Paper No: 7 Energy and Environment

Module: 16 Solar Photovoltaic system

Development Team
Prof. R.K. Kohli
Principal Investigator
& Prof. V.K. Garg & Prof. Ashok Dhawan
Co- Principal Investigator
Central University of Punjab, Bathinda

Dr. Dhanya M.S.,

Paper Coordinator
Central University of Punjab, Bathinda

Dr. Nikhil P.G, National Institute of Solar Energy, New Delhi

Content Writer
& Dr. Dhanya M.S., Central University of Punjab, Bathinda
Content Reviewer Prof A.K Jain, Former Director, SSSNIRE

Anchor Institute Central University of Punjab

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 Description of Module

Subject Name Environmental Sciences

Paper Name Energy and Environment

Module
Solar Photovoltaic system
Name/Title

Module Id EVS/EE-VII/16

Pre-requisites Knowledge on basic semiconductor physics

 To understand the fundamentals of photovoltaic effect
 To learn about solar cells and PV module systems
 To know about different solar cells and PV module technologies in the
market
Objectives
 To learn about different parameters affecting the performance of a solar
module.
 To get an overview of different applications of PV modules.

Keywords Photovoltaic, solar cell, PV module

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 Module 16. Solar Photovoltaic system
Learning Objectives

 To understand the fundamentals of photovoltaic effect

 To learn about solar cells and PV module systems
 To know about different solar cells and PV module technologies in the market
 To learn about different parameters affecting the performance of a solar module.
 To get an overview of different applications of PV modules.

1. Introduction

The solar energy is harnessed directly for thermal applications or converted into electricity. The
generation of electricity from solar energy is by the means of photovoltaic (PV) systems. It works
on the principle of photovoltaic effect. Over the years the photovoltaic technology advanced a lot
and the efficiency of solar cell was improved. As majority of our energy requirements are in the
form of electricity, PV is becoming more favourite in most of the utilities and applications. The
solar photovoltaic technology was used in most of the countries.

2. Principle of solar photovoltaics

The working principle of solar photovoltaic is based on photovoltaic effect. It is the process where
two dissimilar materials in close contact produce an electrical charge when struck by light or other
radiations. “Photovoltaic” derived from Greek word phōs meaning Light (Photon) and Voltage
(voltaic). The word volt is actually named after Italian physicist Alessandro Volta. So, as the name
says, it is a device which combines light and voltage to generate power.

The light from sun composed of energy packets known as photons. These photons contain energy
corresponds to different wavelengths of solar spectrum. The photons strike a PV cell, may be
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 reflected, absorbed or pass through p-n junction. The photons falling on the device generates
current which is driven by a voltage (termed as junction voltage) to generate electrical power
output at the terminals. Those materials/devices which are capable of transducing the energy from
the photons to electric current are termed as photovoltaic materials.

When light strikes the p-n junction in which electrons are not free to move from n-region to p-
region due to potential barrier the light provides the energy (emf) needed to free some electrons
from the bound condition depending on absorption of solar energy. Free electrons cross the
junction between dissimilar crystals more easily in one direction making a negative charge on that
side resulting negative voltage. So a photon with short wavelength and enough energy can break
free an electron from an atom in a photovoltaic material. If this electron passes through a nearby
electric field, it can emerge as an electric current. This electric current is a direct current, which
can be collected with the help of conducting bus bars.

Normally, the source of these short wavelength photon is Sun, and 47 % of the sunlight contains
energy in the visible photon range. Hence, more the sun light (photons) falling on the photovoltaic
material more will be the current generated and, no sunlight implies no current. That makes the
photovoltaic process simple and facilitates direct conversion of light to electricity.

3. Solar cell

The solar cell consists of

i) p-type silicon material layer

ii) n-type silicon material

iii)front metallic grid

iv)opaque back metal contact

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 The bulk material consists of p-type silicon having thickness of 100-350 m and a thin layer of n-
type silicon having thickness of about 2 m is diffused on this bulk material giving p-n junction.
The metallic grid at the top of the cell is with n-type material and opaque back metal contact at the
bottom of p-type material act as negative and positive terminals.

Fig.1 Solar cell

3.1 Types of solar cells

Depending on the type of material, the solar cell is classified as

 Single crystal silicon cell- produced from silicon dioxide that is reduced to silica with 1%
impurities. The efficiency is about 22 %. But needs high energy to produce and so costly. It
also requires high solar radiation for electricity generation.

 Polycrystalline and amorphous silicon cell- Polycrystalline silicon is directly melted,

doped with phosphorous and produced in desired shape and size. Amorphous silicon cells
are produced using thin film technology. It has only a conversion efficiency of 4-8%. It is
useful for indoor lights, pocket calculator, electronic watches and electronic instruments.

 Cadmium sulphide-cadmium telluride cells- It is produced by thin film technology. The

semiconductor (cadmium telluride) is vapourised and its film (10m) is deposited on a thin
layer of cadmium sulphide (12m). This cell has an efficiency of 10%.

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  Copper indium diselenide cell- A thin fim polycrystalline cell made from copper indium
diselenide e and has efficiency of 14%.

 Gallium arsenide cell- The cell has thin film of n-type and p-type gallium arsenide (GaAs)
grown on a suitable substrate. It has efficiency of 20% with high cost of production.

The solar cell is a p-n junction with large surface area. The n-type material is thin for passing light
through it and strike the p-n junction. The electricity is generated inside the depletion zone of the
p-n junction. When a photon of light is absorbed by one of the atoms in n-region of silicon, it
dislodge an electron from any atom creating a free electron and hole pair. This free electron and
hole pair has sufficient energy to jump out of depletion zone. If a wire is connected from the
cathode at n-type silicon to an anode of p-type silicon, electrons flow through the wire. The
electron is attracted to the positive charge of p-type material and travels through the external load
creating flow of electric current.

3.2 Energy of photon

The energy of a photon is related to its wavelength by following equation:

E= hc/

Where

h= Planck’s constant (3 x 10-27 erg)

c= velocity of light (3 x 10 8 m/s)

After putting these values in equation, we will get

E= 1.24/

The difference between conduction and valence band is called band gap energy. The photons
having energy (E) larger than band gap energy (1.1 eV for silicon) will be absorbed in the cell and

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 will excite some electrons creating electron-hole pair. The photons with lower energy are wasted in
thermal energy generation.

Problem: Calculate the range of wavelength of solar radiation capable of creating electron-
hole pair in silicon having energy gap of 1.12 eV?

Solution:

E= hc/ 

E= 1.24/

 = 1.24/E = 1.24/1.12 = 1.11m

4. Solar PV module

A single solar cell has low output and no protection against dust, moisture, mechanical impacts and
atmospheric harsh conditions. The suitable voltage and adequate power can be generated by
interconnecting a number of solar cells. This assembly of solar cells is called solar PV module.
The solar cells are provided with transparent cover and are sealed for the assembly into module.
Generally a solar module has 32-36 solar cells connected in series. The power of module is the
algebraic sum of peak power of individual solar cells.

Fig 2. Solar PV module with 36 solar cells

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 Most of the photovoltaic materials use semiconductor materials, to transduce light energy to
electricity. Pure crystalline silicon, which is a Group IV semiconductor element, is one of the
prominent and widely used material for photovoltaic technology.

4.1 Physical Structure of a photovoltaic module

The physical structure of a PV module essentially contains four components,

a) Superstrate.
b) Photovoltaic device.
c) Polymeric Encapsulants (Pottants)
d) Substrate.
A schematic structure is given in Fig. 1.4 (a). The material and combinations used varies with
respect to technology and applications.

Fig.3 Schematic of a basic structure of a PV module

4.1.1 Superstrate: A superstrate material is normally a tempered glass with low iron content which
has SiO2 based anti-reflective coatings to minimize the reflections falling on the module. Some
cases, Fluoropolymers are also used. The size of the Superstrate is in the order of 4mm thickness.

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 The superstrate helps the cells to avoid direct contact with the atmosphere and reduces reflection
from the top surface. A superstrate must have high transmittance.

4.1.2 Photovoltaic device: Majority of the photovoltaic cells available in the market are silicon
based materials, which are laminated and sandwiched in the polymeric Encapsulants. Average
thickness of a PV cell is 0.1 mm to 0.2 mm. PV cells are very sensitive and fragile. It can break
into pieces if not handled properly. The main function of the PV cell is to convert the photons to
electric power.

4.1.3 Polymeric Encapsulants: Normally ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA) is used as a polymeric
encapsulant with a thickness of 0.5mm. The primary function of the encapsulant is to provide
mechanical support (proper adhesion) and physical protection (from Weather and environment) to
PV cells. It must also act as a good electrical insulator and optical coupler. For these, an
encapsulant must have high dielectric breakdown and adhesion strength. It must be mechanically
strong and resistance to break or tear. The material must have low moisture absorption and high
resistance to UV. It should also provide good edge seal to the substrate.

4.1.4 Substrate: A thin multi layered back sheet made of tedlar of 0.1 mm thickness is used as a
substrate in most of the modules available in the market. The substrate provides the required
support to the module. It must be a good electrical insulator with strong adhesion. The tedlar sheet
must not allow any moisture, water or air to pass through the module. Some technologies use glass
instead of tedlar. This allows for transparent PV structure.

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 5. Solar PV panel

It consists of a number of solar PV modules connected in series and parallel to get a power of
desired voltage and current.

Fig 4. Solar PV panel of four PV modules

When modules are connected in series, it is desirable that each module should produce maximum
power at same current.

Fig 5. Series connected photovoltaic module

Source: http://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/solar-power/pv-panel.html

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 When solar PV modules are connected in parallel, it is desirable that each module should produce
maximum power at the same voltage. The parallel connection means both of the terminals are
connected to each terminal of other PV cell or cells.

Fig 6 Parallel connected photovoltaic module

Source: http://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/solar-power/pv-panel.html

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 6. Solar PV array

A number of solar panels which are installed in an array field is known as a PV array. The panels
are installed as stationary facing the sun or installed with tracking mechanism. Care is taken not to
cast shadow on one panel by another.

7. Solar Efficiency

It is the ratio of maximum possible solar cell power output Vm x Im which is converted to solar
energy supplied to the cell.

Efficiency = Vm x Im

Solar power

8. Energy Losses of solar cell

The highest conversion efficiency of a solar cell is about 24 percent. The following factors lead to
energy losses and reduce conversion efficiency of cell are

 Reflection losses from the cell surface

 Incomplete absorption

 Partial utilization of photon energy

 Collection losses

 Open circuit voltage

 Series resistance losses

 Thickness of cell

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 9. History of Photovoltaics

In the year 1839, the French scientist, Edmund Becquerel found that a voltage appeared when a
metal electrode is illuminated in a weak electrolyte solution. It took another 40 years, for Adam
and Day to study the photovoltaic effects in solids. They build a small Photovoltaic cell made of
selenium, whose efficiency was 1 % to 2%. Photography industry was more benefitted by this
invention, as it helped them make photometric light sensors.

In 1923, Albert Einstein received Nobel Prize for his theoretical explanation of photovoltaic effect
in 1904. At about the same time in 1923, Polish scientist, Czochralski developed a method to grow
perfect crystals of silicon, which was used later in 1940s and 1950s to make the first generation
single crystal silicon photovoltaic cells.

The cost was the inhibitive factor in the development of photovoltaic technology in the beginning
of 1960s., but owing to its less weight and reliability, it was mostly used in satellites and space
crafts for on board power requirements. The technology became more efficient and comparatively
cheaper by 1980s, and they were then used in various off grid and, lighting applications. The
historical variation in the efficiency of the photovoltaic technology is given in Fig. 7.

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 Fig. 7 Laboratory scale efficiency chart of different PV modules from 1970 to 2016.

(Source: NREL.gov/2016)

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 10. Calculation of requirement of area of Solar PV cells

Problem Solving:

Considering solar radiation of 200 J/m2 and per unit time during daylight, Find the area of PV cells
needed to generate enough electric power to run

a) a desktop computer using 400 W

b)an electric geyser using 1 kW and

c)a toaster using 500 W.

Assume the efficiency of PV to be 25%?

Solution:

Photovoltaic cell power output ,

= Power output/Solar Power = 0.25

Power output = 0.25 x 200 = 50 W

a) Desk type computer

Power of appliance required = 400 W

Area of PV cells = 400/50 = 8m2

b) Electric geyser

Power required = 1000 W

Area of cells = 1000/50 = 20 m2

c)Toaster

Power required = 500 W

Area required = 500/50 = 10 m2

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 Total load = 400+1000+500 =1900 W

Total area = 8+20+10 = 38 m2

11. Types of Defects in a PV module

Overall module reliability is determined by all component materials. The improper selection and
design of the above components can lead to various defects in the PV module in its long term field
exposure. Some of the defects in PV module, due to long term exposure to field, are:

a) Discoloration: These are normally seen in hot and dry zones, because of the exposure of Ultra
violet radiation and subsequent fading of encapsulant.

Fig.8 Yellow discoloration

b) Delamination : The process of tearing or damage of lamination, mostly encapsulants , due to
extreme exposure to temperature is called delamination. These are normally observed in PV
modules operating for more than ten years.

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 Fig.9 Delamination of a solar cell

c) Corrosion: Corrosion, is another defect normally occurs due to improper maintenance and,
non-cleaning of modules. It is normally seen in hot and humid zones. The corrosion in the bus
bars can increase the internal resistance of the cell, and thus reducing power output.

Fig. 10. Corrosion of a solar grid line

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 12. Classification of Solar PV systems

The solar PV systems are classified into

 Central Power system
This type of solar power stations is designed to meet high peak daytime load only and have
large generation capacity (6 MW) and feed generated power into a national grid.

 Distributed PV system
-Stand alone system: This is meant to meet electrical load of any remote area, villages. The
maximum power point tracker senses the voltage and current outputs from solar array and
adjusts the operating point to maximum power output from the solar array as per climatic
conditions. The solar output in direct current is converted into alternating current and fed to
load. The energy storage is essential to meet the requirement during non-sunshine hours.

- Grid interactive system: This system met the requirement of house, village or installation first
and excess power is fed to an electric grid during sunshine hours.

- Small consumer system

 Hybrid solar PV system- designed to provide electric power by other means like wind mills,
fuel cells and petrol or diesel generators besides solar electricity.

13. Advantages and disadvantages of PV system

The advantages of PV systems are

 It converts solar energy to electricity directly without the use of moving parts.

 Abundant- India like countries having about 300 clear sunny days in a year can be utilized for
energy production

 No noise

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  Non-polluting

 Can be located near the point of load and requires distribution systems

Disadvantages of PV systems are

 High cost of installation

 Low efficiency

 Requires large area of installation to produce sufficient power

 Requires batteries to store energy during sunshine hours and sometimes output is intermittent

14. Solar PV programmes in India

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) started the following PV programmes

 Solar street lighting system

 Solar water heating systems

 Solar space heating systems

 Solar lanterns

 Stand-alone type solar PV systems

 Hybrid solar PV system

The MNRE encourages PV system within the country by the scheme Jawaharlal Nehru National
Solar Mission (JNNSM). The cost of a PV module in India varies between Rs.30 and Rs.60 per
watt of power generated.

Conclusion

The solar photovoltaic system plays an important role in the generation of electricity from sunlight
especially in remote villages. R & D activities are going on exploring new materials for solar cells
and improving efficiency of silicon crystal solar cells.
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