FRW-503 Range Management 3(2-1)

THEORY

Basic concepts and related terminology, detailed discussion on components of range

ecosystem and their mutual relationship. Functioning of range ecosystem as a whole.
Principles of range management with specific objectives, selection of site and its
development, soil and water management, range vegetation management and its
development, range livestock management and their development, active involvement
of local people and marketing etc., characteristics/features of range management in
Pakistan. Essential features of range development strategy. Morphology and structure
of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, inflorescence of grasses, forage shrubs and trees.
Classification of grasses. Important forage shrubs and grasses of Pakistan.
Characteristic features of grass physiology such as germination and sprouting,
propagation, flowering, fruiting tolerance of drought, water and salt uptake. Light
relations. Introduction of important non-grass generation.

PRACTICALS
Seed analysis. Establishing a range nursery. Visiting natural ranges for estimating
range condition, trend and determination of carrying capacity. Study of range
management plans. Visit to a range project. Evaluating a range project.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED
1. Bonner, J. and A.W. Galston. 1995. Principles of plant physiology. National Book
Foundation, Islamabad, Pakistan.
2. Heady, H.F. 1976. Rangeland management. McGraw Hill Book, Co., New York,
USA.
3. Holechek J.L., Rex D.P. and C.H. Herbal. 1995. Range management principles
and practices. Prentice Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA.
4. Noor, M.. 1989. Rangeland management in Pakistan. ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal.
5. Quraishi, M.A.A. and M. Ishaque. 1993. Practical manual for an introductory
course on range management. A-One Publishers, Urdu Bazar, Lahore, Pakistan.
6. Quraishi, M.A.A., G.S. Khan and S. Yaqoob. 1998. Range management in
Pakistan. Kazi Publishers, Ganpat Road, Urdu Bazar, Lahore, Pakistan.
7. Workman, John P. 1986. Range economics. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York,
USA.
Sr. No. Date Course
1 26-02-2020 Basic concepts and scope
2 27-02-2020 Terminology related to Rangelands
3 4-03-2020 Detailed discussion on components of range ecosystem
4 5-03-2020 Identification of different range species
5 11-03-2020 Mutual relationship of components of ecosystem
6 12-03-2020 Seed collection
7 18-03-2020 Functioning of range ecosystem as a whole
8 25-03-2020 Seed collection
9 26-03-2020 Seed analysis of different range species
10 1-04-2020 Principles of range management
11 2-04-2020 Establishing a range nursery
12 8-04-2020 Specific objectives, selection of site and its development, soil
and water management for rangeland management
13 9-04-2020 Active involvement of local people and marketing
14 15-04-2020 Range vegetation management and its development
15 16-04-2020 Range livestock management and their development
16 20-04-2020 Mid-term exams
17 29-04-2020 characteristics/features of range management in Pakistan
18 30-04-2020 Establishing a range nursery
19 6-05-2020 Essential features of range development strategy
20 7-05-2020 Visiting natural ranges for estimating range condition
21 13-05-2020 Morphology and structure of roots, stems, leaves, flowers,
inflorescence of grasses, forage shrubs and trees
22 14-05-2020 Determination of carrying capacity
23 20-05-2020 Classification of grasses. Important forage shrubs and
grasses of Pakistan
24 21-05-2020 Study of range management plans
25 28-05-2020 Characteristic features of grass physiology such as
germination and sprouting, propagation,
26 3-06-2020 Characteristic features of grass physiology such as flowering,
fruiting tolerance of drought, water and salt uptake
27 4-06-2020 Study of range management plans
28 10-06-2020 Light relations with grasses
29 11-06-2020 Visit to a range project
30 17-06-2020 Introduction of important non-grass generation
31 18-06-2020 Evaluating a range project

Rangelands of Pakistan
The rangeland resources of Pakistan constitute around 60 percent of the land area of Pakistan.
This resource supports millions of livestock which are important for the livelihood food security
and nutrition of poor rural people. Currently the resource is in a deteriorating condition and the
current productivity is far less than its potential. Therefore, the information collected and
available in this book will help in the management of rangeland resources. The book contains
rangeland- related information from all the provinces/region of the country. This information
pertains to the extent of the resource, the productivity, the prevailing trends and their
contribution to local livelihoods, food security and nutrition. It also describes the key problems
in sustainable management of this natural resource with clear cut recommendations for
enhancing the productivity functions and services. This book, besides an in-depth review of the
provincial rangeland conditions, also contains a summary of the rangeland symposium which
was organized by FAO to bring common understanding and consensus on the problems and
related solutions. The main beneficiary of this report will be the provincial forest departments
who will build their future strategies and polices for sustainable rangeland management utilizing
the data available in this report.

The term “Range” refers to a vast area supporting natural vegetation which is suitable for grazing
and browsing by livestock. Range Management is the application of scientific knowledge on
range lands and related resources for obtaining maximum feed for a variety of livestock on
sustained basis. Livestock herding is one of the oldest and the noblest professional pastime of the
human race.
The term “Range” refers to a vast area supporting natural vegetation which is suitable for grazing
and browsing by livestock. Range Management is the application of scientific knowledge on
range lands and related resources for obtaining maximum feed for a variety of livestock on
sustained basis. Livestock herding is one of the oldest and the noblest professional pastime of the
human race. This is particular to Muslims because they originated from a land which was
proverbially known for raising and rearing souls in Muslim history did acquire the profession of
a shepherd at one time or the other to sustain themselves and their families. Actually a noble man
was known and respected by virtue of a large herd. Pakistan have a total livestock population of
about 120 million heads, composed primarily of goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, camels, horses,
donkeys and mules. About 3 million people living from Himalayas to the coast of Arabian Sea
depend on livestock for their bread and butter and are engaged in its herding and rearing.
A country where 65 to 70 percent of the total area consists of mountains, gullied foot hills, arid
waste and deserts, can never achieve harnessed to the advantage of its people. These areas which
can be potential source to feed millions of livestock of this country have been put to extreme
misuse in the past leading to their deterioration almost to the point of no return. Original natural
vegetation has been ruthlessly destroyed by the cultivators and the grazers alike. These tract
which are range lands merely in name have born the burnt of not only the local sheep, goats, and
cattle, but also have served the insatiable appetite of thousands of grazing animals from across
N.W. F. P, which streak into the border provinces, get fattened on some of the richest range lands
of the country and are driven back by the owner when nothing is left. This yearly cycle of
devastation has been perpetrated on this country since ages. The consequences of such un-
thoughtful use of this great asset can be seen all over in the form of denuded hill sides and
degraded pastures. The main range resources are described below:
Sindh
There are three extensive range areas of Singh which are as follows:

Registan (Nara) =3.8 mh approximately.

Thar(Tharparkar) =4.5 mh approximately

Kohistan=1.2 mh approximately.

In addition, riverain belt along Indus and Hub rivers is also present which may be considered as
an extension of Kohistan. Thar and Kohistan are medium to high potential range areas whereas
Registan (Nara) is a low potential areas. The above mentioned rangelands will now be briefly
described one by one.
It includes areas from districts of Karachi, Thatta Jacobabad and part of Lasbela Dist hills and
Indus river. Ecologically there are frequent zoneStrong winds, temperatures up to 45°C in
summer and 3°C in winter; winds blow from the southwest to northeast during summer at 60
km/hour. Relative humidity is farily high and exceeds 80 percent during the monsoon. Due to
severe wind erosion, the top soil is thin. Rocks contain limestone.

Most of the areas in the valley contain silt to loamy silt with a thick layer of sand. Climate varies
from semi-arid in south and arid in the north. Average annual precipitation is from 150 mm in
north to 200 mm in south. Rainfall is erratic and unevenly distributed. Under-ground water is
variable from sweet to brackish. Land in Kohistan is used for livestock grazing, dry land farming
and wildlife habitat. Dry land farming is done wherever adequate perched water is available.
Small dams have also been constructed at a few sites. Plains, depressions and valley bottoms are
cultivated with millets, sorghum and castor even when rainfall is moderate. The vegetation of
Kohistan is dictated by topography, soil type and relief. Hills contain open bush lands whereas
foot slopes have thickets of shrubs and trees. The plains are usually devoid of natural vegetation
as a result of dry land farming. The average carrying capacity of well managed and adequately
watered range areas is considered to be equivalent to 5-10 ha per animal unit per annum.

Registan Range Area

It is southern extension of Cholistan desert of Punjab and western extension of Rajasthan desert
of India and includes areas from the districts of Khairpur and Sukkur. Climate of the area is
extreme. Average annual precipitation is 90 mm which is highly variable and erratic.
Underground water is brackish. The environment is hostile to plant growth. The average carrying
capacity of properly managed and artificially reseeded areas is considered to be 40 ha per animal
unit per annum.

Thar Range Area

It includes areas from districts of Hyderabad, Tharparker, Sanghar and Mirpur Khas.
Ecologically, the tract can be categorized as tropical thorn desert. The Thar desert is subjected to
heavy soil erosion partly due to dry land cultivation and partly due to overgrazing. In the
northwestern and southwestern dunes windblown sand is a natural phenomenon. The landforms
and soils of Thar are similar to that of Choisitan.

Climate is from arid in the north to semi-arid in the south. Summers are hot (45°C) are winters
and mild (5°C). Humidity is fairly high in the marine zone. Rain fall is scanty and erratic and
most of it is received during Monsoon season. Average annual precipitation varies from 125 mm
in north to 400 mm in the south. There are poor rains once after every three years and complete
drought once every ten years. Surface run ocis absent. All rain water is absorbed by the sand.
Perched or trapped water is somewhat brackish. The environment in most places is favorable for
range!

Vegetation

Livestock production is the major land use in the region. Dry land farming Where-ever rainfall is
adequate. Millet, sorghum and castor crops are cultivated in the dune valleys. Forestry is limited
to irrigate and riverain tracts. Small villages are located, wherever, watering ponds are available.
The ground water deep and is brackish. Sweet water is, however, found in Nagarparkar.

Desirable grasses have disappeared. During winter, the desert does not support grasses and
livestock have to migrate to irrigated area or managed areas and is considered to be about 7-10
ha per animal unit Rangelands in Tharparkar desert are in poor. However, shrubs still produce
enough forage to support grazing, and most of the average carrying capacity of properly 40 ha
per animal unit per annum,
K.P.K
There are three range areas in North-Western Frontier province which are as follows:

Alpine and Moist temperature (northern hills) =2.3 mh approx.

Dry Temperate (south-western hills) = 1.1 mh approx.

Sub-tropical (south-western plateau)

The rangelands of kpk are medium to high potential areas. Moist temperate grass lands are
particularly highly productive. These areas will now be described briefly one by one: Swat, Dir,
Chitral, Malakand

A. Alpine and Moist Temperate Pastures

These includes areas from districts of Hazara, Swat, Dir, Chitral of kpk and from districts of
Gilgit, Diamar, Chilas and Skardu. In some places (Alpine) climate is extremely cold and dry
during winter: in other places (Temperate) it is less severe/moderately cool and moist. Average
annual precipitation varies from 100 to 630 mm in Alpine zone and from 650 mm to 1500 mm in
moist temperate zone. The environment here is very favorable for grass growth. Areas lying
above an altitude of about 3000 m and below the zone of perpetual snow constitute alpine
pastures. These are characterized by short, cool growing season and long, cold winters.

The vegetation is mostly dominated by slow growing perennial, herbaceous and shrubby
vascular plants and extensive mats of cryptogams (mosses, lichens, etc) much of the landscape of
the alpine pastures is rugged and broken with rocky, snow- capped peaks, spectacular cliffs and
slopes. However, there are also many large areas, gently rolling to almost flat topography. The
main limiting factor is low temperature during many winter months of the year. Average forage
production recorded was 700 kg/ha. Alpine meadows contain luxuriant ground flora. These
alpine meadows have the greatest value as grazing lands. Trees are conspicuous by their absence
in this type. Vegetation consist of perennial forbs, and grasses. The average carrying capacity of
a well-managed area is considered to be about 5 ha per animal unit per annum. Alpine forests are
subjected to heavy grazing during summer. No planned grazing system is followed. Crops
production, livestock rearing and forestry are major land uses. Maize, rice, wheat and barley are
important cereal crops.

B. Dry-Temperate Range Areas

These include hill areas from districts of Dera Ismail Khan, Kohat. Bannu. and south-western
Tribal territories. The climate is moderately cool and rather dry. Average annual precipitation
varies from 180 mm to 720 mm. Moisture deficiency and low temperature are two main
problems in the way of vigorous plant growth. The average annual carrying capacity of well
managed areas is considered to be 7-10 ha per animal unit per annum.
C. Sub-tropical Range Areas

These include the valleys of Peshawar, Mardan and upper Indus plains of Dera Ismail Khan
districts. The average annual precipitation varies from 230 mm to 350 mm. the environment is
not favorable for plant growth during most part of the year, mainly due to-moisture deficiency.
Average carrying capacity under good management is estimated to be about 3-5 ha per animal
unit per annum.
BALOCHISTAN
There are five extensive range areas which are as follow;

Northern mountainous (Zhob, Lora Lai)= 8.0 mh approx.

Pat plains of northeast (Sibbi)= 1.6 mh approx.

Chaghi-Kharan desert= 8.4 mh approx.

Central plateau (Kallat)=11.4mh approx.

Lasbela - Mekran coast= 3.3 mi' approx.

Although about 93 percent of the area is generally classified as rangelands. Million ha are under
grazed due to the inaccessibility water. Fair to good ranges are limited to about 30% of North
western, pats, Mekran and Lasbela range are areas, whereas Chagi-Kharan are the most poor area
and are variable in their potentials. The above areas have total geographic area of 34.73 million
ha.

Mekran and Lasbela range areas constitute medium potential sites and are the poorest areas.
Central range areas are very potentials. The above areas will now be described one by one.

Northern Mountainous Range Areas (

Northern Mountainous Range Areas (Sulaiman mountan)

These comprise of the entire areas indicated Ziarat, Mustung, Qammar ur Din karez, Shinghar,
Qila Sair

comprise of the entire areas indicated by Quetta-Pishin, Lorali, Zhot. etc. Sulaiman mountain
ranges cover about 1.6 ha. karez, Shinghar, Qila Saif Ullah, Muslim Bagh, mountain ranges
cover about 1.5 million ha. The elongated area extend Afghanistan border. The elevation of
Sulaiman Range is between 1540 and above sea level. Steep ridges of exposed bedrock with a
relief. The climate of the tract is arid mountainous, sub-continental and dry temperate. May, June
and July are the hottest months (mean maxmum temperature of about 40°C) while January is the
coldest month :-(mean minimum temperature of about 3°C). Most of the areas contains mountain
and is interspersed with flat valleys. Wheat and fruit orchards are cultivated wherever irrigation
facilities are available. The "karez" system of irrigation is prominent in the valleys. Range in the
area is depleted due to heavy influx of livestock cf Afghan refugees and "pawindas". A shortage
of winter feed and watering points are main problems. Average carrying capacity is expected to
be about 30-40-50 ha per animal unit per annum.

Pat Range Area

It comprises of plains of districts of sibbi, Niseerabad, Kachchi and dera Bughti. Average annual
precipitation is about 130 mm: which is mostly received in summer Summers are long and
extremely hot. Winters are short and mild. There is a 1-5 percent plant cover. The extensive
saline plains have vast areas of sparse plant cover, interspersed with plant communities, which
comprise of suaeda fructicosa, salsola spp. Panicum antidotale. Aeluropus repens and A.
macrostachyus. Crarrying capacity is estimated to be abcut 20 ha per animals

Chaghi - Kharan Range Areas

These comprise of Noshki, Chaghi, Sandak. Nokundi, Sohrab and Kharan Winters are long and
severe. Summers are milk. Average annual all is eerratic and scanty. As a whole, the tract has
low potential about 120 mm. Rainfall is eerratic and scanty. In the Rakhshan Valley of Kharan
District, sheep are usually reared. In the Rakhshan Valley the Afghan Pawindas" have less
influence. Estimated rearing is dominant. Here the Afghan "Pawindas" have less grazing
capacity is about 40-60 ha per unit per annum..

Central Range Area

It comprises of Makran. Lasbela. Kallat, Sorab, Khuzdar, Punjgur, Rustam shahar, Shahbar. Oila
Lelu gasht, Wadh. Naag. Washik and Mohamad Khan areas Average annual precipitation is 50
to 150 mm with Mediterranean climate, most or which is received during winter or early spring.
Altitude ranges from 1000 over 3000m. The famous Maslakh Range Project, which was the first
scientifically managed Range Project in Pakistan during 1954, is situated in this region. Most of
the area contains mountains and is interspersed with flat valleys. Wheat and orchards! Are
cultivated wherever irrigation facilities are available. The "Karez" system of irrigation is
prominent in the valleys. Range in the area is depleted due to heavy influx of livestock of afghan
refugees and "pawindas" A shortage of winter feed and warering points are main problems.
Average carrying capacity is expected to be about 30-40-50 ha per animal unit per annum.

Mekran-Lasbela Coastal Range Areas

These comprise of coastal areas of districts of Makeran, Lasbela. Dhabeji. Uthal bela, Hoshab.
Turbat, Chumbuir Qallat, Jewani, Gawadar, Pasni, Oramara and Somiani. Summers are long and
humid whereas winters are short and mild. Climate is semi-arid/sub-humid tropical. Average
annual precipitation is from 160 mm to 200 mm. High relative humidity compensates for low
precipitation. One importante Introduction to the Lasbela Dsitrict is Prosopis juliflora
(Mesquite), which has Successfully colononized arid terrain, but has the potential of spreading
into cultivated areas. Grazing capacity of the area is expected to be about 10-15 ha per animal
unit per annum.
Punjab
There are four extensive range areas which are as follows:

A. Pothowar = 2.5 million ha. Approx.

B Thal =2.5 million ha. Approx,

C. Cholistan : -3.5 million ha. Approx.

D. D. G. Khan -million ha. Approx. one

In addition, some riverain area is also available. Pothowar and Riverain belt constitute high
potential area for Range Management or feed lot development. Cholistan appears to have least
productive potential. The above four areas will now be briefly described one by one.

Pothowar Plateau Range Area

It comprises of the entire districts of Attock, Islamabad, Rawalpindi. Chakwal, Jehlum and hilly
areas of Gujrat (pabbi). Mianwali and Khushab (saltrange). The tract lies between Jehlum and
Indus rivers. Altitude varies from 300m to 1300 m. Ecologically, it is located in the sub-tropical
semi-arid/sub-humid zone, Geomorphologically, the plateau can be classified into mountains,
hills, rock plains. weathered rock plains, piedniont plains, loess plains and river plains The soils
of the area have developed from wind and water-transported materials consisting of loess,
alluvial deposits, mountain outwash and recent stream valley deposits some are derived from
shales and sand stones. The climate is temperate in the northeast corner to sub-tropical semi-arid
in the southwest. Temperature extremes are 45°C in June and often drop below freezing during
January. The average annual precipitation in this area varies from 400 to 870 mm. (see footnote).
The climatic conditions are therefore, suitable for range forage production. Dryland farming is
dominated and restricted to flat areas or valleys and depends on occurrence of rains. Cropping
intensity is rather low. Fertility level is low mostly due to rampant erosion. Wheat, maize,
sorghum, millets, groundnut, gram (chick pea), mustard, sunflower and soybean are major
cultivated crops. Livestock rearing is an important component of rural economy.

It is the home of the famous "Dhanni" cattle breed. Forests are open and scrubby and cover a
very small fraction of the area the rest (most) of the area is! exclusively used as grazing land. It is
certainly one of the most productive plateau range of this country. Studies with respect to
carrying capacity indicated that sood areas when protected for 3 or more years produce upto
43.50 kg/ha of air dry forage per annum which is equivalent to about 2 ha per animal unit per
annum. Similar estimated for moderate and depleted sites are 7 and 56 ha/animal unit/annum
respectively.

The following palatable grasses are commonly found in this tract:

Bothricoloa pertusa

(Palawan) Common, palatable grass, grazed

by cattle, sheep, goats.

Cenchrus ciliaris . (Dhaman) Common, very palatable grass,

grazed by all.

Chrysopogon oucheri (Khar) Common, palatable grasss, grazed

by cattle, sheep. goats.

Cynodon dactylon

Common, palatable grass, grazed

by sheep and cattle. Eleusine flagelifera (Chimber) Common grass of poor quality, grazed by
sheep

Following browse species are also common Acacia modesta (Phulai) Very common, provides
firewood, browsed by goats and camels. Easy to regenerate with dry afforestation technique.
Carris spinarum (Garanda) Common, browse species. Gymnosporea reyaliana (Patakhi)
Common, browsed by goats and camels. Olea cuspidate (Kao) Common in cooler localities and
better soil, provides small timber for implements. Leaves are used as fodder.

Tecoma undulata (Lahura) Common, leaves and green pods are used as fodder. Zizyphus
nummulaira (Mallah) Common, excellent browse species, provides edible fruit.

(1) Arid less than 200 mm.

Semi-arid (very dry) 200 to 300 mm.

True semi-arid 300 to 500 mm.

Sub-humid more than 500 mm.

Major Recommended Operations

Grazing at suitable stocking rate.

Soil and water conservation operations on selected favourable sites.

3. Controlled or planned grazing (deffered rotational). Elimination of grazing

on erodible areas and its replacement with grass-cutting.

Artificial reseeding; Cenchrus ciliaris and Chrysopogon aucheri be seeded on selected favorable
sites.

Establishment of rain fed or irrigated perennial pastures to overcome problem of range

seasonality), Phalaris fuberose, Lolium multiflorum, L. nerenne: Sorghum almum, Panicum-
antibofale, P. maximum medicago sativa and Vicia villosa may be tried.

Encouragement of farmers to grow fodder/grain crops (shaftal, sorghum. millets etc.) Planting of
fodder shrubs and trees (to overcome range seasonality). Acacia modesta, Olea cuspidata, Butea
frondoza, Zizphus spp.. Morus alba a Robinia pseudoacacia be planted and encouraged on
selected favourabl) sites. Development of water points. Keeping cattle, sheep and goat together
as mixed herd or separate herds. Livestock Management comprising of breeding, selection,
management and timely off take. Organization of marketing for livestock and their products.

Thal (desert) Range Area (Sindh Sagar Doab)

Thal literally means sea of sand. It comprises of larger parts of districts of Mianwali, Bhakkar,
Layyah, Muzafargarh and some parts of the districts of Khushab. Sargodha and Jhang. This area
is roughly triangular in shape and has the

following land uses:

Cultivated with canal irrigation Cultivated with rain water or with underground water and Area
under river beds Grazing land 26.5 percent 32.4 percent. 08.7 percent 32.4 percen.t respectively

The mean maximum and minimum temperatures recorded in the tract are about 44°C and less
than 0°C respectively. The average annual precipitation varies from 38.5 mm in the north-east to
170 mm in the south. Approximately three fourth of annual rainfall is received during monsoon
(July-August). The area is exposed to hot and dry winds from the south and south-east. The
sandy soil is subject to severe wind erosion. April to July (start of monsoon) are the windiest
months. The soils are alluvial with sandy textured sand dunes covering 50 to 60 percent of the
area. Continued heavy grazing and ruthless cutting of trees and shrubs have resulted in the
complete disappearance of several desirable species. The top soil has been eroded by wind
erosion and sand dunes have become unstable. The vegetative cover and forage production have
declined substantially. The environment is, therefore, not very conductive to plant growth.
Livestock grazing is the main occupation of the people. With the construction of Thal irrigation
canal, about million hectares sand dune have been converted into highly productive cultivated
area. However, about 1.6 million hectares are still used as grazing lands. In a year o normal
rainfall, sand dunes are cultivated. Gram (chick pea), water melons, guar and millets are grown
on large scale. Electric/diesel powered tube-wells are quite common in the area...
The carrying capacity of properly managed (protected) and artificially reseeded areas is
considered to be about 7 ha per animal unit per annum. The following palatable grasses are
successfully 7.commonly found in this tract.

Aristida depressa

(Lumb) Common, grazed by sheep and goats,

Cenchrus ciliaris

a grass 'of fair forage value.

(Dhaman) Common, excellent, palatable and gives high forage production, grazed by all.

Cymbopogon jawarancusa (Khawai) Common grass of poor forage value, grazed by sheep
Dicianthium annalatum (Murgha) Not very common, grass of good Quality Eleusine flagelllifera
(Chimber) Abunant, although palatable but gives very low forage production

Elionurus hirsutus (Karera, Gorkha Common, palatable-grazed by sheep.

cattle, goats and camels feeds on Panicum antidotale (Malai) Common. saccharum munja:
(Safkanda, Common: poor quality grass, grazed Kana) by buffaloes.

Following browse species are also common.

Acacia jacquemonti (Karir) Common, palatable, browsed by goals and camels.

Haloxylon spp. (Lani) Common, browsed by camels only.

Haloxylon recurvum (Khar) Rare, palatability very poor, rarely grazed by camels.

Prosopis cineraria (Jand) Common, browsed by camel and goats, Prosopis juifiora (Mesyuite)
Common, browsed by goats and camels Solvadora oleoides (Van) Common, palatable, browsed
by goats and camels. Sueda fruiticosu (Lana) Common, palatable, greatly liked by sheep and
camels. Tamarix aphylla (Frash) Common, browsed by camels only

Major Recommended Operations

Grazing according to carrying capacity.

Planned grazing Deferred / rotational; close use with long rest period.

grazing interval not less than half month, two years protection to re-seeded areas.

Providing limited irrigation on selected favorable sites wherever possible,

Reseeding in favourable sites (northern-eastern parts of the tracts with canchrus cilliaris and
Eliomirus hirsutus: two years protection to reseeded areas.
Hay-making on reseeded areas and on irrigated areas.

Planting of fodder trees such as Zisiphus, Prosoni Salvadora, etc. on selected favorable sites.
Stock water Development. Sinking of hand-pumps, did Wells.

Livestock kinds: Grazing by mixed livestock desirable such goats and camels.

Livestock Management comprising of breeding, selection. election management, and timely off-
take.

Livestock Marketing

c. Cholistan Desert Range Area

It comprises of two-third area of Bahawalpur Division (distri Bahawalnagar, Bahawalpur, and

Rahim yar Khan). The remaining one-third is in the form of a belt and is under irrigated farming.
Average precipitation varies from 100 to 180mm, which is highly erratic. Long Spell of drought
extending over a period of 2 to 3 years are not common which, affect fauna and flora. Extremely
hot dry south-westerly winds blow during summer. The sandy soil is subject to severe wind
erosion. Rainfall varies from 0 to 180m.

Ecologically, it is sub-tropical arid sandy desert. The area is subject to wind erosion. Mean
minimum and maximum temperatures are 20°C and 40°C. respectively. The soil survey of
Cholistan was conducted by the Soil Survey of Pakistan in 1974. The soil of the Cholistan is
saline, alkaline and gypsiferous. The area consists of shifting sand dunes. The dunes reach
heights of about 100m in greater Cholistan.

Livestock production is the major occupation. Wildlife are hunted during the winter. Shortage of
drinking water is a serious problem as underground water is saline. Aridity precludes dry land
farming. The environment is very hostile to plant growth during summer. The average carrying
capacity of properly managed and artificially reseeded areas is considered to be 40 ha. per animal
unit per annum.

The following palatable grasses are successful / commonly found Cholistan.

Arisida depressa (Lumb)

Common, grass of fair forage value, grazie by sheep and goats.

Conchrus ciliaris (Dhaman) Rare, very palatablc grass grazed by all.

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Khawi) Common, grass of poor forage grazed by sheep

Dicanthium annularium (Murgha) Not very common. grass of 200 palatability, grazed by all.
Eleusine compressa (Chhimber) Common, failry palatable grass. eaten by kinds of livetock
especially by sheep

Elionurus hirsutus

Panicum antidotale

(Karcra,

Gorkha)

(Garam,

Malai)

livestock

non palatable, grazed by all kinds of Rare, palatable grass, grazed by all.

Following browse species are also common

Calligorum polygonoides (Phog) Common, moderately palatable browsed by camels and goats.

Haloxylon salincornicum (Lana) Common, forage value is poor, contains a

Prosopis cineraria lot of salts, browsed by camels only.

Common, very high forage value browsed by camels and goats. Also provides timber and
firewood.

Salsola foetida (Lani) Common, palatability, grazed by camels.

Salvadora oleoides (Van) Common, moderately palatable, grazed by sheep, camels and goats.

Suaeda fruticosa (Lana) Common, palatable, greatly liked by sheep and camels.

Zizphus nummularia (Mallah) Common, highly palatable, browsed by all.

Major Recommended Operations

Grazing according to carrying capacity or at least freezing the present number of animals.

2. Mixing sand in clayey flats by their deep ploughing across summer winds.

3. Planned Grazing: Planned but simple grazing program developed in due consideration of
prevailing semi-nomadic and nomadic patterns such as

Best Block Grazing System.

Providing limited irrigation on selected favorable sites wherever possible.

Irrigated fodder: Allotting irrigated land on western fringe of the desert to

Cholistanis who would bring at least 70 per cent of their land under fodder crops: 'allotments to
progressive farmers who could develop underground water resources for fodder production.
Opening up of Forest plantations especially during periods of emergencies. Planting of Fodder
shrubs and trees. Fodder use of existing shrubs and trees be regulated and new ones planted on
selected favorable sites. Reseeding, on selected relatively high potential areas.

Stock water development: such as shallow-wells, ponds, ponds with adjacent shallow-wells,
wind mills, extending the watershed areas of ponds (tobas) etc. be regulator Fodder shrubsntions
especially du: Livestock kinds: Mixed livestock herd is desirable, Livestock Management and
preventive medicine.

Livestock Marketing

D. Dera Ghazi Khan Range Areas

It lies between the base of Suleiman hills and the Indus River. It includes the districts of
D.G.Khan and Rajanpur. It also includes bela land along the Indus river.

The general climatic regime of D.G.Khan, Rajanpur tract is typical of arid sub-mountainous,
sub-tropical areas. Ecologically, it is sub-tropical (non-sand plain. Climate is broadly
characterized by cold winters and very hot summer. Winter temperatures occasionally reach zero
especially in January and February, due to cold winds from the west. June and July are the
hottest months with an average maximum temperature of 42°C.

Average annual precipitation is 140 mm which is received in summer. Most of the light rainfall
storms from the high mountains (1540-3400 m) lose their moisture through evaporation before
reaching range areas which are at lower altitudes (150 m). Flash floods are common. The flood
water, however, runs off into river Indus rapidly. Shortage of water and uncontrolled nomadic
grazing are medium-textured and low in organic matter. Livestock, production is the major
traditional land use in the region. It is the home tract of elegant Dajal breed of cattle. Raud-1-
kohi irrigated farming is practiced wherever it is feasible. Millet and Sorghum etc. are cultivated.
Canal irrigation is also spreading quickly and is resulting in the production of most traditional
farm crops.

Deterioration of the range lands has been associated with irregular grazing by nomadic and local
livestock and Hlicit cutting of shrubs for fuel and fodder. Most of the range lands are in poor
shape. Estimated dry matter yields were 3 to 4 tha from artificially reseeded areas of Rakh Choti
Dalana and only about 4000-500 kg/ha from non-seeded areas. The average carrying capacity of
protected, reseeded and watered area is expected to be from 5-7 ha per animal unit.

The following palatable grasses are successful/commonly found in this tract.

Cynodon dactylon Grazed by buffaloes sheep.

Eleusine flagellifera (Chhimber) Elionurus hirsutus (Karera Gorkha) Grazed by all animals.

Panicum antidotale (Malai) Grazed by all animals.

Saccharum spontaneum (Kahi) Grazed by buffaloes, sheep.

Following browse species are also common.

Acacia nilotica (Kikar)

Capparis aphylla (Karir)

Prosopis cineraria (Jand)

Salvadora oleoides (Van)

Tamarix dioica

(Pilchi)

Grazed by goats, camels.

Grazed by goats, camels.

Grazed by goats, camels.

Grazed by goats, camels.

Grazed by goats, camels.

Ziryphus jujuba

Zisphus nummularia

(Ber)

(Mallah)

Grazed by goats, camels.

Grazed by goats, camels.

Conser King rate"lons

Maior Recommended Operations

Grazing at suitable stocking rate.

Soil and water conservation Operations on selected

Controlled or planned grazing (deferred or deferred of grazing on erodible areas and its
replacement with grass

Artilicial Reseeding: Cenchrus ciliaris and Chrysopogona on selected favorable sites.

Establishment or irrigated perennial pastures

Planting fodder trees (to overcome range seasonality). Acacia niodesia,

Biea frondosa. Zisyphus spp. Morus alba and Robinia psedocacia etc. be planted or encouraged
on selected favorable soils.

Development of water points.

Water spreading on suitable sites as done in Rakh Miran. Dera Ismail Khan.

Keeping cattle. sheep and goat together as mixed herd or separate herds.

Livestock management comprising of breeding, selection, management and

oft-take.

Organization of marketing of livestock and their products,

Principles of Range Management
These are broad guidelines which incorporate all available knowledge of Range Management
regarding losses of energy and relevant management cum improvement operations etc in a
concise, systematic and easily understand able manner leading to maximum sustained production
of range forage and livestock.

Range is a rather complex system comprising of graziers, site, vegetation and livestock in which
graziers largely influence the site, vegetation and livestock directly as well as indirectly. The
indirect manipulation of the basic resources through range livestock complicates the matter. The
effectiveness of human role is thus drastically reduced and delayed. Furthermore, relatively
increased role of rather untamed natural factors such as extreme climate contributes to the
complexities of Range Management significantly.

The principles of Range Management should therefore, completely cover the entire spectrum of
Range Science i.e. Philosophy, Site Physiography, Soil Science, Biology of Range Plant and
Livestock, Economics and Marketing etc. These start from the very objective of undertaking
Range management and end up with the sale of range forage and of livestock at attractive rates.
In view of the four components of range ecosystem, the Principles of Range Management are
classified into four following groups, for ease of understanding.

A. Principles related to Man (grazier, supplier, buyer, administrator policy maker)

Objectives

Seeking Active Involvement of Local People and

Organizations and ensuring their cooperation.

Sales of Range Products

B. Principles related to Range site.

Selection of Suitable Site

Site Development

Site Management

C. Principles related to Range Vegetation.

Range Vegetation Management

Range Vegetation Improvement

D. Principles related to Range Livestock

Range Livestock Management

Range Livestock Improvement

As is always true with all biological sciences, this classification is not water tight. These
principles overlap each other to some extent. Many Range Management and Improvement
Operations are covered by two or more principles simultaneously

This partial overlapping, however, does not belittle the importance and usefulness of this
classification.

The following is a brief description of the Principles of Range Management.

1. Objective of Range Management

Selection of a clear cut and correct objective is the key to success. Everything else that follows is
geared towards the objective. It is comparable to fixing a target or destination which is to be
achieved. It provides not only necessary drive and motivation but also gives a direction. The
following are some of the possible objectives out of which one or two should be selected.

Ancestral profession, sacred or memorial way of life, status symbol.

Recreation, sanctuary, safari park, landscaping.

Soil and Water conservation (Watershed Management)

Research and demonstration.

Political motive

Commercial enterprise.

Commercial enterprise generally provides most effective drive and can play a vital role in
developing Range Management as an attractive and successful profession.

II. Selection of Suitable Site

The proposed site should be either highly productive or be potentially productive. No important
factor should either be deficient or in excess. Range lands generally belong to land capability
class VI and VII and are not fit for crop production. Most important factors to be considered are:

Accessibility throughout the year.

Type, density, condition and suitability of existing/inherited vegetation for grazing and browsing.

Amount of rainfall and its distribution.

Availability of stream water, canal water, and underground water, presence of ponds (tobas) etc.

Aspect and slope of the area and intensity of erosion.

Type and depth of soil. Availability of market.

Attitude and rights of local people, incidence of nomadic grazing.

Number and kinds of livesto:k owned by people of adjoining areas.

III. Seeking Active Involvement of Local People and Organization's cooperation.

Active participation and cooperation of local people and organizations etc. in the development
process is, therefore, extremely important for the success of the enterprise. Since Range
Management is an extensive land use, a large number of local residents and graziers have a deep
rooted interest and long term involvement in the area under question. It is very vital to bring a
change in their attitude and develop a smooth working relationship with them. It is a long term
process. The role of the government on other collective bodies is even more important rather
than that, of individuals. The following are a few suggestions in this respect. Amicable and
peaceful settlement of rights and privileges. Amicable and peaceful settlement of any land
ownership dispute, outer boundary dispute and passage dispute etc. Involvement of local people
in the range development process in such a way they also receive some benefits of development.
Relevant institutions and organizations. Procuring institutional support for various facets of
range development such as developing markets, road transport, communication, primary
education, health facilities, basic necessities, veterinary facilities, emergency feed; technical
education, arranging relief brigade jus like fire brigade.

IV. Site Development

A large but variable number of development operations are a prerequisite for undertaking routine
Range Management. This is particularly true in Pakistan in view of unusually poor condition of
her range lands, it precedes site management generally. Some of these are as follows: fences.
dams.

Establishing approach road, outer boundaries and entrances gates.

Layout and internal fences, paths, roads, trails.

Stock water development, dams, ponds and wells.

Water spreading, water harvesting and water conservation.

Residence and office buildings, stores and pens.

Land leveling and terracing.

Establishing tree/bush shelterbelts.

Providing transport for forage, feed, water, livestock and men.

Discovering and linking new watersheds for feeding tobas (pond).

Construction of spurs and bunds for protection against floods.

Uprooting old woody vegetation, to make room for better vegetation

These operations are usually expensive and are carried out only once or after a few years. These
increase range potential significantly

V. Site Management

This includes routine operations with respect to soil, water and atmosphere and are a must for
obtaining maximum possible production on sustained basis. A judicious combination of some of
the following operations at appropriate time is desired.

Soil Related

Harrowing, cultivation and ploughing.

"Adding organic manures, fertilizers and chemicals amendments. (In Thal)

Stone collection and contour tillage. (In Pothowar, NWFP, NA. AJK).

Deep ploughing. (In inter-dunal flats of Cholistan)

Uprooting stubbles and ploughing in stubbles.

Trapping and mixing sand in clayey soils (as in inter-dunal flats of Cholistan)

Water related: Strengthening field boundaries. (In Pothowar, NWFP, NA, AJK).

Field leveling. (In Phthowar, NWFP, NA and AJK).

Pitting, trenching and ridging. (In Pothowar, NW.FP, NA, AJK)

Irrigation maintenance, water spreading and soil/water conservation structures such as stone
collection along contour lines.

Mulching, green manu ing (In-Thal).

Avoiding soil compaction in heavy soils.

Promoting soil loosening in heavy soils by soil fauna.

Atmosphere related
Protecting against hot winds (loo).

Alternative arrangements during droughts.

Planting scattered trees for shade and shelter.

- d. 'Planting tree shelter belts.

Erecting surimer green houses.

Adjusting different operations in accordance with sutiable season.

VI. Range Vegetation Management

Vegetation is the basic resource which supports-livestock. It represents the combined effect of
soil, water and climate over time. Furthermore, it is strongly influenced by livestock and
activities of man. In order to have a continuous supply of good quality forage for a long grazing
season on regular basis, the following points must be kept in view.

Protection of existing vegetation against illicit and excessive grazing, browsing, cutting, looping
etc. by erecting fences, constructing stone walls, establishing live hedges and strengthening
watch and ward arrangements, seeking help and support of law enforcing authorities.

Selecting suitable livestock comprising of either one species, or a mixed herd keeping in view
their grazing behavior, the present and desired vegetation composition, slope of the area, types of
soil, climate and market etc.

Determining suitable range use intensity and allowing grazing accordingly. Range use intensity
means proportion of a range plant biomass that is to be consumed in a year as compared to the
one left standing in the range for providing a base for next year's growth. Most common range
use intensity is taken as 50 percent. It may vary from 30% to 70% and depends upon the
condition of vegetation, type and growth stage of range plants, slope, soil type, season, rainfall
and erosion hazard etc.

Determining optimum carrying capacity of the range and allowing grazing according to the
estimated capacity. This estimation is done either by comparison with similar nearby areas or by
sampling based upon pre- determined range use intensity. Carrying capacity of a range depends
on many factors and is variable with time. An average rough estimate is good enough. It is a
good policy to be conservative in this respect and thus reduce the overall estimate by 5 percent or
so. The average carrying capacity of a good well managed range area in Pakistan such as
Pothowar plateau is estimated to be about 5 acres per cow (animal unit per annum). Similar
figure for a poor range such as Cholistan is estimated to be 100 acres per cow per year.
Uniform or even grazing throughout the range to avoid over-grazing of certain patches and
undergrazing (waste) of other patches. There are numerous factors which contribute to uneven
utilization of range forage by the animals. Some of the important ones are as follows.

1. Presence of unpalatable or poisonous vegetation in certain patches. Distant location of

watering points.

i. Inaccessibility of certain areas and pockets.

iv. Animal behaviour. Determining suitable grazing seasons by keeping in view the growth
cysles of major range forage species and seasons of the year, avoiding grazing during extreme
climatic conditions (stress); this being a very strong tool in either promoting (natural reseeding)
or suppressing the growth of certain species. Seasons of grazing along with frequency and
intensity of grazing can thus be manipulated to maintain a desired floristic composition of range
vegetation. Season of grazing has a strong bearing on quantity and on nutritive value, palatability
and digestibility of forage species.

Frequency of grazing during the season or interval between the seasons. Higher frequency (2-4
times per season) ma increase the total yield and may also improve the quality as compared one
grazing per season. This is so because many grasses respond very to frequent grazing and tiller
profusely especially under prolonged favorable growing season.

Providing periodic rest to the vegetation from grazing (intermittent grazing, rotational grazing
and deferred grazing).

Forced grazing and tethered grazing, to ensure thorough utilization of certain patches.

Forage cutting on sensitive, exposed or sloping areas rather than grazing.

Hay making and silage making for stall feeding during non-grazing period.

Promoting natural seeding.

Weeding and cleaning (removal of woody weeds), avoiding overstocking of range by shrubs and
trees, i.e. stopping a range from gradual conversion into forest,

Controlled burning of unwanted plants on small scale.

Lopping of woody forage shrubs.

Fertilization leading to differential growth response and prolonged grazing season.

VII. Range Vegetation Improvement

This includes occasional, but generally expensive operations which improve the quantity, quality
of range forage and prolong the growing/grazing season of the vegetation. The net result is
substantial and sudden increase in the range potential.

Some examples are as follows:

Artificial reseeding of local high yielding and palatable grasses for summer and for winter.

Artificial reseeding of legumes.

Introduction of exotic forage species / winter grasses.

Water spreading, water conservation and fertilization of extensive range areas; addition of soil
amendments (polymer hydrojels)

Intensive forage production with irrigation and fertilization in restricted cultivated area.

Breeding new forage crop varieties.

Use of bacterial inoculum/mycorrhizae.

Controlled burning of abnoxious plants on extensive scale.

Development of alternatives to grazing such as hay or silage making etc.

VIII. Range Livestock Management

It includes all the routine operations required for keeping livestock herd viable, healthy, and
vigorous, productive. Important points and operations are as follows:

Selecting most productive livestock which can efficiently utilize rough forage while keeping in
view their physiology, grazing behavior, climate, topography, type of vegetation, availability of
water and market etc. it is always better to keep a mixed herd because it makes efficient use of
varied range vegetation and it provides safety against any untoward tragic happening.

Grazing according to proper stocking rate of the range. Excessive animals per unit area will
result into weaker bony animals which are susceptible to diseases etc. Growth rate of such
animals is also slow. Too few animals result in reduced total production and promote undesirable
plant species at the cost of desirable species. Carrying capacity of a range depends on many
factors and is estimated either by comparison with similar 'nearby areas or by sampling and
calculating after giving due consideration to range use intensity and frequency etc. The estimate
may vary from 5 to 100 acres per cow. It is wise policy to allow grazing to a level that is slightly
less than the correct carrying capacity of a range.

Regular culling in order to have desirable species distribution, desirable age distribution,
desirable sex ratio and well behaved, healthy and vigorous herd.
Collecting, procuring, preparing and providing suitable feed to animals of each species, of each
age class, infants, pregnant mothers and diseased animals by arranging 'supplementary feed,
mineral mixtures, emergency feed, oil seed cake, general purpose stomach powders and edible
oils etc.

Providing clean drinking water at reasonable walking distance throughout the year.

Providing suitable shelter against storms, hot/cold winds and strong sun etc.

Dehoming. Shearing, tagging and secluding/isolating sick animals.

Controlled and timely breeding.

Protection against predators.

Providing first aid veterinary treatment i.e..dipping, skin disinfections and vaccination.

Timely off take/sale.

IX: Range Livestock Improvement

It includes a few expensive operations which increase the system's potential help overcome any
unexpected catastrophe. A few example are listed below:

Improving quality of livestock herd by artificial insemination and embryo transfer technology
etc. .

Procuring or importing better quality animals.

Arranging emergency feed for periods of famine and use of synthetic

supplementary feed such as Urea which will accelerate the growth rate of animals.

Arranging transport of drinking water during drought.

Arranging necessary veterinary aid for protection against epidemics.

Arranging transport of animals out of the drought stricken range to the

market for quick disposal; similar arrangement in case of epidemics a

desirable.

X: Sale of Range Products

The whole enterprise of Range Management remains incomplete unless various range products
are disposed off properly at attractive prices and in time. It only through the sale of range
products that one may consider range objective have been achieved. Efforts should be made to
maximize the return by

Selling as many products as possible i.e. green forage, hay, animals, wool milk, meat, hides;
skins, bones, hooves etc.,

Selling: as much as possible; 50-70% of the herd be sold,

Selling at the highest possible prices,

By discovering new markets,

By eliminating / minimizing excessive exploitation of middle men.

By selling at suitable season when demand is high i.e. approaching Eid-ul-Adha.

Getting last minute gain in weight by developing fattening yards and

Selling as early as possible.

Grazing systems

When properly implemented, a grazing system can help rangeland and livestock
managers achieve management objectives related to rangeland and livestock
production and ecosystem structure and function. Selection of the proper grazing
system depends upon understanding the unique combination of topography, soils,
vegetation types, and climate that overlap the management unit. No grazing system
is better than any other, but each system is appropriate for specific conditions.
A grazing system is a particular way of managing the interactions between plants,
soils, and grazing animals. If you graze animals, you already have a grazing system
of some kind. As you begin to design or redesign your grazing system, remember
that any grazing management problem usually has many possible solutions, and
very few things you can do are "right" or "wrong." Most of all, remember than no
one grazing system is "best."
By addressing a few simple principles, most grazing management problems can be
solved. The successful grazing plan creatively combines these principles specifically
for your operation's unique circumstances. Your grazing system will be your
particular way of managing your plants, soils, and grazing animals. A variety of
grazing systems have been used on rangelands in the western United States and
Canada. Follow the links below to learn more about each system:

 Rest-Rotation Grazing
 Deferred-Rotation Grazing
 Seasonal Suitability
 Best Pasture
 Short Duration Grazing
 Continuous Grazing

Rest-Rotation Grazing The rest-rotation grazing system was designed by Gus

Hormay of the U.S. Forest Service and was first implemented in the 1950s and
1960s. Under rest rotation, one or two pastures are rested the entire year while the
remaining pastures are grazed seasonally, depending on the number of pastures
and herds. For example, one pasture in a three-year, three-pasture rest rotation
might be managed as follows during a three-year cycle: 1) graze the entire year or
growing season; 2) defer until desirable forage plants set seed, then graze; and 3)
rest. This schedule rests about one-third of the range annually.

 Advantages: Rest provides an opportunity for vegetation and soils to recover

and helps meet multiple use objectives such as providing hiding cover for
 birds and forage for other wildlife and leaving ungrazed areas for public
viewing and enjoyment. Rested pastures provide forage for emergency use
during drought and provide opportunities to implement relatively long-term
rangeland improvement practices — for example, burning, reseeding, brush
control — during scheduled rest periods.

 Disadvantages: Elk or other wild herbivores may graze rested pastures,

negating some of the benefit of rest or deferment from livestock grazing. The
increased stock density in grazed pastures can reduce dietary selectivity of
livestock and decrease their overall diet quality.

The benefits of a full year of rest can quickly be nullified if previously rested
pastures are overgrazed, particularly in arid regions where frequent drought
conditions can impede rangeland recovery.
Deferred-Rotation Grazing The key feature of deferred-rotation grazing is that each
pasture periodically receives deferment until seed set. Systems can vary in the
number of pastures and the length of time between deferments (usually 2 to 4
years).
Seasonal Suitability. Seasonal suitability grazing systems attempt to partition and
manage diverse vegetation types that differ due to elevation, ecological site,
ecological condition, or precipitation, and to move animals based on seasonal
forage production. This system allows managers to strategically move grazing
animals to take advantage of forage when it is abundant and of high quality. For
example, in southwestern deserts, seasonal suitability systems use creosote bush
and mesquite shrub lands during winter and early spring, while tobosa grass and
alkali section ranges are used during summer. In other areas, livestock may be
rotated through native range in the summer, crested wheatgrass in the spring, and
Russian wildrye pastures in the fall. Seasonal suitability also has been used on
mountain ranges in the northwestern United States where grassland, forest, and
meadow vegetation types provide late spring/early summer use, late summer/early
fall use, and fall grazing, respectively. Seasonal suitability has been practiced where
desert (winter use), foothill (spring use), and mountain ranges (summer use) are
managed as separate, seasonal grazing units.
The Best Pasture System The best pasture system attempts to match animal
movements with irregular patterns of precipitation and associated forage
production. Precipitation patterns may be spotty and unpredictable. Therefore,
areas separated by only a few miles may differ greatly in forage production. The
best pasture grazing system has no set rotation schedule; rather, it requires that
land managers exercise flexibility. For example, when a local rain event causes a
flush of annual forbs in a particular pasture, grazing animals are moved to that
pasture until desired utilization levels of the ephemeral forbs have been achieved. 
Continuous grazing is defined as grazing a particular pasture or area the entire
year, including the dormant season, while season-long grazing refers to grazing a
particular pasture or area for an entire growing season. Stocking rate is key to the
success of a continuous or season-long grazing plan. Stocking at light rates during
the growing season is particularly important in continuous grazing systems to
ensure adequate forage is left to carry animals through the dormant season. Light
stocking rates enable animals to be highly selective in the plants they consume,
resulting in a higher quality diet. Furthermore, livestock are not subjected to the
stress of frequent moving to new pastures, which can decrease production.
Continuous or season-long grazing works best on flat areas with well-developed
water systems — that is, watering points no more than two miles apart — and
where most of the plants have some value to grazing animals.