3 PV - Systems Components and System Sizing

Photovoltaic Basics
- PV applications
- Solar resource
- PV cell characteristic,, electrical model and how it works
- Impact of temperature and shading on PV cell
- Types solar cell
1
PV applications
A. Applications of Stand-alone systems:
A system
y that operates
p independently
p y of,, or is not connected to,, an electric
transmission and distribution network.
S l power iis also

Solar l on the
th advance
d when
h it comes to
t mini-applications:
i i li ti
9 pocket calculators,
9 clocks, battery chargers,
9 flashlights,
9 solar radios, etc., are well known examples of the successful use of solar
cells in stand-alone
stand alone applications.
applications
2
Other typical applications for stand-
stand-alone systems:
9 Mobile systems on cars, camper vans, boats, etc.;
9 Remote mountain cabins, weekend and holiday homes and village

electrification in developing countries;
9 SOS telephones, parking ticket machines, traffic signals and observation

systems, communication stations, buoys and similar applications that are
remote from the grid;
9 Applications in gardening and landscaping;
9 Solar pump systems for drinking water and irrigation, solar water
disinfection and desalination
3
Milk frothier Solar charger
Garden light
S l car
Solar
4
Mobile ice-cream Mountain cabin with small

stand with stand-alone PV system
solar freezer system
y
Solar bus-stop
bus stop lighting
Solar pump system

for drinking water
5
PV applications
B. Applications of A grid-
grid-connected PV system
Principle
p of a ggrid- Grid connected PV system on the roof
Grid-connected
connected PV system of a family house
6
Solar radiation
¾ The sun as an energy source

Th sun supplies
The li energy in
i the
h form
f off radiation,
di i without
ih which
hi h life
lif on
Earth could not exist. The energy is generated in the sun's core through the
f i off hydrogen
fusion h d atoms
t into
i t helium.
h li Part
P t off the
th mass off the
th hydrogen
h d is
i
converted into energy. In other words, the sun is an enormous nuclear
fusion reactor
reactor. Because the sun is such a long way from the Earth,
Earth only a
tiny proportion (around two-millionths) of the sun's radiation reaches the
Earth'ss surface.
Earth
7
PV applications
¾ Distribution of solar radiation in KWh/m2
8
PV applications
Angle definition
yExact knowledge of the sun's path is important for calculating irradiance

values
l andd the
h yields
i ld off solar
l energy systems. The Th sun's ' altitude
l i d can be
b
described at any location by the solar altitude and the solar azimuth.
9
PV applications
¾H
How solar
l radiation
di ti isi measuredd
y Solar radiation is either measured directly using pyrano meters or
photovoltaic sensors,
sensors or indirectly by analyzing satellite images.
images Pyrano
meters are high-precision sensors that measure solar radiation on a planar
surface.
Irradiance meter with PV sensor

Photovoltaic sensor
10
PV cell characteristic, electrical model and how it works
¾ SOLAR CELLS, How They Work

The solar cell offers a limitless and environmentally friendly source of
electricity. The solar cell, is able to create electricity directly from photons.
A photon can be thought of as a packet of light and the amount of energy in
a photon is proportional to the wavelength of light.
11
¾ A Photon causes the Photoelectric Effect
The photon's energy transfers to the valence electron of an atom in the n-type Si layer.
That energy allows the valence electron to escape its orbit leaving behind a hole. In
the n-type silicon layer, the free electrons are called majority carriers whereas the
holes are called minority carriers. As the term "carrier" implies, both are able to
move throughout the silicon layer of the solar cell, and so are said to be mobile.
Inversely, in the p-type silicon layer, electrons are termed minority carriers and holes
are termed minority carriers, and of course are also mobile.
When photons hit the solar cell, freed electrons (-) attempt to unite with holes on the
pp-type
yp layer.
y The pp-n jjunction, a one-wayy road, onlyy allows the electrons to move in
one direction. If we provide an external conductive path, electrons will flow through
this path to their original (p-type) side to unite with holes.
12
¾
¾Electrical model Dark equivalent circuit diagram
and characteristic curve
Current voltage curve for

silicon diode
13
Thiss eextended
e ded equivalent
equ va e circuit
c cu diagram
d ag a iss termed
e ed a single-diode
s g e d ode model
ode of o a
solar cell and is used as a standard model in photovoltaic's. In the solar cell, a
voltage drop occurs as the charge carriers migrate from the semiconductor to
the electrical contacts. This is described by the series resistor Rs, which is in
the range of a few milliohms. In addition, what are known as leakage currents
arise, which are described by the parallel resistor. Both resistors bring about a
flattening of the solar cell characteristic curve. With the series resistor, it is
possible
ibl to calculate
l l current/voltage
/ l characteristic
h i i curves off solar
l cells
ll at
different irradiances and temperatures.
Extended equivalent
circuit diagram
14
¾Cell
C ll parameters
t andd solar
l cell
ll characteristic
h t i ti I-I-V curves
y In the technical literature, frequently it is only the part of the current and
voltage curve in which the solar cell produces current that is shown fourth
quadrant of the light characteristic curve. At the same time, the light
characteristic curve is mirrored in the voltage axis. This part of the
haracteristic curve is then termed the solar cell characteristic curve.
15
y Isc-short circuit current.

current
y Voc-open circuit voltage.
y Peak power.
p
Isc
Voc
¾PV cell Wiring

Series Connections Parallel Connections
• Loads/sources wired in series • Loads/sources wired in parallel:
– VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT

– VOLTAGES ARE ADDITIVE
– CURRENTS ARE ADDITIVE
– CURRENT IS EQUAL
17
Impact of temperature and shading on PV cell

¾ Effects of Temperature
y As the PV cell temperature

increases above 25 ºC,
C, the
module Vmpp decreases by
approximately 0.5% per
d
degree ºC
ºC.
School of Computing and Electrical Engineering

18
November 30, 2011 tasstad@gmail.com
¾ Effects of Insolation Variation
y As insolation decreases
the produced current
decreases while voltage
remains
i roughly
hl
constant
19
¾ Sh
Shading
di on Modules
M d l
y Depends on orientation of internal module circuitry relative to the
orientation of the shading.
y SHADING can half or even completely eliminate the output

of a solar array!
20
Types solar cell
¾ S l cells
Solar ll are classified
l ifi d
By the thickness of their material: thick-film or thin-film
Thick
hi k Crystalline
lli Materials
i l
Thin Film Materials
9Crystalline Silicon
9Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
Single crystal
Single-crystal
9Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
Multicrystalline
9Copper Indium Diselenide
Edge-defined film-fed growth
(CuInSe2, or CIS)
Dendritic
9Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
By their crystal structure: crystalline (Mono-crystalline or Polycrystalline)

or Amorphous
By their semiconductor material
21
Types solar cell
¾Monocrystalline Silicon Modules
y Most efficient commercially available

module (11% - 14%)
y Most expensive to produce
y Circular (square-round) cell creates

wasted space on module
22
Types solar cell
¾Polycrystalline Silicon Modules

y Less expensive
p to make than single
g
crystalline modules
y Cells slightly
g y less efficient than a single
g
crystalline (10% - 12%)
y Square
q shape
p cells fit into module
efficiently using the entire space
23
Types solar cell
¾Amorphous Thin Film

y Most inexpensive technology to produce
y Metal grid replaced with transparent oxides
y Efficiency = 6 – 8 %
y Can be deposited on flexible substrates
y Less susceptible to shading problems
y Better performance in low light conditions than

with crystalline modules
24
Components of PV solar system
1 PV module
2 Battery (Energy
( storage))
3 Charge
g controller ((Dc ppower conditioning
g)
4 Inverter
4 Loads
5 Wire Components
25
1 PV module
1. d l
¾ Photovoltaic (PV) Hierarchy
¾ Modules classification
¾ Characteristic I-V curves for modules and interconnection
¾ PV module data sheet
¾ Irradiance and temperature dependence characteristics
¾ Hot spots, bypass diodes and shading of module
26
1 PV module
¾Photovoltaic (PV) Hierarchy
y Cell < Module (Panel) < Array
27
¾ Modules classification
Various module classifications are used commercially. The general term
'module' (or panel) is defined more precisely by highlighting the module's
specific qualities.
Modules can be classified according to:
Cell type:
9 mono-crystalline modules;
9 polycrystalline modules;
9 thin-film modules (amorphous, CdTe and CIS modules).
Encapsulation material:
9 Teflon modules;;
9 PVB modules;
9 resin modules (the EVA classification module is not generally
used) Encapsulation technology:
used).Encapsulation
9 lamination (with EVA, PVB or teflon; see the following section on
'Laminates'). 28
¾Characteristic I -V curves for modules and interconnection

y As mentioned in previous section several solar cells are
interconnected in order to achieve greater power. Here, two types
are possible:
¾ series and
¾ parallel cell interconnection.
29
¾Series
S i cell
ll interconnection
i t ti
y In PV modules, the solar cells are largely connected in series to create a
higher voltage. Figure below demonstrates the change in the electrical
parameters and characteristic I-V curve when three solar cells are
connected in series. It can be seen that the cell voltages increase while the
current remains constant.
30
For stand-alone systems, standard 12V batteries were generally used, which
were charged via the modules. For this reason, a voltage level of 17V was
initially chosen for PV modules. This voltage is above the battery voltage to
ensure optimum charging. With silicon solar cells, the voltage value of 17V is
provided by a series connection of 36 to 40 solar cells. Since the PV market at
that time concentrated on producing such PV modules, these modules were
known as standard modules. Figure below illustrates the I-V curves result from
connecting 36 solar cells in series.
31
¾ Parallel cell interconnection
As well as connecting solar cells in series, multiple cell strings are often
connected in parallel, particularly in modules with higher power output.
Fi
Figure bbelow
l shows
h th
the change
h iin th
the characteristic
h t i ti I-V
I V curve as a result
lt off
connecting three solar cells in parallel. Here, the voltage remains constant
and the current increases. It is unusual to have PV modules in which only
one cell is connected to another because of the low voltage. g Several solar
cells are always first connected in series to form a string, and this string is
then connected in parallel to a module. With large PV modules, two or
more solar cell strings, each with 36 solar cells, are often connected in
parallel.
parallel
32
¾PV module data sheet
The electrical parameters for PV modules are determined by the manufacturers at , the
open-circuit voltage VOC and the maximum STC. The short-circuit current Isc ,
Power rating Pmax or Pmpp are specified for the solar modules with a tolerance up to
±10 percent
percent. In reality these conditions occur very rarely; however,
however if the sun shines
with the specified intensity, then the cell temperature would be higher than 25°C.
For this reason the nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) is often specified as
well. This cell temperature is determined for an irradiance level of 800 W/m2, an
ambient temperature of 20°C and a wind velocity of l m/s. From this the temperature
coefficients for current and voltage can be determined. Table below shows a typical
data sheet for a monocrystalline PV module.
33
An example of a typical PV module data sheet.
sheet
34
¾Irradiance and temperature dependence characteristics
PV systems very rarely operate under STC conditions. The electrical output and the
I V ccurves
I-V r es of PV mod
modules
les depend upon
pon temperatures and irradiance
irradiance, During
D ring the
course of a day the irradiance varies more than the temperature. The changes in
irradiance affect the module current most of all since the current is directly
dependent on the irradiance.
When irradiance drops by half, the electricity generated also reduces by half. By
contrast, the MPP voltage changes much less with changing irradiance. Figure
below shows that the maximum change in the MPP voltage resulting from
changing
h i irradiance
i di is
i approximately
i t l 4V with
ith a polycrystalline
l t lli 150W standard
t d d
module. But since in many PV systems a larger number of PV modules are
connected in series,, the fluctuation in the MPP voltage
g under changing
g g irradiance
can add up to more than 40V.
35
y With low
l irradiance
i di values
l off just
j t a few W/ 2 , the
f W/m th voltage
lt breaks
b k down.
d
Downstream inverters then operate in the fixed voltage range (i.e. at low
irradiance) and the modules no longer operate in the MPP: the inverter's
operating point no longer corresponds to the MPP
MPP.
36
The module voltage is affected most of all by the module temperature. The
MPP voltage deviation from the STC value of a ventilated 150W module can
amount to 10V during summer and in cold areas more than +10V in winter.
winter The
change in voltage of the module determines the system voltage and therefore
the design of the entire PV system. In particular, the increase in voltage at low
temperatures should be taken into account.
When several modules are connected in series, this can amount to more
than100V and perhaps exceed the voltage resistance of downstream devices.
When sizing grid connected PV systems , therefore, particular attention must
be paid to this situation.
situation The current hardly changes with changes in module
temperature. It increases slightly with increasing temperature.
37
Module I-V curves at different module temperatures and with

constant irradiance of 1000W/m^2
38
¾Hot spots, bypass diodes and shading of module
Under certain operating conditions, a shaded solar cell can heat up to such an
extent that the cell material is damaged and a so-called hot spot develops. This
can happen, for instance, when relatively high reverse current flows through the
unlit solar cell. A hot spot reduces the power of the solar cell only slightly
provided that no contact strip is destroyed. However, the probability of cell
failure and, hence, module failure increases each time the cell is shaded.
39
If a leaf
l f falls
f ll on the
h solar
l module
d l so that
h a solar
l cell
ll (in
(i Figure
Fi below)
b l ) is
i darkened,
d k d
this solar cell becomes an electricity load. No more current is generated in this cell.
Instead,, it uses the current from the other cells: the direction of the voltage
g is reversed
in the shaded cell. The current from the other illuminated solar cells is driven through
the darkened cell. This current flow is then converted into heat. If there is a large
enough current, this can lead to the hot spot effect already mentioned. The largest
current that can flow is the short-circuit current. Short-circuit currents are, for
example a normal occurrence in stand-alone
example, stand alone PV systems with short-circuit
short circuit charge
controllers.
40
To prevent a hot spot from developing, the current is diverted past the solar cells via
a bypass. This bypass is provided via a bypass diode. It prevents large voltages from
building up across the solar cells in the reverse-biased
reverse biased direction
direction. The largest shading
tolerance would be attained if bypass diodes were connected across every cell. In
practice, however, bypass diodes are usually connected for manufacturing reasons
across 18 to 20 solar cells. Hence, modules with 36 to 40 cells have two bypass
diodes, and modules with 72 solar cells have four bypass diodes.
The bypass diodes are generally housed in the module junction box . Some
manufacturers use laminating 'strip' bypass diodes in the modules.
41
2 Battery (Energy storage)
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of batteries
2.3 Batteries for PV system
42
2 1 Introduction
2.1
¾ B tt
Battery basics
b i
¾ Battery functions
¾ Charging/discharging
¾ Depth of discharge
¾ Battery safety
¾ Data sheet
43
¾Battery
B bbasics
i
Batteries in Series and Parallel

9 S i connections
Series i
Builds voltage
9 Parallel connections
Builds amp-hour capacity
44
Terms:
¾ Battery
A device that stores electrical energy (chemical energy to electrical energy and vice-
versa)
¾ Capacity
p y
Amount of electrical energy the battery will contain
¾ State of Charge (SOC)
Available battery capacity
¾ Depth of Discharge (DOD)
Energy taken out of the battery
¾ Efficiency
Energy out/Energy in (typically 80-85%)
45
¾ Battery
B tt functions
f ti
o Storage for the night
o Storage during cloudy weather
o Portable power
o S
Surge ffor starting
t ti motors
t
46
¾Battery Capacity
Capacity:
o A
Amps xH
Hours = A
Amp-hours
h (Ah)
100 amps for 1 hour
100 Amp-hours = 1 amp for 100 hours
20 amps for 5 hours
0.27 (60w)amp for 370 hours
o Capacity changes with Discharge Rate

o The higher the discharge rate the lower the capacity and vice versa
o The higher the temperature the higher the percent of rated capacity
47
¾ Depth or Rate of Charge or Discharge
Rate = C/T
C = Battery’s rated capacity (Amp-hours)

T = The cycle time period (hours)
Maximum recommend charge/discharge rate

= C/3 to C/5
48
¾Battery Safety
o Batteries can be DANGEROUS; handle with care!
Keep batteries out of living space, and vent battery box to the outside

Use a spill
ill containment
i vessell
Don’t mix batteries (different types or old with new)
Make sure tools have insulated handles to pprevent short circuiting
g
49
2 2 Types of battery
2.2
¾ Primary
y (Disposable)
( p ) Batteries
¾ Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries
¾ Shallow Cycle (20% DOD)
¾ Deep Cycle (50-80% DOD)
50
¾P
Primary
i (Di
(Disposable)
bl ) Batteries
B tt i
o Zinc carbon (flashlights, toys)
o Heavy duty zinc chloride (radios, recorders)
o Alkaline (all of the above)
o Lithium (photoflash)
(p )
o Silver, mercury oxide (hearing aid, watches)
o Zinc
i air
i
51
¾ Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries
o Nickel cadmium
o Nickel metal hydride
o Alkaline
o Lithi
Lithium ion
i
o Lithium ion polymer
o Lead acid
52
9Capacity of different Batteries
Type Capacity Density

(mAh) (Wh/kg)
Alkaline AA 2850 124
Rechargeable 1600 80
NiCd AA 750 41
NiMH AA 1100 51
Lithium ion 1200 100
Lead acid 2000 30
53
Voltage per Cell of different Battery types
Type Voltage Peak Optimal

Drain Drain
Alkaline 1.5 0.5C < 0.2C

NiCd 1.25 20C 1C
Nickel metal 1.25 5C < 0.5C
Lead acid 2 5C 0.2C
Lithi
Lithium ion
i 36
3.6 2C < 1C
54
9 Cycle lifetime and discharge rate of different Battery types
Type Cycles (to Charge Discharge per Cost per

80%) time month kWh
Alkaline 50 (50%) 3-10h 0.3% $95.00
NiCd
i d 1500 1hh 20% $
$7.50
NiMH 300-500 2-4h 30% $18.50
Li-ion
Li ion 500-1000
500 1000 22-4h
4h 10% $24.00
Polymer 300-500 2-4h 10%
Lead acid 200-2000 8-16h 5% $8.50
55
2.3 Batteries for PV system

In stand-alone photovoltaic systems, the electrical energy produced by the PV
arra can not al
array always
a s be used
sed when
hen it is produced.
prod ced The primary
primar functions
f nctions of a
storage battery in a PV system are to:
1 Energy Storage Capacity and Autonomy: to store electrical energy when it is

1.
produced by the PV array and to supply energy to electrical loads as needed or
on demand.
2. Voltage and Current Stabilization: to supply power to electrical loads at stable

voltages and currents, by suppressing or 'smoothing out' transients that may
occur in PV systems.
3. Supply Surge Currents: to supply surge or high peak operating currents to

electrical
l t i l loads
l d or appliances.
li
56
o Like other renewable energy systems, solar energy systems use a lead-
acid deep cycle battery. This type of battery is different from a
conventional
i l car battery,
b as it
i is
i designed
d i d to be b more tolerant
l off the
h
kind of ongoing charging and discharging you would expect when you
have variable sunshine from one day to the next.
o Lead-acid deep cycle batteries last longer but they also cost more
than a conventional battery. The major difference between lead acid
batteries and other batteries is that they have solid lead plates; in
conventional car batteries, the plate is made of a sponge-like material.
You may not be able to tell this difference simply by looking at the
b tt
battery, andd some batteries
b tt i are labeled
l b l d "deep
"d cycle"
l " when
h they
th are not.
t
If you are looking at a battery that is rated for cranking amps, this will
likely mean that it is not a deep cycle battery.
57
33. Charge controller (Dc power conditioning )
Important functions of battery charge controllers and system controls are:
9 Prevent Battery Overcharge: to limit the energy supplied to the
b tt
battery by
b the
th PV array when
h the
th battery
b tt becomes
b fully
f ll charged.
h d
9 Prevent Battery Over discharge: to disconnect the battery from electrical

l d when
loads h the
th battery
b tt reaches
h low
l state
t t off charge.
h
9 Provide Load Control Functions: to automatically connect and disconnect

an electrical
l t i l load
l d att a specified
ifi d time,
ti for
f example
l operating
ti a lighting
li hti load
l d
from sunset to sunrise.
58
¾ Charge Controller Designs
Two basic methods exist for controlling or regulating the charging of a battery
f
from a PV module
d l or array - shunt
h andd series
i regulation.
l i
While both of these methods are effectively used, each method may
incorporate a number of variations that alter their basic performance and
applicability.
Simple designs interrupt or disconnect the array from the battery at
regulation, while more sophisticated designs limit the current to the battery in
a linear manner that maintains a high battery voltage.
The algorithm or control strategy of a battery charge controller determines the

effectiveness of battery charging and PV array utilization, and ultimately the
ability of the system to meet the electrical load demands.
demands
59
9Shunt Controller
As shows below an electrical design of a typical shunt type controller.

The shunt controller regulates the charging of a battery from the PV array by
short-circuiting the array internal to the controller.
All shunt controllers must have a blocking diode in series between the battery and
the shunt element to prevent the battery from short-circuiting when the array is
regulating.
Because there is some voltage drop between the array and controller and due to
wiring and resistance of the shunt element
element, the array is never entirely short-
short
circuited, resulting in some power dissipation within the controller.
For this reason, most shunt controllers require a heat sink to dissipate power, and
are generally limited to use in PV systems with array currents less than 20 amps.
60
9Shunt controller
61
9Series
S i Controllers
C t ll
When the charge cut-out voltage is reached, a series controller interrupts
the module power using relay or power conductor S1 and switches it
back on after a defined voltage drop. This creates an oscillating state of
constant switching operations around the charge cut-out voltage, as well
as permanent forward losses. On account of these disadvantages, a
charge
h controller
ll with
i h continuous
i regulation
l i was developed.
d l d
62
¾D
Deep di
discharge
h protection
i
A deep discharge protector with relays to isolate the loads from the battery is
integrated within most charge controllers .It is useful if there is a signal, in
good time before the switch-off point is reached, that the power needs to be
switched off. A built
built-in
in reset button is helpful in this case.
The latest charge controllers have a built-in temperature sensor that
measures the ambient temperature. Normally the charge controller is sited
in direct proximity to the battery,
battery so the temperatures of both devices are
very similar. Only in the event that the battery is extremely heavily loaded
will it heat up and therefore have a higher temperature than the charge
controller. This eventuality
y can be ruled out byy sufficientlyy dimensioningg
the batteries.
A readout display for the most important electrical variables, such as state
of charge,
g , battery
y voltage,
g , charge
g current and load current,, is integrated
g
within many devices.
63
¾MPP charge controllers
Since the battery voltage determines the operating point on the PV
characteristic curve and, therefore, the PV array is often not operating at
the
h MPP point,
i series
i and d shunt
h charge
h controllers
ll do d not always
l makek
optimum use of the available solar energy.
These power losses can amount to between 10 per cent and 40 per cent,
depending upon battery voltage, irradiance and temperature. This can be
avoided byy using
g an MPP tracker. An MPP tracker essentiallyy consists
of a regulated DC/DC converter.
Regulation is performed by an MPP tracker

tracker, which approximately every
five minutes passes along the current/voltage characteristic curve of the
PV array and determines the MPP power. Then the DC/DC converter is
set so that it takes the optimum power from the PV array and adjusts it
to the charge voltage of the battery.
64
9Principle of an MPP charge controller
65
4 PV Inverters
The PV array, batteries and charge controllers all function on
direct current (dc).
Most household appliances run on alternating current (ac).
66
¾The
Th following
f ll i requirements
i t may be
b made
d off a stand-
stand
t d-alone
l inverter:
i t
9 Alternating current that is as sinusoidal as possible with a stable voltage and
stable frequency;
9 Very good conversion efficiency, even in partial load range;
9 High overload capability for switch-on and starting sequences;
9 Tolerance
l against
i battery
b voltage
l fluctuations;
fl i
9 Economical standby state with automatic load detection;
9 Protection against
g short-circuit damage
g on the output
p side;
9 High electromagnetic compatibility (good EMI suppression);
9 Low harmonic content;
9 S
Surge voltage
lt protection;
t ti
9 Bidirectional operation (i.e. conversion from AC to DC is also possible so
that batteries can be charged from AC generators, if necessary).
67
¾Types of inverters
Three different types of inverter concepts dominate the market:

9 Sine-wave,
9 ‘Modified sine-wave' and
9 The square-wave
q inverters
68
9Sine
Sine--wave inverters
The requirements listed above are best fulfilled by sine-wave inverters. These
devices work on the principle of pulse width modulation
modulation. They are suitable
even for operating sensitive electronic equipment. Compared to square-wave
inverters, sine-wave inverters are higher in price as a result of the greater
complexity of their circuitry.
9 ‘Modified sine-wave' inverters

A quality 'modified sine-wave' inverter will meet most of the above
requirements, but not all. As the complex electronics required for sine-wave
inverters has matured, many manufacturers are now phasing these out and
replacing
l i themth withith sine-wave
i i
inverters.
t If using
i a 'modified
' difi d sine-wave'
i '
inverter, one should check its suitability for a particular application with the
manufacturer unless the application is specified in the inverter manual.
69
9Square-wave inverters
Square-wave inverters are very common and cheaper. The direct

current is chopped into a 50Hz alternating current with square
characteristics and stepped up using a transformer to a voltage of
230V. They can be very inefficient and are not recommended.
Sensitive equipment can be damaged.
70
4 Loads
4.
¾Incandescent Lamps
y Advantages y Disadvantages
◦ Most common ◦ Low efficiency
◦ Least expensive ◦ Short life ~ 750 hours
◦ Pleasing light
November 30, 2011
Electricity is conducted through a filament which resists the flow of

electricity,heats up, and glows
Efficiency increases as lamp wattage increases
71
¾Fluorescent Bulbs
9 Less wattage,
wattage same amount of lumens
9 Longer life (~10,000 hours)
9 M hhave diffi
May difficulty
lt starting
t ti in i cold
ld environments
i t
9 Not good for lights that are repeatedly turned on and off
9 Contain a small amount of mercury
72
¾Light Emitting Diode (LED) Lights
y Advantages y Disadvantages
◦ Extremely efficient ◦ Expensive (although prices are
◦ Long life (100,000 hours) d
decreasing
i steadily)
dil )
◦ Rugged ◦ A relatively new technology
◦ No radio frequency
interference
73
5.
5 Wire Components
9 Conductor material = copper (most common)

9 Insulation material = thermoplastic (most common)
9 Wire exposed to sunlight must be classed as sunlight resistant
74
¾Color Coding of Wires
y Electrical wire insulation is color coded to designate its function and use
Alternating Current (AC) Wiring Direct Current (DC) Wiring

Color Application Color Application
Black Ungrounded Hot Red (not NEC Positive
req.)
White Grounded Conductor White Negative or
Grounded
Conductor
Green or Bare Equipment Ground Green or Bare Equipment Ground
Red or any other Ungrounded Hot
color
¾Wire
Wi Size
Si
y Wire size selection based on two criteria:

◦ Ampacity
◦ Voltage drop
y Ampacity - Current carrying ability of a wire
y Voltage drop: the loss of voltage due to a wire

wire’ss resistance and length
76
Designing a PV System
The design of any PV system requires certain basic calculations.

First,
First
¾ Calculate the loads,
¾C
Calculate the PV
V array
y current and array
y tilt angle,
g , ((depends
p on the solar
energy received at the site during the year)
¾ Calculate the battery size,
¾ Calculate the PV array size, and
¾ Wire size
77
In practice, designing a PV system depends if it is off-grid or grid-tied.
Off-grid
Off grid systems require a rigorous design
design, often with several iterations to
optimize the number of modules, batteries, and stand-by generators, if
necessary, to minimize system costs. Loads must be carefully calculated.
Grid-tied systems generally are sized by one of two methods:
a. How big g of a system

y is ppossible with the available budget,
g i.e.
budget constrained.
b. How big of a system is possible given a limited area, i.e. area

constrained.
NOTE: Systems
NOTE S t rarely
l are large
l enoughh to
t match
t h the
th load.
l d
Approach (a) is generally used. Also, the PV industry is marketing pre-
engineered packages of varying sizes. 78
¾Off G id Design
¾Off-Grid D i Example
E l
Step 1: Determine the DC Load.

DC Device Device X Hours of = DC Watt-Hrs
Watts Daily Use per Day
Refrigerator 60 24 1,440
Lighting fixtures 150 4 600
Device A 12 8 96
Total DC Watt-hrs/Day
Watt hrs/Day [A] 2,136
2 136
79
Step 2: Determine the AC Load
Load, Convert to DC
AC Device Device X Hours of = AC Watt-Hrs

Watts Daily Use per Day
D i B
Device 175 6 1 050
1,050
Pump 80 0.5 40
Television 175 2 350
Total AC Watt-hrs/Day 1,440

Divided by 0.85 (Inverter, losses)
Total DC W-hrs/Day [B] 1,694

80
Step 3: Determine the Total System Load

Total DC Loads [A] 2,136
Total DC Loads [B] 1,694
Total System Load 3,830 Whrs/Day

Step 4: Determine Total DC Amp-hours/Day
Total System Load / System Nominal Voltage =

(3,830 Whrs/Day) / 12 Volts = 319 Amp-hrs/Day
Step 5: Determine Total Amp-hr/Day with Batteries

Total Amp-hrs/Day X 1.2(Losses and safety factor)
319 Amp-hrs/Day X 1.2 = 382.8 or 383 Amp-hrs/Day
81
Step 6: Determine Total PV Array Current
Total Daily Amp-hr

Amp hr requirement / Design Insolation*
383 Amp-hrs / 5.0 peak solar hrs = 76.6 Amps
* Insolation Based on Optimum Tilt for Season
Step 7: Select PV Module Type
Choose BP Solar-Solarex MSX-60 module:

Max Power = 60 W (STP)
Max Current = 3.56 Amps
Max Voltage
g = 16.8 Volts
Nominal Output Voltage 12 Volts
82
Step 8: Determine Number of Modules in Parallel
Total PV Array Current / (Module Operating Current) X

(Module Derate Factor)
76.6 Amps / (3.56 Amps/Module)(0.90) = 23.90 modules
Use 24 Modules
Step 9: Determine Number of Modules in Series
System Nominal Voltage / Module Nominal Voltage

12 Volts / (12 Volts/module) = 1 Module
Step 10: Determine Total Number of Modules

Number of modules in parallel X Number of modules
i Series
in S i 24 X 1 = 24 modules
d l
83
Step 11: Determine Minimum Battery Capacity
[Total
[T t l Daily
D il Amp-hr/Day
A h /D with
ith Batteries
B tt i (Step
(St 5)
X Desired Reserve Time (Days)] / Percent of
Usable Battery Capacity
(383 Amp-hrs/Day X 3 Days) / 0.80 = 1,436 Amp-hrs
Step 12: Choose a Battery
Use an Interstate U2S – 100 Flooded Lead Acid Battery

N i l Voltage
Nominal V lt = 6 Volts
V lt
Rated Capacity = 220 Amp-hrs
84
Step 13
S 13: Determine
D i Number
N b off B Batteries
i ini Parallel
P ll l
Required Battery Capacity (Step 11) / Capacity of
Selected Battery
1,436 Amp-hrs / (220 Amp-hrs/Battery) = 6.5
Use 6 Batteries
Step 14: Determine Number of Batteries in Series

Nominal
N i l System
S t Voltage
V lt / Nominal
N i l Battery
B tt Voltage
V lt
12 Volts / (6 Volts/Battery) = 2 Batteries
Step 15: Determine Total Number of Batteries
Number of Batteries in Parallel X Number of Batteries

in Series 6 X 2 = 12 Batteries
85
+ +
Series: 3A 3A
Voltage is additive 12 V 12 V + 3A
- - - 24 V
+ +
3A + 6A
3A
12 V - 12 V Parallel:
12 V
- - C
Current
t is
i additive
dditi
86
Step 16: Determine the need for a Standby
Generator to reduce other Components (number of Modules and

B
Batteries).
i ) Several
S l iterations
i i may be
b necessary to optimize
i i costs.
Step 17: Complete Balance of System
a. Complete the design by specifying the:

Charge Controller
Inverter
Wire Sizes (Battery will have larger gage
due to higher currents)
Fuses and Disconnects
Standby Generator, if needed
Battery Charger, if needed
Manual Transfer Switch, if needed.
87
Step 17 (Cont.):
b. Determine mounting method:

Roof mount
Ground mount with racks
Ground mount with pole.
c. Assure proper grounding for safety.
d Obtain permits as required.

d. required
88
How to calculate / size a solar system ?
Solar Array x 1,3

Ah per day
Load
Ah per day
Battery x6
Capacity Ah
89
3 lamps each 1 Amp, switched on for 3 hours = 9 Ah

2 lamps each 2 Amps, switched on for 2 hours = 8 Ah
Total consumption = 17 Ah
Example:
Solar Array:
22,1 Ah per day x 1,3
12 Watt = 1,0 Amp
12 V
Volt
lt
Load:
17 Ah per day
24 Watt = 2,0 Amp
12 Volt
Battery x6
Capacity: 102 Ah
90
Irradiation of Addis Abeba
Problem of the worse case

Months Flat 10 degrees 10 degrees 15 degrees 24 degrees
kWh/m2/day north south south south
kWh/ 2/day
kWh/m /d kWh/ 2/day
kWh/m /d kWh/ 2/day
kWh/m /d kWh/ 2/day
kWh/m /d
January 5,40 4,83 5,77 5,92 6,12
February 5,80 5,34 6,03 6,12 6,20
March 5,80 5,55 5,83 5,82 5,72
April 5,60 5,54 5,43 5,36 5,12
Mayy 5,60 5,69 5,32 5,16 4,81
June 5,10 5,23 4,80 4,64 4,29
July 4,20 4,26 4,01 3,90 3,65
August 4,30 4,30 4,16 4,08 3,88
September 4,80 4,68 4,75 4,70 4,56
October 5,60 5,27 5,73 5,77 5,76
November 5 40
5,40 4 90
4,90 5 69
5.69 5 82
5,82 5 95
5,95
December 5,20 4,62 5,59 5,75 5,97
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
91
Simulation of sun power
Test of a solar module under “Standard test conditions,(STC)”
Example:
Our solar module produces 3 Amp x 17 Volt = 51 Watt peak (Wp)
If the test lamp in the lab produces 1000 Watt per meter² per day, then the
current of our solar module is 3 A.
If the 1000 Watt test lamp in the lab is switched on for 2 hours, then the solar
module produces 6 Ah.( 3 Amp x 2 hours)
A test
t t lamp
l with
ith 1000 W
Watt,
tt switched
it h d on ffor 4
4,2
2hhours - 3 A
Amp x 4,2
4 2 hours
h =
12.6 Ah
or tthe
o e Ethiopian
t op a susun in Ju
July
y will a
affect
ect tthe
e so
solar
a module
odu e in tthe
e sa
same
e way:
ay
In nature or in the lab: The solar module will produce 12.6 Ah per day
92
3 lamps each 1 Amp, switched on for 3 hours = 9 Ah

2 lamps each 2 Amps, switched on for 2 hours = 8 Ah
Total consumption
p = 17 Ah
Solar Array:
22,1
, Ah per
p dayy x 1,3
13
Solar Array:
Load:
4,2 h x 3 A 17 Ah per day
x 2 pieces = 25,2 Ah per day
i.e. 25,2 ►22,1
x6
Battery
Capacity: 102 Ah
93
How to calculate energy consumption of the 12 Volt DC load
The sunshine /
irradiation of Ethiopia
Solar Array
? pieces of solar
modules, each ?
Solar charge DC Load

controller ? A ? Ah
Type of consumer Consumption Running hours Consumption per day

Ampere (A) per day (h) Ampere hours (Ah)
Battery
? Ah
Total consumption
per day (Ah)
94
How to calculate energy consumption of the 230 Volt AC load

Type of consumer Consumption Running hours Consumption per day
Watt per day (h) Watt hours (Wh)
Total consumption
per day
p y (Wh)
( )
The result must be transferred from Watt hours (Wh) to Amp hours (Ah)
Example: 180 Wh = 15 Ah
12 Volt
95
The sunshine / irradiation

of Ethiopia
Solar Array
? pieces of solar
modules, each 3 A
Solar charge Inverter DC to AC Load

controller ? A 230 V AC ? Wh
Battery
y
? Ah
96
How to calculate size of solar module(s), battery, charge

controller and cable
Solar modules: Total consumption (Ah) x 1,3
Battery: Total consumption (Ah) x 6
How to transfer Wh to Ah: Wh = Ah

V
How to calculate loss of cable
Size of cable in square = A
A = L x I x 2
: 56 x Vd
Vd voltvage
lt d
drop
97
Sizing of a power supply system that can run a load of 900 W for
24 hours
Solar Charge
g Battery
y1
array 1 control 1
Solar Charge Battery 2

array 2 control 2
Load
Inverter 900 Watt

230 Volt AC
A) Solar system without power generator
Load: 900 W + losses of the inverter ( about 10%) Total consumption: 1000 Watt
1000 Watt x 24 h = 24 000 Wh = 24 000 Wh = 500 Ah

48 V
Battery 500 Ah x 6 = 3000 Ah / 48 V
98
It is advisable to have 2 Batteries, each 1500 Ah / 48 V
Requested power from the Solar array: 500 Ah x 1,3 = 650 Ah
We use solar modules with 36 solar cells, which produce 6,75 Amp (6 inch cells)
6,75 A x 4,2 h = 28,35 Ah
From one string ( 4 modules in series connection ) we receive 28,35 Ah per day
650 Ah = 23 Strings
28,35 Ah
Each string consists of 4 solar modules, therefore we need 92 solar modules,

( 4 modules x 23 Strings).
The power of each solar module ( 6,75 A x 17V) is 114 Watt.
The total power of the solar array is 92 x 114 W = 10488 Watt = 10,488 kWpeak.
99
We separate the array in two parts 11 and 12 strings
The current of the first solar array is 11 x 6,75 A = 74,25 Amp and
the current of the second solar array is 12 x 6,75 A = 81 Amp
100
Sizing of a power supply system that can run a load of 900 W for 24 hours
Solar array1 Charge Battery 1

control 1
Solar array 2 Charge Battery 2

control 2
OPTION: Load
Inverter / 900 Watt

Power generator charger 230 Volt AC
230 V AC
101
B ) Hybrid system with solar power and power generator with power generator
The power generator will be switched on for one hour per day.
During this time it will supply the load (900 Watt) and charge the battery (4000 Watt)
Load: 1000 W x 23 h = 23 000 Wh 23 000 Wh = 479 Ah

48 V
Battery 479 Ah x 6 = 2874 Ah / 48 V
It is advisable to have 2 Batteries

Batteries, each 1473 Ah / 48 V
The power generator will supply the load for one hour AND in the same time charge the battery with
4000 Watt x 1h = 4000 Wh = 83 Ah
Requested power from the Solar array: 479 Ah– 83 Ah = 396 Ah x 1,3 = 515 Ah
We use solar modules, which produce 6,75 Amp , 6,75 A x 4,2 h = 28,35 Ah
From one string ( 4 modules in series connection ) we receive 28,35 Ah per day
515 Ah = 18 Strings
28,35 Ah
Each string consists of 4 solar modules, therefore we need 72 solar modules. The power of each solar module ( 6,75 A x 17 V)
is 114 Watt
Watt. The total power of the solar array is 72 x 114 W = 8208 Watt = 8,208
8 208 kWpeak.
kWpeak
We separate the array in two parts 9 and 9 strings

The current of each of the two solar arrays is 9 x 6,75 A = 60,75 Amp
102
Connection of solar modules in a 12 Volt Solar system
+ ‐ + ‐ + ‐ + ‐

+ ‐ + ‐ + ‐
+ ‐
103
Connection of solar modules in a 24 Volt Solar system
+ ‐ + ‐ + ‐

+ ‐
+ ‐
+ ‐
104
¾Grid Tie Design

¾Grid-Tie
Assuming approach (a), i.e. the budget determines the system size, newly
available internet based software may be used. Most of these are based on
NREL’s PVWATTS or the Clean Energy Calculator as well as pre-engineered
systems.
Internet Sites
i based
b d on Clean
l Power Estimator:
i
a. www.bpsolar.com
BP Solar Home Solutions,
Solutions
Solar Savings Estimator
b. www.kyocera.com
Tech Support
PV Calculator
c. www.uni-solar.com
Build Your Own Clean Energygy System
y “ICON”
105
106
School of Computing and Electrical Engineering
107
November 30, 2011 tasstad@gmail.com

3 PV - Systems Components and System Sizing

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Photovoltaic Basics

- PV cell characteristic,, electrical model and how it works

- Impact of temperature and shading on PV cell

- Types solar cell

A. Applications of Stand-alone systems:

transmission and distribution network.

S l power iis also

9 clocks, battery chargers,

9 Mobile systems on cars, camper vans, boats, etc.;

9 Remote mountain cabins, weekend and holiday homes and village

9 SOS telephones, parking ticket machines, traffic signals and observation

9 Applications in gardening and landscaping;

Milk frothier Solar charger

Mobile ice-cream Mountain cabin with small

Solar pump system

¾ The sun as an energy source

yExact knowledge of the sun's path is important for calculating irradiance

Irradiance meter with PV sensor

¾ SOLAR CELLS, How They Work

¾ A Photon causes the Photoelectric Effect

Current voltage curve for

y Isc-short circuit current.

¾PV cell Wiring

– VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT

Impact of temperature and shading on PV cell

y As the PV cell temperature

School of Computing and Electrical Engineering

¾ Effects of Insolation Variation

y SHADING can half or even completely eliminate the output

 By their crystal structure: crystalline (Mono-crystalline or Polycrystalline)

 By their semiconductor material

¾Monocrystalline Silicon Modules

y Most efficient commercially available

y Most expensive to produce

y Circular (square-round) cell creates

¾Polycrystalline Silicon Modules

¾Amorphous Thin Film

y Metal grid replaced with transparent oxides

y Can be deposited on flexible substrates

y Less susceptible to shading problems

y Better performance in low light conditions than

¾ Characteristic I-V curves for modules and interconnection

¾ PV module data sheet

¾ Irradiance and temperature dependence characteristics

¾ Hot spots, bypass diodes and shading of module

y Cell < Module (Panel) < Array

¾Characteristic I -V curves for modules and interconnection

¾ parallel cell interconnection.

Module I-V curves at different module temperatures and with

2.2 Types of batteries

2.3 Batteries for PV system

 Batteries in Series and Parallel

o Storage for the night

o Storage during cloudy weather

o Capacity changes with Discharge Rate

¾ Depth or Rate of Charge or Discharge

C = Battery’s rated capacity (Amp-hours)

Maximum recommend charge/discharge rate

o Batteries can be DANGEROUS; handle with care!

¾ Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries

¾ Shallow Cycle (20% DOD)

¾ Deep Cycle (50-80% DOD)

o Zinc carbon (flashlights, toys)

By their crystal structure: crystalline (Mono-crystalline or Polycrystalline)

By their semiconductor material

Batteries in Series and Parallel