New Journal and we have not received input yet 34 (2022) 101438

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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress

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Combined impacts of the ceiling radiant cooling and ventilation on

dispersion and deposition of indoor airborne particles
Aminhossein Jahanbin a, b, *, Giovanni Semprini a
a
Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, Bologna 40136, Italy
b
CIRI – Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca Industriale Edilizia e Costruzioni, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, Via del Lazzaretto 15/5, Bologna 40131,
Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present study investigates the integrated effects of the ceiling radiant cooling and ventilation on dispersion
indoor air quality and deposition of indoor airborne particles. Five groups of particles with different sizes, ranging from 0.1 to 10
ventilation µm, are selected to be injected inside a ventilated space equipped with the ceiling radiant cooling panel (CRCP).
ceiling radiant cooling
Two ventilation strategies under different air change rates are considered, namely up-supply and down-supply
cooling systems
airborne particles
ventilations. The conjugate heat transfer between the CRCP and indoor air is examined for different inlet tem­
particle dispersion peratures of the chilled water. An Eulerian-Lagrangian CFD model is developed and validated by experimental
data in order to predict the turbulent airflow characteristics and thermal performance of the CRCP system as well
as the transient particle trajectories. The results indicate that the particle decay rate is associated with the
temperature difference between the CRCP surface and surrounding walls. A sensitivity analysis on the results
shows that the surface temperature of CRCP in both ventilation methods is a more effective parameter in particle
deposition rate, compared to the inlet air velocity; a 40% augmentation of the ventilation rate leads to 2.6%
increase in particle decay rate, whereas the same alteration in inlet water temperature of the CRCP results in
7.3% enhancement of the decay rate. It is shown that while the particle decay rate in up-supply ventilation is
faster than down-supply one, the down-supply mode removes higher number of particles, for a given ventilation
rate. Furthermore, it is shown that the particle concentration in breathing zone diminishes by decreasing the
temperature of radiant cooling panel. Findings of the present study are expected to provide insights into future
design of the ventilation and ceiling radiant cooling system for a better indoor air quality.

1. Introduction inhalable particulate matter (diameter<10 μm). The inhalable particles

Over the past decade, the indoor air quality (IAQ) has been a global
concern of the public, governments, and scientific community [1,2]. The
air quality within an occupied space depends on several parameters such
as the indoor contaminants, nature of air movement, HVAC (heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning) system and the number of people. The
indoor contaminants are mainly classified into two types: gaseous con­
taminants and aerosol pollutants [3]. The latter, also known as partic­
ulate matters, representing a complex mixture of organic and inorganic
substances that widely exist in outdoor and indoor environments [4]. A
study showed that the concentration of indoor aerosol particles can be
two to five times higher than that in the outdoor [5].
Aerosol particles can be categorised based on their size in two
groups: total suspended particulate matter (diameter<100 μm) and
can be divided into fine (PM2.5) and coarse particles (PM2.5-10) [6].
Indeed, inhalable particles are particularly important for the human
health since they can penetrate the human body. The inhalable particles
between 5 and 10 μm can be filtered in the nose or pharyngeal region
while those smaller than 5 μm may reach alveoli and cause serious
health risks. [7]. A study on relation between the air quality and res­
piratory health of schoolchildren showed an increased prevalence of
asthma with children studying in classrooms with high levels of PM2.5
[8]. Therefore, in order to provide a healthy indoor air, removal of
aerosol particles as well as a good understanding of the indoor particle
dispersion is of significant importance.
The movement and dispersion of aerosol particles in the indoor
environment is influenced by many factors such as the ventilation
strategy, heating/cooling system, particle properties, geometrical

* Corresponding author at: Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, Bologna 40136, Italy.
E-mail address: aminhossein.jahanbin@unibo.it (A. Jahanbin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2022.101438
Received 3 January 2022; Received in revised form 24 July 2022; Accepted 31 July 2022
Available online 5 August 2022
2451-9049/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini
configurations, and human activities [9]. It is well-known that each
specific type of the HVAC system would have its unique impact on the
indoor particle distribution since the particle motion is highly depen­
dent upon the indoor air velocity field and temperature profile. In this
context, importance of the ventilation in removal of indoor particles has
been widely addressed in the literature [10–12]. In addition, the parti­
cles’ behaviour under different ventilation strategies has been investi­
gated in several studies [13–16]. For instance, the role of ventilation
method in indoor particle deposition was investigated by Zhong et al.
[13]. They studied two different ventilation strategies, namely mixing
ventilation (MV) and underfloor air distribution (UFAD) systems and
showed that in UFAD systems, the location of the particle source highly
affects the particle removal efficiency.
A review on available studies in the literature indicates that,
compared to investigation of the ventilation method, fewer studies have
examined effects of the heating system on indoor particle dispersion. In a
comparative study, Dehghan and Abdolzadeh [17] investigated the
distribution of particles in a room for three different heating systems,
including the underfloor, radiator and skirt boarding heating. Their re­
sults showed that the lowest concentration is associated to the skirt
boarding system and that the particles tend to trap on the walls instead
of leaving the environment due to presence of the heat source. Sajjadi
et al. [18] studied the effect of indoor heating system on deposition of
ultrafine particles by means of the double multi relaxation time and
Lattice Boltzmann method (DMRT-LBM). Their results showed that, for
10 μm particles and both Rayleigh numbers of 104 and 105, the max­
imum particle deposition and the minimum suspended particles are
obtainable when the heating system is located at the top of the room’s
wall. The effects of radiator and floor heating systems on indoor particle
dispersion and deposition were examined by Golkarfard and Tale­
bizadeh [19]. Their study showed that the floor and radiator heating
systems deposit the suspended particles mostly on the ceiling and floor,
respectively. It was found that the floor heating system removes more
suspended particles compared to the radiator heating system. In a
similar study by Mutlu [20], it was shown that the floor heating system
performs better in removing pollutants dispersed homogeneously in the
room, while the radiator system is more effective in removing pollutants
emitted from a source close to the floor. Zhuo et al. [21] examined
numerically the impact of ventilation and floor heating systems on the
dispersion and deposition of particles in a scaled test chamber. They
showed that the higher inlet velocity leads to a faster reduction of par­
ticle concentration. It was concluded that the number of particles
deposited on the floor decreases when the inlet air velocity and the floor
temperature increase. In an experimental study, Ghasemi et al. [22]
investigated the dispersion of PM2.5 and PM10 airborne particles in a
residential room heated by radiator and floor heating systems. By
comparing the total deviation of PM2.5 and PM10 concentration from
their corresponding allowable limit, it was shown that the floor heating
is a more healthy heating system.
The literature review above apparently shows that these studies have
mainly neglected the integrated effects of the ventilation and heat
source on indoor particle dispersion, i.e., complex relation between
airflow, temperature and particle dispersion triggered by both ventila­
tion and heating system [23]. Furthermore, a special focus has been
placed on the evaluation of indoor particles in the heating condition,
regardless of the potential effects of the cooling systems. The present
study aims to fill this gap by investigating the integrated effects of the
ventilation and ceiling radiant cooling panel (CRCP) system on disper­
sion and deposition of indoor airborne particles. Indeed, a CRCP system
refers to a temperature-controlled surface that cools indoor tempera­
tures by removing sensible heat and where more than half of heat
transfer occurs through thermal radiation. These systems take advan­
tages of their lower energy consumption, better thermal comfort and
reduced air duct volume compared with conventional cooling systems
[24,25]. The common design of these systems comprises an embedded
water pipe within the plaster or gypsum board which is integrated with
2
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 34 (2022) 101438
the building ceiling [26]. Hydronic radiant cooling systems circulate the
cooled water in pipes that are in thermal contact with the surface. Once
having been absorbed by the actively cooled surface, heat is removed by
water flowing through a hydronic circuit, replacing the warmed water
with cooler water.
In this study, an Eulerian-Lagrangian CFD model is established and
validated by experimental data in order to predict the turbulent airflow
characteristics and thermal performance of the CRCP system as well as
the unsteady particle trajectories. Two ventilation strategies under
different air change rates are considered, namely up-supply and down-
supply ventilations. The conjugate heat transfer between CRCP and
room is examined for different inlet chilled water temperatures. The
normalised concentration, number density and decay rate loss coeffi­
cient are monitored as the main indicators of the particle deposition
rate. In addition, the concentration of particles in the breathing zone is
compared under different operational conditions. The results of the
present study are expected to provide insights into future design of the
ventilation and ceiling radiant cooling system for a better indoor air
quality.
2. Methods
2.1. Physical models
The domain and operational conditions under examination are those
proposed by Xie et al. [27] in an experimental study to evaluate the
thermal performance of CRCP as well as the thermal comfort condition.
Accordingly, operational conditions regarded in the present study
comply with thermal comfort standards, as shown in [27]. The consid­
ered geometry is a typical test room with dimensions of 3.8 m (length) ×
4.0 m (width) × 3.0 m (height) and a gross volume of 45.6 m3. The
enclosure consists of the highly insulated walls, two ventilation vents
(supply inlet and outlet), and a ceiling mounted CRCP system. The
ventilation vents have an identical cross-sectional area equal to 0.08 m2
and were fitted on opposite side walls at distance of 20 cm from the
ceiling and floor. In the present study, effects of both up-supply and
down-supply ventilations are taken into account. The CRCP system is the
capillary type and consists of a series of U-pipes with inlet chilled water
and outlet. The U-pipes were arranged in a parallel assembly covering
90% of the ceiling area. The schematic of domain under study and
features of the CRCP system are illustrated in Fig. 1.
The U-tube diameter and shank spacing in CRCP system were
considered equal to 4.3 and 20 mm, respectively. The tubes were
covered with a plaster layer with the thickness of 10 mm and the thermal
conductivity of 0.75 W/(m.K). Regarding the chilled water of the CRCP
as a key factor affecting the cooling performance, different values of the
inlet water temperature were examined ranging from 14.5 ◦ C to 20.1 ◦ C.
Moreover, the volume flow rate of the chilled water was considered
equal to 0.57 m3/h.
The fresh air enters the room via either up-supply or down-supply
vents. To investigate the effect of the ventilation rate, five different
inlet velocities were considered corresponding to values of the air
change per hour (ACH) from 0.2 to 1.8. Table 1 reports details of the
ventilation modes in both up-supply and down-supply conditions.
In order to evaluate the particle concentrations in the breathing
zone, the definition of “breathing zone” from the ASHRAE standard [28]
was considered, namely “the region within an occupied space between
planes 3 and 72 in (75 and 1800 mm) above the floor and more than 2 ft
(600 mm) from the walls or fixed air-conditioning equipment”. The
breathing zone has been marked with red dashed lines in Fig. 1.
2.2. Numerical method
An Eulerian-Lagrangian computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model
was established to predict the airflow field, trajectories of indoor par­
ticles, and thermal performance of the CRCP system. The airflow was
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini
Fig. 1. The schematic of room under study and features of the CRCP system with an unstructured mesh.
Table 1
Details of the ventilation modes in both up-supply and down-supply strategies.
Ventilation Air change per hour Flow rate Inlet velocity
modes (ACH) (m3/h) (m/s)
1 0.2 9.1 0.04
2 0.6 27.4 0.10
3 1.0 45.6 0.16
4 1.4 63.8 0.22
5 1.8 82.1 0.30
assumed to be incompressible, regarding the low air velocity as well as
small pressure gradient. The thermophysical properties of the moist air
were calculated at reference temperature of 20 ◦ C and relative humidity
of 50%. It was assumed that the air density is constant, except in the
buoyancy force term, which was estimated through the Boussinesq
approximation as a linear function of the air temperature;ρ =
ρ0 [1 − β(T − T0 ) ].
The indoor airflow is a turbulent flow driven by momentum and
buoyancy force and was simulated by employing the Reynolds Averaged
Navier-Stokes (RANS) model. In analogy with similar studies [3,29], the
RNG (Renormalisation Group) k-ε turbulence model was considered for
the turbulence model. The enhanced wall treatment method was
adopted to model near-wall turbulent flow. This method is based on the
turbulent Reynolds number, Rey = ρ y к0.5μ− 1, combining a viscosity-
affected layer and fully turbulent region with enhanced wall functions
[30]. The radiation heat transfer inside the computational domain was
modelled by employing the discrete ordinates (DO) radiation model,
which solves the radiative transfer equation for a finite number of
discrete solid angles.
For the CRCP system, the thermophysical properties of water were
calculated at the reference temperature of inlet chilled water and were
assumed to be constant. The conjugate heat transfer in CRCP system
includes the convective heat transfer between water and pipes,
conductive heat transfer between pipes and plaster layer, and convec­
tion and radiation between the CRCP panel surface and indoor envi­
ronment. At the solid-fluid interface, the flow boundary layer and heat
transfer layer were considered. The thermal resistance of contact layers
between water and pipes was disregarded due to a very small thickness
of capillary u-pipes.
The discrete phase model (DPM), i.e. Lagrangian approach [31–33],
was applied to track individual particles through transient continuum
fluid medium. The discrete random walk (DRW) model was employed to
model the turbulent particle dispersion, which assumes the fluctuating
velocity parameters to be discrete piecewise constant functions of time
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 34 (2022) 101438
and their random value is considered constant over an interval of time
given by eddies’ characteristic lifetime [19]. For the interaction between
the indoor air and particles, the one-way coupling method was applied,
Re i.e., the turbulent flow modifies the particles behaviour while the par­
ticles motion has no effect on the turbulent flow due to small size and
627 low concentration of particles [10]. In order to take into account the
1628 synergistic effects of the particle size, five groups of particles with
2714
3798
different sizes were considered in this study, namely 0.1, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0
4884 and 10 µm. In fact, the considered particle diameters are of particular
interest to the IAQ since they are regarded as inhaled particles. For
particle injection, 50,000 particles were uniformly distributed into
computational domain with total mass flow rate of 8.37×10− 9 kg/s.
Particle numbers were divided equally for each group size, i.e. 10,000
particles for each diameter, with density of 1400 kg/m3 and specific heat
of 1680 J/(kg.K) [17,19].
All simulations in this study were conducted by means of the finite
volume method (FVM) implemented through ANSYS Fluent software.
Firstly, the 3D governing equations were solved to obtain the steady
airflow field and temperature. After reaching to the converged solution
of the steady-state, particles were injected and unsteady simulations
were performed. The SIMPLE method (semi-implicit method for
pressure-linked equation) was used to solve the governing equations.
The second-order upwind and PRESTO! schemes were utilized to
convert the governing equations into a set of algebraic discretized
equations. The convergence criteria for the momentum and energy
equations was assumed as 10− 5 and 10− 7, respectively.
2.3. Governing equations
The governing equations of the mass, momentum and energy balance
for transient turbulent flow are given as follows:
∂ρ
+ ∇⋅(ρ→
v)=0 (1)
∂t
[ → ]
∂v
ρ0 + (→
v ⋅∇)→
v = − ∇(p + ρ0 g z) + ρ0 gβ(T − T0 )∇z + ∇⋅̃τeff (2)
∂t
[ ]
∂
(ρe) + ∇⋅(→
v (ρe + p) ) = ∇⋅ (k + kt )∇T + ̃τeff ⋅→
v (3)
∂t
In Eqs. (1) to (3),→ v is the velocity vector, p is the pressur­
e,e = h − p/ρ + v2 /2 and h is the specific enthalpy, and ̃τeff is the effective
stress tensor given bỹτeff = ̃τ + ̃τt , which in the Boussinesq approxima­
tion is expressed as:
3
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 34 (2022) 101438

̃τ = μ(∇→
v + ∇→
v ) ;̃τt = μt (∇→
T
v + ∇→
v )
T
(4) code reading the history of particle trajectories from the CFD code. In
this study, in order to evaluate the decay rate of particles, concept of the
The turbulence RNG к-ε model’s governing equations are: decay rate loss coefficient was utilised, defined as follows [38,39]:
(ρκ) ( )
∂ + ∇.(ρκ→
v ) = ∇. ακ μeff ∇κ + 2μi Eij Eij − ρε (5) γ=
− ln(C(t)/C(0))
(15)
∂t t
∂(ρε) ( ) ε ε2
v ) = ∇. αε μeff ∇ε + C1*ε 2μt Eij EIJ − C2ε ρ
+ ∇.(ρε→ (6) 2.4. Boundary conditions
∂t κ κ
2
where in Eqs. (5) and (6):μeff = μ + μt ; μt = ρCμ κε . The adopted values of In the present study, the operational and boundary conditions were
the RNG turbulence coefficients can be found in [34]. selected similar to those adopted in the experimental study of Xie et al.
It was assumed that forces affecting the indoor particles’ motions are [27]. The domain consists of a solid region of the plaster panel and two
drag, gravitational, lift, thermophoretic and Brownian force. In fact, fluid zones including indoor air and chilled water flowing through U-
other forces such as the pressure gradient, virtual mass and Basset force tubes. The interface between the solid and fluid regions was regarded as
can be neglected due to low ratio amount of the air density to the par­ a coupled condition in order to simulate the conjugate heat transfer. A
ticle density [35,36]. Hence, the particles’ force balance equation takes non-slip condition was imposed on all solid walls. The floor, ceiling and
the following final form: side walls as well as the top surface of cooling panel were assumed to be
adiabatic since the test room is well-insulated. At the air supply inlet and
( ) →( )
d→vp g ρp − ρ inlet chilled water, the velocity inlet condition with specified velocity
= FD → v − →
vp + + Fs + Fth + FB (7)
dt ρp and temperature was considered. The pressure outlet condition was
applied at both air and water outlets. All solid surfaces were considered
where FD, Fs, Fth, and FB are the drag, lift, thermophoretic and Brownian to be opaque with corresponding values of internal emissivity (ε)
forces, respectively. adopted from [40]. The internal heat gain was set equal to 13 W/m3, as
The drag force was estimated by using the Stokes drag law: employed in [27]. Moreover, the infiltration effect was ignored since the
( ) ventilation room usually has a positive pressure. The summary of
18μ
FD = →
v − →
vp (8) boundary conditions is reported in Table 2.
ρp dp Cc
2
Referring to similar studies [17,32], particles were assumed to be
The Stokes-Cunningham correction factor was employed to estimate trapped in the event of hitting any wall surface, implying that the par­
the drag coefficient Cc, which can be expressed as [37]: ticle trajectory was terminated and it was considered as deposited. It was
assumed that particles are escaped when they reach at the outlet
λ( )
boundary, wheras the reflecting condition was considered at the velocity
CC = 1 + 2.514 + 0.8e− 0.55dp /λ
(9)
dp inlet.
In Eq. (9), λ is the mean free path of the air molecules.
The Saffman lift force due to the shear stress was calculated by: 2.5. Mesh independence
( )
2K ν0.5 ρdij
FS = 0.25
→
v − →
vp (10) The polyhedral grid strategy was utilised to mesh the computational
ρp dp (dlk dkl ) domain. Having a very thin fluid-solid region in CRCP system resulted in
a significant increase in the number of mesh elements. The domain was
where K = 2.594 and dij is the deformation tensor. preliminary meshed with unstructured tetrahedral elements containing
The stochastic phenomenon of the Brownian diffusion was modelled 4,625,119 elements, which then converted to polyhedral mesh in order
by Gaussian random number with zero-mean unit variance, G, and it can to optimize the grid quality. The major advantage of polyhedral grid is
be given as: that the numerical diffusion caused by non-perpendicular flows is
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ diminished since each individual cell has many neighbours [41]. A non-
FB = G πS0 /ΔT (11)
uniform mesh strategy was regarded, with a more dense mesh in CRCP
216υkB T and in vicinity of solid walls and ventilation vents, and a smoother mesh
S0 = , kB = 1.38064852 × 10− 23
(J/K) (12) density with expansion rate for far-field regions. To justify adoption of
π 2 ρdp5 (ρp /ρ)2 Cc
the enhanced wall function in RNG turbulence model, it was ensured
where υ is the fluid kinematic viscosity and kB is the Boltzmann constant. that, for a given Reynolds number, the distance from the wall remains
Furthermore, the fluctuating velocity parameter in DRW model was below y+= 5.
estimated by: The mesh independence of the results was checked by comparing
mean values of the air velocity and temperature obtained by four
→′ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
v = ξ 2k/3 (13)
Table 2
where k is the turbulent kinetic energy and ξ is a normally distributed Summary of the boundary conditions.
random number, which accounts for the randomness of turbulence. Boundary name Conditions
The mean particle concentration, which is an indicator representing
Supply inlet Velocity inlet (0.04, 0.10, 0.16, 0.22 and 0.3 m/s, and 19.8 ◦ C),
the particle deposition rate, was calculated by: 5.5–6.2% turbulence intensity and 0.02 m length scale, reflect
Outlet Pressure outlet, escape
ΣCi Vi
C= (14) Floor No-slip, adiabatic, ε = 0.82, trap
ΣVi Ceiling No-slip, adiabatic, ε = 0.82, trap
Side walls No-slip, adiabatic, ε = 0.82, trap
where Ci and Vi are the concentration and volume of the ith cell in Door No-slip, adiabatic, ε = 0.87, trap
computational grid. To better elaboration of the results, the concentra­ CRCP No-slip, coupling (conjugate heat transfer), ε = 0.92, trap
tion was normalised by dividing the initial concentration of injected Inlet chilled Velocity inlet (0.57 m3/h, and 14.5, 16.0, 17.4, 18.6 and
water 20.1 ◦ C), 4.6% turbulence intensity
particles, i.e.,C* = C(t)/C(0). In addition, the concentration and number Outlet chilled Pressure outlet
of particles in the breathing zone was assessed by employing a MATLAB water

4
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 34 (2022) 101438

different grids. As an operational condition, the case with inlet water

temperature of 14.5 ◦ C at 1.0 ACH was considered. Table 3 reports the
characteristics of different grids and values of the velocity and temper­
ature obtained by each mesh as well as their discrepancy form the
selected mesh for final computations, i.e. Mesh 3. Table shows that the
maximum absolute discrepancy for the mean air velocity and tempera­
ture is 1.85% and 0.26%, respectively, implying the mesh independence
of the results.

3. Results

3.1. Model validation

To validate the numerical model of the CRCP system, the simulated

and experimental [27] mean surface temperatures of radiant panel were
compared for different inlet water temperatures. Fig. 2 shows that the
surface temperature of radiant panel is an increasing function of the inlet
chilled water temperature (Ticw). It is evident from the figure that the Fig. 2. A comparison between measured [27] and simulated surface tempera­
tures of the CRCP system as a function of different inlet chilled water
simulated results are in good agreement with the measured ones. The
temperatures.
root-mean-square-deviation of numerical results is equal to 0.17 ◦ C and
the maximum discrepancy between experimental and numerical results
is 1.58% belongs to Ticw = 17.4 ◦ C.
In order to validate the developed discrete phase model (DPM) for
particle tracking, experimental results of Chen et al. [42] were compared
with the numerical results. These results have been used in several
similar studies [19,23,43] as a reference data for the validation of nu­
merical models. The test chamber has dimensions of 0.8 m (x) × 0.4 m
(y) × 0.4 m (z) with an identical inlet and outlet vent size equal to 0.16
m2, illustrated in Fig. 3. The inlet air velocity is 0.225 m/s and particle
were injected from the inlet vent with diameter of 10 µm and density of
1400 kg/m3. The characteristics of employed numerical model for
model validation is identical to that described in section 2.
Fig. 4 compares the simulated and measured x-velocity magnitude
and normalised particle concentration along three measuring lines (x =
0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 m) on mid-section plane. The figure shows a rather Fig. 3. Experimental setup by Chen et al. [42].
similar trend for the x-velocity magnitude and normalised concentra­
tion. It can be observed that values of the velocity and concentration maximum velocity (0.32 m/s) compared to the up-supply one. For both
along x = 0.2 m are rather larger than other lines, which is due to the ventilation methods, the velocity magnitude increases in the zone
vicinity of this line to the inlet vent. Comparison of graphs shows a good adjacent to the cooling panel, which can be attributed to a higher
agreement between the numerical results and experimental data. The temperature gradient in this area. In down-supply ventilation, a larger
highest root-mean-square-deviation of simulated velocity magnitude velocity magnitude on upper half of the domain can be observed,
and normalised concentration from measured ones is at x = 0.6, corre­ amplifying with increase in the temperature of cooling panel. This effect
sponding to values of 0.048 m/s and 0.035, respectively. in down-supply ventilation can be explained by an intensified buoyancy
force due to the temperature increment. The highest mean velocity
magnitude among different cases is 0.061 m/s corresponding to the up-
3.2. Air velocity and temperature distribution
supply ventilation with Ticw = 14.5 ◦ C.
Similarly, Fig. 6 illustrates contours of the static temperature on the
Fig. 5 compares contours of the air velocity magnitude on the mid-
mid-plane in both ventilation methods for three different temperatures
section plane in both ventilation strategies for three different inlet
of the inlet chilled water. It is evident from the figure that increasing the
temperatures of the chilled water, i.e., Ticw = 14.5, 17.4 and 20.1 ◦ C. The
inlet chilled water temperature in both ventilation methods results in an
results are presented for an intermediate inlet air velocity, namely 0.16
increase in the air temperature. For instance, when the CRCP inlet
m/s, corresponding to 1.0 ACH. For the up-supply ventilation, the figure
temperature in up-supply ventilation rises from 14.5 ◦ C to 17.4 ◦ C, there
shows that the fresh air enters the domain and flows under forced
is a 0.94 ◦ C increment in the mean air temperature. For both ventilation
convection before descending along the side wall towards the floor due
methods, the contours show a stratified temperature distribution from
to its lower density, with a maximum velocity magnitude of 0.45 m/s.
the floor to a height of 2 m above the floor. However, the figure indicates
On the other hand, the discharged flow from the down-supply vent
that the temperature distribution in the upper third part of the room is
traverses a shorter path before hitting the floor and therefore has a lower

Table 3
Mesh independence of the results: Comparison of the mean air velocity and temperature.
Mesh No. Elements v Discrepancy from Mesh 3 T Discrepancy from Mesh 3
(o
Tetrahedral Polyhedral Poly Nodes (m/s) (%) C) (%)
1 2,981,310 521,509 3,072,482 0.0607 1.85 23.872 − 0.26
2 3,741,137 654,423 3,855,545 0.0587 − 1.51 23.951 0.07
3 4,625,119 809,055 4,766,561 0.0596 – 23.935 –
4 4,764,314 833,404 4,910,013 0.0603 1.17 23.949 0.06

5
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 34 (2022) 101438

Fig. 4. Comparison of the velocity magnitude and normalised particle concentration along three measuring lines: simulation vs. experiment [42].

6
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 34 (2022) 101438

Fig. 5. Contours of the air velocity magnitude on the mid-plane in both ventilation methods for three different temperatures of the inlet chilled water.

Fig. 6. Contours of the static temperature on the mid-plane in both ventilation methods for three different temperatures of the inlet chilled water.

affected by the colder and denser air in vicinity of the CRCP system.
Compared to the up-supply ventilation, a 0.5 ◦ C lower floor temperature
is observed for all cases in the down-supply ventilation due to the supply
airflow path. Nonetheless, for a given temperature of inlet chilled water,
the difference between the volume-averaged air temperatures of up- and
down-supply ventilations is insignificant. The figure shows that by
decreasing the inlet temperature of chilled water the temperature
gradient in vicinity of the CRCP becomes larger and the impact of the
convective heat transfer enhances. In both ventilation strategies, the
heat transfer analysis of the results showed that reducing the inlet
temperature of chilled water from 20.1 to 14.5◦ C leads to a fourfold
increase in the Nusselt number.
3.3. Up-supply ventilation
Fig. 7 illustrates the comparison of normalised particle concentration
under five different air change rates of up-supply mode for Ticw =
17.4 ◦ C. The figure shows that the volume-averaged concentration is a
decreasing function of time and that more than 90% of particles are
deposited at 600 s, under any ventilation rate. It indicates that as the
inlet velocity increases, the particle concentration falls with a steeper
slope, representing a faster deposition ratio for a higher ventilation rate.
The largest difference between graphs can be observed at t = 100 s,
however, this difference is vanished 500 s after particle injection.
Therefore, for up-supply ventilation, a higher value of ACH leads to a
faster deposition of particles which is due to an increase in the mean air
velocity.
The effect of the inlet temperature of chilled water on particle

7
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini
Fig. 7. Comparison of the volume-averaged normalised concentration under
different ventilation rates in the up-supply mode.
concentration is demonstrated in Fig. 8, for three different inlet water
temperatures, namely 14.5, 17.4 and 20.1 ◦ C. The figure shows that the
chilled water temperature and, consequently, the surface temperature of
CRCP could have a significant effect on the particle deposition rate. For a
given ventilation rate, the lower the chilled water temperature, the
lower the particle concentration and therefore the faster the decay rate.
To highlight quantitatively this effect under different ventilation rates,
Fig. 9 examines the particle decay rate loss coefficient γ for different
inlet water temperatures and air change rates at t = 300 s. The figure
shows that a lower inlet chilled water temperature (CRCP temperature)
and a higher ventilation inlet velocity accelerate the particle deposition
(larger γ). Nevertheless, it is noticeable from the chart that the CRCP
temperature has a greater effect on particle decay rate than ventilation
inlet velocity. Sensitivity analysis of the results showed that a 40%
augmentation of the ventilation rate leads to 2.6% increase in particle
decay rate, whereas the same alteration in inlet water temperature
(20.1 ◦ C to 14.5 ◦ C) results in 7.3% enhancement of the decay rate.
It was found that, in each ventilation rate, the improvement of the
decay rate due to decrease of Ticw can be attributed to a larger tem­
perature difference between the CRCP surface and surrounding walls. To
show this relation, a characteristic mean temperature difference is
introduced between the CRCP surface and surrounding walls, denoted
by θ = T wall − Ticw . Fig. 9 clearly shows that a larger γ corresponds to a
higher value of θ, for a given ventilation rate. It also indicates that θ
decreases linearly with increasing the inlet air velocity, which
Fig. 8. Comparison of the mean normalised concentration for different inlet
temperatures of the CRCP system at 1.0 ACH.
8
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 34 (2022) 101438
Fig. 9. Comparison of the decay rate loss coefficient (γ) and the characteristics
temperature difference between CRCP surface and surrounding walls (θ) for
different inlet water temperatures and ventilation rates.
demonstrates the amplified effect of the inlet air temperature on
decreasing the temperature of side walls. In fact, the relation between γ
and θ can be explained by the intensified air velocity field due to the
larger temperature difference accelerating the particle deposition.
To survey different surfaces’ proportion in particle deposition,
Fig. 10 displays the deposition percentage on the floor, ceiling, and side
walls as well as the percentage of particles escaped via outlet vent and
those scattered in the room. Figure shows that the highest deposition
proportion in all cases belongs to the surrounding walls (more than
55%) and that this proportion increases with decreasing the temperature
of the CRCP surface, which is due to the larger air velocity in vicinity of
vertical walls (see Fig. 5) and, consequently, a larger drag force. The
figure shows that almost 25% of particles adhere on the floor with a
slight difference for different CRCP temperatures. On the other hand, the
ceiling, including the CRCP surface, with almost 4 % has the lowest
share in particle deposition for different inlet temperatures of the chilled
water. This can be justified by the downward streamlines adjacent to the
CRCP surface due to a higher air density pushing particles away from the
ceiling. Furthermore, the chart indicates that increasing the CRCP
temperature simultaneously increases the number of suspended parti­
cles and decreases the particle removal efficiency.
Fig. 11 compares the number of particles in the breathing zone (Nbz)
for different inlet chilled water temperatures and ventilation rates at t =
300 s. For any ventilation rate, the bar chart indicates that decreasing
the inlet temperature of chilled water leads to a reduction in the number
Fig. 10. Particle deposition percentage on each surface for different inlet
temperatures of the CRCP system at ACH = 1.0.
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini
Fig. 11. Comparison of the number of particles in the breathing zone (Nbz) for
different ventilation rates and inlet temperatures of the CRCP system.
of particles in the breathing zone. As expected, the figure shows the
decrease in Nbz by increasing the ventilation rate, for different inlet
water temperatures. However, it is noticeable that this reduction be­
comes more striking as the inlet temperature of CRCP increases. For
instance, at 0.6 ACH, the maximum difference in Nbz for different values
of Ticw is more than 11% while, at 1.4 ACH, this difference decreases to
2.7%. Hence, in order to obtain a better air quality in the breathing zone,
it is beneficial to increase the ventilation rate when the CRCP temper­
ature rises.
3.4. Down-supply vs. up-supply
Fig. 12 illustrates the volume-averaged normalised concentration in
down-supply ventilation under four different air change rates, for an
intermediate inlet temperature of CRCP, namely Ticw = 17.4 ◦ C. Similar
to the up-supply ventilation, the particle concentration is a decreasing
function of time and a higher inlet velocity leads to a faster decay of
particle concentration. A comparison between the results of Figs. 12 and
7 reveals that graphs in up-supply ventilation descend with a slightly
steeper slope under an equivalent condition, implying their faster
deposition rate.
To better illustrate this difference, Fig. 13 shows a comparison be­
tween the number density in both ventilation strategies at ACH = 1.0 for
two inlet temperatures of chilled water, namely Ticw = 14.5 and 20.1 ◦ C.
The number density is an effective parameter representing the number
Fig. 12. Comparison of the volume-averaged normalised concentration under
different ventilation rates in the down-supply mode.
9
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 34 (2022) 101438
Fig. 13. Comparison of the number density in up- and down-supply ventilation
strategies for two inlet temperatures of chilled water.
of specified particles per volume of an enclosed environment. The figure
indicates that in down-supply ventilation, similar to the up-supply
mode, the lower the temperature of inlet chilled water, the lower the
number density. It is evident from the figure that the up-supply venti­
lation for each inlet water temperature renders a smaller number density
compared to the down-supply one. For instance, in the case of Ticw =
14.5 at t = 300 s, the number density in up-supply ventilation is equal to
287 while in down-supply one is 331, indicating 2006 more particles for
the down-supply mode at the same time.
Fig. 14 compares time evolution of the decay rate coefficient γ in
both ventilation strategies for different inlet water temperatures. The
figure shows that the decay rate coefficient in each case increases over
time before reaching a quasi-asymptotic value. The results of Fig. 14
confirm the superiority of up-supply ventilation in particle decay rate
over down-supply one; between 100 s and 600 s after particle injection,
the up-supply ventilation shows an average of 9.1% and 6.2% higher
decay coefficient for Ticw = 14.5 and 20.1 ◦ C, respectively, compared to
the down-supply mode. In addition, the results of down-supply venti­
lation imply that a faster particle decay is associated with a larger
temperature difference between the CRCP surface and surrounding
walls, i.e. a larger θ, similar to the up-supply ventilation (Fig. 9).
Fig. 15 demonstrates details of the particle deposition fraction for
both ventilation strategy cases at t = 600 s and 1.0 ACH. It should be
mentioned that in order to enhance the readability of chart, the depo­
sition fraction on side walls is not presented. The figure shows a
Fig. 14. Time evolution of the decay rate loss coefficient in up- and down-
supply ventilations: A comparison on θ for different cases.
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini
Fig. 15. Comparison of the particle deposition fraction in different cases.
significant difference in particle deposition ratio for up- and down-
supply ventilations, particularly in deposited particles on the floor and
in those removed through the outlet vent. The figure displays that the
up-supply ventilation in both CRCP temperatures has approximately 8%
higher floor deposition ratio than the down-supply one. This is
explainable by the fact that the fresh air enters the room form the bottom
in down-supply ventilation and particles adjacent to the floor are
possibly carried away by the entrainment of airflow. The results indicate
that while the down-supply ventilation with Ticw = 20.1 is the worst case
in terms of the dispersion rate, it renders the highest particle removal
efficiency among all scenarios by driving 10.2 % of particles out. Indeed,
when θ becomes smaller (higher Ticw) in down-supply mode, an inten­
sified buoyant flow has a striking influence in driving particles upward,
as discussed in Fig. 5. Therefore, it results simultaneously in a better
particle removal via outlet and a higher number of dispersed particles
inside the room. Moreover, it is evident from the chart that small
Fig. 16. Contours of the particle concentration on the mid-horizontal plane (z = 1.5 m) for different cases at t = 300 s.
10
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 34 (2022) 101438
amounts of particles are deposited on the ceiling surface with a slight
difference in each case, as discussed in Fig. 10.
Considering the particle concentration in breathing zone, contours of
Fig. 16 compare the concentration on mid-horizontal plane (z = 1.5 m)
in both up- and down-supply ventilations for two inlet temperatures of
the CRCP system. Figures clearly demonstrate that, for both ventilation
methods, the concentration of particles on the mid-horizontal plane is
significantly lower when the temperature of CRCP system decreases.
Furthermore, for a given inlet temperature of the CRCP, the up-supply
ventilation shows a slightly better performance in removal of particles
from the breathing zone, compared to the down-supply mode. The
lowest particle concentration on the mid-horizontal plan belongs to the
up-supply ventilation with Ticw = 14.5 ◦ C, with an area-averaged value
of 5.3×10− 11 kg/m3. On the other hand, the down-supply case with Ticw
= 20.1 ◦ C has the highest average concentration, equal to 8.6×10− 11 kg/
m3. Indeed, it was shown in Fig. 15 that the down-supply case with Ticw
= 20.1 ◦ C has the highest dispersion rate among different cases, which
also here presents the highest concentration in the breathing zone.
It is noteworthy to mention that the evaluation of the volume-
averaged normalised concentration in the breathing zone (marked in
Fig. 1) for different cases confirmed the results of Fig. 16; the highest
normalised concentration in the breathing zone is C*=0.0541 and be­
longs to the down-supply ventilation with Ticw = 20.1 ◦ C, while the case
of up-supply ventilation with Ticw = 14.5 ◦ C shows the lowest concen­
tration with C*=0.0439.
4. Conclusions
The present study examined the integrated effects of the ceiling
radiant cooling and ventilation on dispersion and deposition of indoor
airborne particles. Two ventilation strategies were considered, namely
up-supply and down-supply, under different ventilation rates. The
conjugate heat transfer between the ceiling radiant cooling panel
(CRCP) system and the indoor air was evaluated for different inlet
temperatures of the chilled water. Five groups of particles with different
A. Jahanbin and G. Semprini
diameters were selected to be injected uniformly inside the room,
ranging from 0.1 to 10 µm. An Eulerian-Lagrangian CFD model was
established in order to predict the turbulent characteristics of the airflow
and thermal performance of the CRCP system as well as the transient
particle trajectories. The numerical model was validated by two series of
experimental results. The concentration of particles in the breathing
zone was assessed by employing a MATLAB code. The normalised con­
centration, number density and decay rate loss coefficient were moni­
tored as the main indicators of the particle deposition rate. Based on the
obtained results, the main findings of this study can be concluded as
follows:
• In both up- and down-supply ventilations, the lower the temperature
of the CRCP, the faster the particle deposition under any ventilation
rate. The results indicated that while the decay rate in up-supply
ventilation is faster than down-supply one, the down-supply mode
removes higher number of particles for a given ventilation rate.
Furthermore, the up-supply ventilation showed a larger deposition
ratio on the floor (more than 27%), compared to the down-supply
one (19.6%).
• It was found that the particle decay rate is strongly related to the
temperature difference between the CRCP surface and surrounding
walls. For a given inlet air velocity, a larger temperature difference
between the CRCP surface and side walls resulted in a faster depo­
sition of particles.
• A sensitivity analysis on the results indicated that the surface tem­
perature of CRCP in both ventilation strategies is a more influential
parameter in the particle decay rate, compared to the ventilation
inlet velocity; a 40% augmentation of the ventilation rate led to 2.6%
increase in the particle decay rate, whereas the same alteration in the
inlet water temperature resulted in 7.3% enhancement of the decay
rate.
• For both ventilation methods, the particle concentration in breathing
zone diminished by decreasing the temperature of radiant cooling
panel. It was also shown that the number of particles in breathing
zone decreases by increasing the ventilation rate. However, the
impact of ventilation rate became more striking as the inlet tem­
perature of CRCP increased.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Aminhossein Jahanbin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Soft­
ware, Validation, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft.
Giovanni Semprini: Supervision, Conceptualization, Visualization,
Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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