point coincide; i.e. 𝐫(𝑎) =
𝐫(𝑏).

Definition 5.3.3: A region 𝐷 in the plane is said to be connected if any two points in 𝐷 can be
joined by a piecewise-smooth curve contained entirely within 𝐷.

Definition 5.3.4: A connected region 𝐷 in the plane is said to be simply connected if every
closed curve in 𝐷 encloses only points that are also in 𝐷.

Theorem 5.3.2: If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) , 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are continuous on some topologically
open connected region 𝐷 ⊂ ℝ3 , then the following statements are equivalent:

𝑎) 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∶= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 + ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝒌 ; ∀ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∈ 𝐷 is conservative.

𝑏) ∫𝐶 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝐫 = 0; for every piece-wise smooth closed curve 𝐶 in 𝐷.

c) For any two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 in 𝐷, ∫𝐶 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝐫 is independent of the piece-wise smooth curve 𝐶
in 𝐷 from 𝑃 to 𝑄.

5
Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
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 Calculus - MA2024 - 2020 Batch – University of Moratuwa

Proof: 𝑎) ⇒ 𝑏) Assignment Problem

𝑏) ⇒ 𝑐) Assignment Problem
𝑐) ⇒ 𝑎) Will be done in class.

Warning 1) The statement “𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄” does not say that either of 𝑃 or Q is true, it is possible that
both are actually false!
Warning 2) The statement “𝑃 ⇔ 𝑄” does not say that either of 𝑃 or Q is true, it is possible that
both are actually false!
Warning 3) Theorem 5.3.2 does not say that either of 𝑎), 𝑏) 𝑜𝑟 𝑐) is true, it is possible that all
three are false!
Theorem 5.3.3: Conservative Field Test.
Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) be functions having continuous first partial derivatives on some open
simply connected region 𝐷 in the plane. Then the vector field
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) ∶= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐢 + 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐣
is conservative on 𝐷 if and only if
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑔
= ; at each point in 𝐷.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Proof: Will be outlined after covering Green’s Theorem, if time permits.

Examples (C):

1. Show that the vector field 𝐅 = (𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 𝑦)𝐢 + (𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑥 − 2)𝐣 is conservative and
then find a scalar potential function 𝑓 for 𝐅.

2. Let 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑦 𝑖 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑦 𝑗 denote a force field in the xy-plane.

a) Show that the force field 𝐅 is conservative and find its scalar potential
b) Find the work done by the field on a particle that moves from (1,0) to (−1,0)
along the semi-circular path 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 ; where 𝑡 varies from 0 to 𝜋.

6
Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
Last updated: 10/30/2022 02:00 AM