Rectangular / Cartesian Axes

UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 4 : GEOMETRY
4.1 COORDINATE GEOMETRY
4.1.1 Introduction
RECTANGULAR COORDINATE
Graphs provide a visual representation of data and show, in many cases, the variation of one
quantity with another. The most common form of graph is one which uses a pair of straight lines,
known as axes that are drawn at right angles to each other. Such a pair of axes is known as
rectangular or Cartesian axes.
The horizontal axis is referred to as the x-axis, and the vertical axis as the y-axis (y for high). The
point where these two axes meet or cross is called origin and is given the symbol ‘0’. Conventionally,
values along the x-axis and to the right of the origin are considered positive, whilst those to the left
are negative. With the y-axis, values above the origin are considered positive, whilst those below
negative.
To locate a point on the graph a value of both x and y are required. These are often written in
brackets with in brackets with the x – value always written first (x,y)
RECTANGULAR / CARTESIAN AXES
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Values of x and y that locate a point on a graph are called the ‘coordinate’ of the point, further, the
x-distance from the y-axis is called its ‘abscissa’ and the this way are called ‘Cartesian coordinate’.
The graph shows the location of two points with the coordinates the (5,4) and (-2,-6)
Many relationships between two quantities are two quantities are directly proportional and when
plotted produce a straight line graph. That is, if one quantity (independent variable) is changed then
the other quantity (dependent variable) is changed in proportion, eg double one and the other also
doubles.
POLAR COORDINATE
There is another way of locating a point on a graph and this uses the distance (r) from the origin and
an angle (Ɵ) measured anticlockwise from the x axis to the line joint the point to the origin. Such
coordinates (r, Ɵ) are known as ‘polar coordinates’ and are shown below.
POLAR COORDINATES
It is also useful to be able to convert from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates and vise
versa.
Using the trigonometrical ratios
y
sin Ɵ = from which y = r sin Ɵ
r
x
And cos Ɵ = from which x = r cos Ɵ
r
y
Also tan Ɵ =
x
2
Example:
Express in polar coordinates the point expressed in rectangular coordinates as (4,2)
Using Pythagoras’ theorem

r = 42 + 22 2
tanθ = = 0.5
= 20 4
= 4.472 θ = 26.57o
Thus in polar coordinates the point is located at (4.472, 26.57o)
4.1.2 Nature and Uses of Graphs
An example is the results obtained from a tensile test on a metal test piece. This involves the slow
extension of the test piece by the application of a gradually increasing load.
As the load is applied so the test piece behaves elastically and it gets longer. At intervals the
extension is recorded (using a micrometer, vernier or dial test indicator) and at the same time the
load is also recorded (indicated on the testing machine)
TEST PIECE EXTENSION
Comparing the values of load against extension shows that for every unit of load applied the test
piece extends one unit of length (say 1kN for every 0.05mm)
Plotting values of applied load against the corresponding extension (while the material remains
elastic) produces the type of graph shown below.
The graph is a straight line which passes through the origin. This shows that values of load are
directly proportional to the extension produced (Hooke’s law – Robert Hooke English physicist 1635
– 1703)
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Example: load α extension or load = extension x constant
load
Rearranging this = cons tant
extension
STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH PASSING THROUGH ORIGIN
That is, if any load is selected and is divided by the extension it produces, then a value will be
determined that will be the same for any other load divided by its corresponding extension ie, a
constant value will be obtained.
The above only remains true if the test piece is not loaded too much such that it is stretched beyond
its elastic limit. Once this happens it will take on a permanent set (and the graph will not be a
straight line any more). If the load continues to be increased then the test piece will break.
On a straight line graph this constant (value) is often achieved by selecting any two points on the
graph.
LOAD/EXTENSION GRAPH
y
In a general sense, with the x and y axes, the relationship of =constant is similarly obtained. This
x
constant is a measure of the slope of the graph and is given the symbol ‘m’.
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4.1.3 Distance
The distance between the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) in the plane is
2 2
d ( A, B ) = x 2 − x 1 + y 2 − y1
2 2
= ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
or we can write it as
Example:
Which of the points P(1, - 2) or Q(8,9) is closer to the point A(5,3) ?
Solution:
By the distance formula we have
2 2 2 2
d (P, A) = ( x 2 − x 1 ) + ( y 2 − y1 ) d (P, A) = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2 2
= ( 5 − 1)
2
+ 3 − ( −2 )  = (5 − 8) + (3 − 9)
2 2
= 42 + 52 = ( −3) + ( −6 )
= 41 = 45
This shows that d(P,A) < d(Q,A) , so P is closer to A.
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PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM A LINE
The perpendicular distance, d of P(h,k) and the line ax+by+c = 0 is given by
Example:
Find the perpendicular distance of the point (10,-2) from the line 3x+4y-7=0
Solution:
Let the perpendicular distance be d.
ah + bk + c
So, d = ; where a = 3, b = 4, c = −7, h = 10, k = −2
a2 + b2
3 (10 ) + 4 ( −2 ) + ( −7 )
d=
32 + 42
30 − 8 − 7
=
25
15
=
5
=3
Therefore, the perpendicular distance is 3.
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4.1.4 The Division of Straight Line Segment
MID-POINT
If point R is a mid-point of line AB, the coordinate of point R is
Example:
Find the mid-point coordinate for the straight line joining point A(6, 3) and point B(4, -1).
Solution:
 x +x y +y 
Mid − po int =  1 2 , 1 2 
 2 2 
 6 + 4 3 + ( −1) 
=  , 
 2 2 
= ( 5,1 )
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THE POINT WHICH DIVIDE A STRAIGHT LINE INTO SEGMENT WITH THE RATIO OF M : N
If P is a point which divide the line AB with ratio m:n, hence coordinate of P is
When m : n = 1: 1, P is a midpoint of straight line AB.
Example:
Find the coordinate of P point which divide the straight line joining point A(5, 3) and point B(-4, -6)
with ratio 3:2.
Solution: m:n = 3:2
 nx + mx2 ny1 + my2 

P = 1 ,
 m+n m + n 
 2 ( 5) + 3 ( −4 ) 2 ( 3 ) + 3 ( −6 ) 
=  , 
 3+2 3+2 
 10 − 12 6 − 18 
= , 
 5 5 
 2 
=  − , −6 
 5 
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4.1.4 Gradient
The gradient or slope of a non-vertical line that passes through the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is
The slope of a vertical line is not defined.
Example:
Find the slope of the line that passes the points P(4,8) and Q(7,9) .
Solution:
Since any two different points determine a line, there is only one line passes through these two
points. From the definition, the slope is
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
9−8
=
7−4
1
=
3
This says that for every 3 units we move to the right, the line raises 1 unit.
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4.1.5 Equation of Straight Line
Let’s find the equation of the line that passes through a given point P1(x1,y1) and has slope m. A point
P(x,y) with x ≠ x1 lies on this line if and only if the slope of the line through P1 and P is equal to m,
that is,
This equation can be rewritten in the form y – y1 = m(x – x1) and we observe that this equation is also
satisfied when x = x1 and y = y1. This form of equation is called point-slope form of the equation of a
line.
Point-slope form of the equation of a line
An equation of the line that passes through the point (x1, y1) and has slope m is
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
Example:
Find the equation of the straight line joining A(1,4) and B(3,7).
Solution :
Let x1=1, y1=4, x2=3 and y2=7

y2 − y1 7 − 4 3
The gradient of the line AB, m= = =
x2 − x1 3 − 1 2
Therefore, the equation of a straight line AB, y – y1 = m(x – x1)
3
y − 4 = ( x − 1)
2
3x − 2y + 5 = 0
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Suppose a non-vertical line has slope m and y-intercept b. This means the line intersects the y-axis at
the point (0,b) , the point-slope form of equation of the line, with x = 0 and y = b , becomes
y – b = m(x – 0)
This simplifies to y = mx + b , which is called the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line.
Slope-intercept form of the equation of a line
An equation of the line that has slope m and y-intercept b is
y = mx + b
Example:
Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 3 which passes through the y-intercept at (0,2)
Solution:
The general equation of the line is y = mx + b, where m = 3 and b = 2
Therefore, the equation of the straight line is y = 3x + 2
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4.1.6 Parallel and Perpendicular lines
PARALLEL LINES
Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope, where
m1 = m2
Example:
The straight line joining the point A(a,3) to the point B(5,7) is parallel to the straight line joining the
point B to the point C(-3,-1). Calculate the value of a.
Solution:
y 2 − y1
Gradient , m =
x2 − x1
Gradient for line AB = Gradient for line BC

where mAB = mBC
7−3 4 −1 − 7 −8
mAB = = and mBC = = =1
5−a 5−a −3 − 5 −8
4
Therefore , =1
5−a
5−a = 4
a =1
∴The value of a is 1
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PERPENDICULAR LINES
Two lines with slope m1 and m2 are perpendicular if and only if m1 m2 = - 1 , that is, their slopes are
negative reciprocals:
Also, a horizontal line (slope 0) is perpendicular to a vertical line (no slope).
Example:
The straight line joining the point P(5,7) to the point Q(9,-1) is perpendicular to the straight line
joining the point Q to the point R(r,2). Calculate the value of r.
Solution:
Line PQ is perpendicular with line QR,
−1
So, mPQ = or mPQ mQR = −1
mQR
−1 − 7 −1 − 2 −3
mPQ = = −2 and mQR = =
9−5 9−r 9−r
( −2 ) 
−3 
 = −1
 −r 
9
9 − r = −6
r = 9 + 6 = 15
∴ The Value of r is 15
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4.2 PLANE GEOMETRY

4.2.1 Introduction
The word geometry is derived from two Greek words .The word ge means earth and the word
metron means measure. Therefore, geometry is the measurement of earth.
The most basic terms of geometry are point, line and plane.
POINTS
A point is a dot on a piece of paper or a point on the number line or a point on the Cartesian plane .
A geometric point has no dimension (no length, no breadth or thickness) A geometric point has a
position. We represent a point by a dot.
LINES
A line is formed by the intersection of two flat surfaces. A line in geometry has only one dimension
which is length and it has no width.
A line can also be considered as a set of points. The points are on the line and the line passes
through the points. A line has no endpoints and can be extended indefinitely in either direction.
Collinear points are points that lie on the same line.
A point on a line separates the line into three sets: the given point and two half-lines. A half-line is a
set of points.
If the point is included with the set of points that constitute a half-line, we get a ray. A ray has only
one endpoint and may be extended indefinitely in only one direction.
A line segment has two endpoints. A line segment cannot be extended at all.
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When we have two different lines that contain the same point, these lines are said to be intersect at
that point.
The geometric figure formed by two rays drawn from the same point is called an angle. The rays are
called the sides of the angle and the common endpoint is called the vertex of the angle.
Adjacent angles are angles with the same vertex and a common side between them . ( ex : angle
ACD and angle ACB )
Vertical angles are angles where the side of one angle extend through the vertex and form the sides
of the other . ( ex : angle ACD and angle BCE )
A straight angle is an angle where its sides form a straight line . ( ex : angle ACE )
Two lines that intersect so as to form a pair of congruent adjacent angles are called perpendicular
lines.
A right angle is an angle whose sides are perpendicular.
An obtuse angle is an angle that is wider than a right angle but narrower than a straight angle.
(ex: angle ABD )
An acute angle is an angle that is narrower than a right angle. ( ex : angle DBC )
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PLANES
A plane is a flat surface such as floor of a room. It divides one portion of space from another. It has
two dimensions, length and width. In geometry, a plane has no thickness. It is endless or infinite.
A plane is a set of points. The points are on the plane and the plane contains the points. Points that
are on the same plane are called coplanar points.
A unique plane is determined by any three noncollinear points.
Points ABD are not on the same line and they determine a unique plane.
Since lines and planes are both composed of points, we can make the following observations:
i. If two different points of a line are on a plane, then all the points on the line are also on the
plane. The line must also be on the plane.
ii. Any line on a given plane divides that plane into two half-planes. The results is three sets of
points: the points on the line, the points on one half-plane and the points on the other half-
plane.
Two different planes must meet in a line or they must be parallel.
Planes ABCD and EFGH are parallel planes but planes ABCD
and BGHC intersect in a line.
Two lines that are on the same plane and do not intersect,
however far they are extended, are called parallel lines. ( ex :
lines BC and AD )
Two non-parallel lines will not intersect no matter how far

we extend them, because they are not on the same plane.
They are called skew lines. ( ex : lines AB and GH )
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An angle on a plane divides the plane into two half-planes. And that angle produces three sets of
points: the points on the angle, the points on one half-plane and the points on the other half-plane.
P , A , T are points on the angle .

Other possible relationships between lines and planes.
A line on a plane: since two points of AB are on the

plane, all of the points on AB are on the plane.
A line intersects a plane at only one point.
A line which is parallel to the plane does not intersect

the plane at all.
Line EF is parallel to the plane and skew to line AB.
A line parallel to the horizon is called a horizontal line,

while a line that is perpendicular to a horizontal line is
called a vertical line.
4.2.2 Polygons
BROKEN LINES , CLOSED BROKEN LINES
A broken line is a set of connected line segments ( placed end to end )
Examples of broken lines .
A closed broken line begins and ends at the same point.
i. A closed broken line that does not intersect itself is called a simple closed broken line
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ii. A closed broken line that intersect itself .
A simple closed broken line is called a polygon. The connected line segments are the sides of the
polygon and the points at which the line segments are connected are the vertices of the polygon.
Two consecutive sides of a polygon form an angle of the polygon.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYGONS
Polygons are classified according to the number of sides they have .
POLYGON NUMBER OF SIDES POLYGON NUMBER OF SIDES

Triangle 3 Octagon 8
Quadrilateral 4 Nonagon 9
Pentagon 5 Decagon 10
Hexagon 6 Dodecagon 12
heptagon 7 icosagon 20
To form a simple closed broken line, we need at least 3 line segments.
4.2.3 Simple Geometrical Construction
"Construction" in Geometry means to draw shapes, angles or lines accurately. These constructions
use only compass, straightedge (i.e. ruler) and a pencil. This is the "pure" form of geometric
construction - no numbers involved!
All straight lines should be drawn using a rule and all arcs drawn using a compass. To draw parallel
lines as in dividing a line into a number of equal divisions two set squares are used.
LINE SEGMENT BISECTOR, RIGHT ANGLE
Step 1: Place the compass at one end of line. Adjust the compass to slightly longer than half the line
length
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Step 2: Draw arcs above and below the line. Keeping the same compass width, draw arcs from other
end of line.
Step 3: Place ruler where the arcs cross, and draw the line.
ANGLE BISECTOR (HALVE THE ANGLE)
Step 1:
Step 2:
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Step 3:
30 DEGREE ANGLE
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
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45 DEGREE ANGLE
Step 1: Construct a perpendicular line. Place compass on intersection point. Adjust compass width
to reach start point
Step 2: Adjust compass width to reach start point. Draw an arc that intersects perpendicular line
Step 3: Place ruler on start point and where arc intersects perpendicular line. Draw 45 Degree Line
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60 DEGREE ANGLE
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE
Step 1:
Step 2:
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Step 3:
PERPENDICULAR TO A POINT ON A LINE
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
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Step 5:
PERPENDICULAR TO A POINT NOT ON A LINE
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
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PARALLEL LINE THROUGH A POINT
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
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Step 6:
CONGRUENT ANGLE/SAME ANGLE
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
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CUT A LINE INTO N SEGMENTS
Here we cut a line into 3 segments, but the same approach can be used to cut a line into any number
of segments:
Step 1: Draw a line from the start point, heading somewhat upwards
Step 2: Use the compass to divide it into 3 segments
Step 3: Use the compass to create a parallel line heading backwards and down from the end point.
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Step 4: Use the compass to divide it into 3 segments
Step 5: Connect the intersection points of the two new lines, and where they cross the original line
it will be neatly subdivided.
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CENTER OF CIRCLE
Step 1: Draw a line across the circle to make a "chord"
Step 2: Construct the perpendicular bisector of that chord to make a diameter of the circle
Step 3: Construct the perpendicular bisector of that diameter to get the center of the circle
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TANGENT FROM A POINT TO A CIRCLE
Step 1: Draw a line connecting the point to the center of the circle
Step 2: Construct the perpendicular bisector of that line
Step 3: Place the compass on the midpoint, adjust its length to reach the end point, and draw an arc
across the circle
Step 4: Where the arc crosses the circle will be the tangent points.
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INSCRIBE A CIRCLE IN A TRIANGLE
Step 1: Bisect one of the angles
Step 2: Bisect another angle
Step 3: Where they cross is the center of the inscribed circle
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Step 4: Construct a perpendicular from the center point to one side of the triangle
Step 5: Place compass on the center point, adjust its length to where the perpendicular crosses the
triangle, and draw your inscribed circle!
CIRCUMSCRIBE A CIRCLE ON A TRIANGLE
Step 1: Construct the perpendicular bisector of one side of triangle
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Step 2: Construct the perpendicular bisector of another side
Step 3: Where they cross is the center of the Circumscribed circle. Place compass on the center
point, adjust its length to reach any corner of the triangle, and draw your Circumscribed
circle!
CIRCLE TOUCHING 3 POINTS
Step 1: Join up the points to form two lines
Step 2: Construct the perpendicular bisector of one line
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Step 3: Construct the perpendicular bisector of the other line
Step 4: Where they cross is the center of the circle. Place compass on the center point, adjust its
length to reach any point, and draw your circle!
PENTAGON
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Example:
Construct a triangle ABC, given that BC is 3 cm, ∠ABC = 60˚ and ∠BCA = 45˚.
Solution:
Step 1:
Using the steps described in constructing a 60˚ angle, we construct ∠B = 60˚ and length of BC = 3
cm.
Step 2:
To get ∠C = 45˚, we have to first get a 90˚ angle and then bisect it to 45˚. Using the steps described
in Section 1.5, we construct a line perpendicular (90˚) to BC and passing through C. Then, we
construct an angle bisector for the right angle to complete the construction of angle ABC.
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Example:
Construct a triangle PQR given that PQ = 4 cm, PR = 5 cm and ∠P = 120˚.
Solution:
Step 1: We construct a 60˚ angle and get the supplementary angle, which is 120˚.
Step 2: We construct 2 line segments of 4 cm and 5 cm from P respectively. Then, draw a line from
Q to R to form the triangle.
Example:
Construct a parallelogram ABCD with sides AB = 4 cm and AD = 5 cm and angle A = 60˚.
Solution:
Step 1: Construct a line segment AB = 4 cm. Construct a 60˚ angle at point A.
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Step 2: Construct a line segment AD = 5 cm on the other arm of the angle. Then, place the sharp
point of the compasses at B and make an arc 5 cm above B.
Step 3: Stretch your compasses to 4 cm, place the sharp end at D and draw an arc to intersect the
arc drawn in step 2. Label the intersecting point C. Join C to D and B to C to form the
parallelogram ABCD.
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EXERCISE / ASSIGNMENT:
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
1. Show that the triangle ABC is isosceles, where A is the point (-5,0), B is the point (-1,3) and C
is the point (2,7).
2. The vertices of a triangle are A(5,12), B(-12,5) and C(-7,17). Show that ∠ ACB is 90°.
3. Calculate the lengths of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are P(-2,3), Q(4,1) and
R(-1,-1).
4. Two opposite vertices of a square are P(3,2) and Q(-5,-10). Find the length of:
a. a diagonal of the square b. a side of the square
5. Show that the point C(9,3) is at the same distance from A(2,2) and B(4,8).
6. Show that the points (1,-1), (-1,1) and (3,3) are the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
7. Using the fact that the diagonals of a triangle are of an equal length, show that the points
(6,0), (2,4), (3,-3) and (-1,1) are the vertices of a rectangle.
8. The point (a,b) is at the same distance from the origin O, the point (6,8) and the point (6,0).
Find the values of a and b.
9. Three vertices for a parallelogram PQRS are P(4,3), Q(-7,1) and R(3,6). Calculate the
coordinate for the midpoint of PR line, then find the coordinate for point S.
10. P is a pint on a straight line joining A(2,6) and B(8,0) therefore, AP = 2PB. Find the coordinate
for point P.
11. Find the midpoint coordinate for the straight line joining the following points: a) A(8,2) and
B(0,6) b) C(3,-5) and D(9,-5) c) E(-3,4) and F(-2,-4) d) G(a+6,a+2) and H(a-4,a)
12. If point C(p,q) is a midpoint for the line joining A(2t,t) and B(1-2t, 3-t), find the value of p and
q.
13. P is a point on line AB therefore AP=PB. If the coordinate for point A and B is (-2,1) and (6,-5)
respectively, find the coordinate for point P.
14. Given P(3,a) and Q(b,4). If R(3,5) is a midpoint for the line PQ, find the value of a and b.
15. Find the coordinate for the point which divide the straight line joining the following points
with the given ratio:
a. (-2,-2) and (3,10); ratio 2:3 b. (2,3) and (-6,11); ratio 5:2
16. A(2,-3), B(7,5) and C(-2,9) are the vertices of ∇ ABC. Find the gradient of each of the sides of
the triangle.
17. A(3,2), B(6,4) and C(4,0) are three points. Find the gradient of line AB, BC and CA.
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18. A(2,5), B(4,-2) and C(-7,9) are the vertices of ∇ ABC. Calculate the gradients of line AB, BC
and CA.
19. A(1,2), B(3,1) and C(9,-2) are three points. Find the gradient of AB and of AC. What
deduction do you make?
20. Three points are P(-1,-5), Q(1,-2) and R(5,4). Find the gradient of PQ and QR. What
deduction is possible from your result?
21. Show that the line passing through the points A(0,-2) and B(3,211) also passes through the
point C(-6,-9).
22. Find the straight line equation which has:

a. gradient 3 and passes through (-2,5)
b. gradient 23−3 and passes through (6,0)
23. Find the straight line equation that passes through those points:
a. (1,3) and (6,2) b. (4,-2) and (2,-4)
24. Find the straight line equation which is intercepted -2 on x-axis and -5 on y-axis.
25. Determine whether these points lie on the given curves.

a. y = 6x + 7, (1, 13) b. 3x + 4y = 1, (-1, ½ )
26. Given that ax + 3y + 2 = 0 and 2x – by – 5 = 0 are perpendicular lines, find the ratio a : b.
27. Find a if the line joining (3, a) to (-6, 5) has gradient 1/3.
28. Find the straight line equation that passes through point A(8,4) and parallel to the line that
passes through points B(-1,2) and C(5,-3).
29. Find the straight line equation that parallel to the line 5x + y – 8 = 0 and passes through the
intersection of lines x - 3y – 1 = 0 and 2x -3y = 0.
30. Find the value of p if each of the following straight line pairs are parallel to each other:
a. y = px + 2 and y = 2 – 3x x y
b. 2x + py + 2 = 0 and + = 1
2 3
31. Find the perpendicular distance from the point P(1,4) to a line:
a. 3x + 4y + 8 = 0 b. 5x = 12y + 9
32. Find the perpendicular distance from the point (3,-1) to a line 3x + 4y + 7 = 0
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33. In the diagram below, point B and C have the coordinate (-1, 4) and (2, 2) respectively. The
line AB is perpendicular to line BC. Find
a. the equation of line AB,
b. the equation of line AC, given the gradient of line AC is -5,
c. coordinate of point A.
PLANE GEOMETRY
1. Determine whether each statement is true or false .
TRUE FALSE
a. Two parallel planes will never intersect
b. The intersection of two planes that are not parallel is a line
c. The intersection of a line and a plane is never a point
d. Two lines on the same plane must intersect at some point
e. Skew lines intersect at some point
f. Parallel lines intersect at some point
g. An angle is formed by the union of two rays with a common

endpoint
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2. Three intersecting planes can have :
a. no common intersection
b. intersection in a common line , or
c. intersection in one common point
Conditions (a) and (b) are shown below . Can you draw three planes so that their
intersection is one common point ?
no common intersection common line
3. The instrument used to measure the number of degrees contained in an angle is called a
___________________
4. Name the six different angles in the given figure.
5. Find the measure of the complement of angles with each of the following measures .
a. 62° b. 45° c. 22°15’
6. Find the measure of the supplement of angles with each of the following measures.
a. 62° b. 22°15’ c. 128°42’16”
7. In the figure below, straight line AS and HR intersect at point O and ON is perpendicular to
HR. Using this information , find each of the following :
a. an acute angle
b. an obtuse angle
c. a right angle
d. a straight angle
e. adjacent angles
f. vertical angles
g. complementary angles
h. supplementary angles
42
8. Two angles are complementary and the measure of one angle is 20° larger than the measure
of the other. How many degrees are there in each angle?
9. Two angles are supplementary and the measure of one angle is 60° less than the measure of
the other. How many degrees are there in each angle?
10. ST is a straight line. What is the value of x?
11. AB is parallel to CD, cut by a transversal EF. If the measure of angle 1 is 50°, find the number
of degrees in each of the other seven angles.
12. Given a line segment AB,

i. construct the midpoint of AB;
ii. construct an equilateral triangle with side AB;
iii. For a given point P not on AB, construct a line segment PQ parallel to AB such that
|AB|=|PQ|
13. Given an angle ABC with vertex B:

i. Construct the ray BD from B that bisects the angle.
ii. If angle ABC is an acute angle, construct an isosceles triangle with ABC as one base
angle;
iii. Construct a parallelogram with angle ABC as one interior angle.
14. Given a triangle ABC:

i. Construct its midpoint
ii. Construct its angle bisectors.
iii. Construct the circles inscribed in triangle ABC and circumscribed about triangle ABC.
15. Given a quadrilateral ABCD, construct the quadrilateral whose vertices are the successive
midpoints of the four sides.
43
16. Draw a line interval AB of length 9 cm. Use a ruler and compass to drop a perpendicular
from a point P that is approximately 7 cm from the line
17. Draw a line interval AB of length 6 cm. Mark a point P on the line near its midpoint. Use a
ruler and compass to construct a perpendicular to the line AB to the point P.
18. For each of the following angle magnitudes:

i. Use a protractor to draw an angle, ∠ ABC, of the given size and
ii. Use a ruler and compass to bisect ∠ ABC
a. 30o c. 60o e. 90o g. 130o

b. 45o d. 70o f. 120o h. 150o
19. For each of the following lengths:

i. Use a ruler to draw a line segment AB with the given length and
ii. Construct a perpendicular bisector of AB using a ruler and compass
a. 10 cm b. 9 cm c. 7 cm d. 5 cm
20. Draw a line interval AB of length 8.5 cm. Use a ruler and compass to construct a
perpendicular to the line AB at the point A.
21. Use a ruler and compass to construct a triangle PQR with PQ = 8 cm , PR = 7.5 cm and
∠ QPR = 60o .
22. Use a ruler and compass to construct a square ABCD with side 6 cm.
23. Use a ruler and compass to construct a triangle PQR with PQ = 7 cm, ∠ QPR = 30o and
∠ PQR = 60o
a. Calculate the size of ∠ PRQ and check your answer with protractor
b. Measure PQ and QR to the nearest millimetre. Hence find the perimeter of the triangle
PQR in millimetres.
24. Construct a trapezium PQRS with PQ = 8 cm, PS = 7 cm, QR = 7 cm, ∠ QPS = 60o and
∠ PQR = 60o.
a. measure RS to the nearest millimetre
b. find the perimeter of the trapezium PQRS
25. Construct a triangle PQR with PQ = 6 cm, ∠ QPR = 30o and ∠ PQR = 120o
a. Calculate the size of ∠ PRQ and check your answer with a protractor
b. Measure PR and QR to the nearest millimetre. Hence find the area of the triangle PQR in
millimetres.
44

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UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR

MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

RECTANGULAR / CARTESIAN AXES

Using the trigonometrical ratios

Express in polar coordinates the point expressed in rectangular coordinates as (4,2)

Using Pythagoras’ theorem

Thus in polar coordinates the point is located at (4.472, 26.57o)

4.1.2 Nature and Uses of Graphs

TEST PIECE EXTENSION

STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH PASSING THROUGH ORIGIN

Which of the points P(1, - 2) or Q(8,9) is closer to the point A(5,3) ?

By the distance formula we have

This shows that d(P,A) < d(Q,A) , so P is closer to A.

The perpendicular distance, d of P(h,k) and the line ax+by+c = 0 is given by

Let the perpendicular distance be d.

Therefore, the perpendicular distance is 3.

If point R is a mid-point of line AB, the coordinate of point R is

When m : n = 1: 1, P is a midpoint of straight line AB.

Solution: m:n = 3:2

 nx + mx2 ny1 + my2 

The slope of a vertical line is not defined.

Point-slope form of the equation of a line

Let x1=1, y1=4, x2=3 and y2=7

Slope-intercept form of the equation of a line

An equation of the line that has slope m and y-intercept b is

The general equation of the line is y = mx + b, where m = 3 and b = 2

Therefore, the equation of the straight line is y = 3x + 2

Gradient for line AB = Gradient for line BC

Also, a horizontal line (slope 0) is perpendicular to a vertical line (no slope).

Line PQ is perpendicular with line QR,

4.2 PLANE GEOMETRY

Collinear points are points that lie on the same line.

A right angle is an angle whose sides are perpendicular.

A unique plane is determined by any three noncollinear points.

Two different planes must meet in a line or they must be parallel.

Two non-parallel lines will not intersect no matter how far

P , A , T are points on the angle .

A line on a plane: since two points of AB are on the

A line intersects a plane at only one point.

A line which is parallel to the plane does not intersect

Line EF is parallel to the plane and skew to line AB.

A line parallel to the horizon is called a horizontal line,

BROKEN LINES , CLOSED BROKEN LINES

A broken line is a set of connected line segments ( placed end to end )

Examples of broken lines .

A closed broken line begins and ends at the same point.

Polygons are classified according to the number of sides they have .

POLYGON NUMBER OF SIDES POLYGON NUMBER OF SIDES

To form a simple closed broken line, we need at least 3 line segments.

4.2.3 Simple Geometrical Construction

LINE SEGMENT BISECTOR, RIGHT ANGLE

ANGLE BISECTOR (HALVE THE ANGLE)

PERPENDICULAR TO A POINT ON A LINE

PERPENDICULAR TO A POINT NOT ON A LINE

CONGRUENT ANGLE/SAME ANGLE

Step 2: Use the compass to divide it into 3 segments

Step 1: Draw a line across the circle to make a "chord"

Step 2: Construct the perpendicular bisector of that line

Step 1: Bisect one of the angles

Step 2: Bisect another angle

Step 3: Where they cross is the center of the inscribed circle

CIRCUMSCRIBE A CIRCLE ON A TRIANGLE