Chapter 12 and Unit 4-6 Eng1501 Assignment 2

CHAPTER 12
Sounds and symbols
Why might a text analyst want to know about sound? On the face of it,
sound appears to be the rather exclusive property of spoken language and
have little to do with written texts. However, there is a relationship between
spoken and written language. It is a complex relationship, and this will be
returned to throughout the book. The main insight to have at this point is
that, although speech and writing are related to each other, they are not
simply different versions of the same thing.
It is important to stress that even if you have already studied phonetics
and phonology, you may well not have approached the topic in the way this
book does. That is because you may have stayed with sound as a single
system – there is much to say about sound in its own right – but you may not
have thought about how we all represent sound in the everyday writing that
we do, or how this is done in highly-worked texts such as advertising or
literature. You may not have thought about how children inter-relate speech
and writing, or how knowing about sounds can help us understand processes
of stereotyping. In short, there is more to say about sound than simply learning
about what sounds are in a particular language and how they are pronounced.
A useful starting point for everyone is to realise that as well as engaging
in the act of speaking itself, we also find ways to write speech down. Written
representations of speech come in varying degrees of closeness to the actual
speech event, ranging from scholarly representations in the form of transcripts
and phonetic symbols, all the way through literary dialogue to web-based
reports of speeches and interviews. While no type of static writing can exactly
mirror the real-time unfolding and articulation of spoken language, linguists try
to create representations that allow us to recapture something of the original.
One of the written systems that tries to do this is called the IPA, or
International Phonetic Alphabet, which uses symbols designed specifically
to represent the sounds of language. Even if you have never heard its official
name, you will have come across the IPA in dictionaries, where the
pronunciation of a word is often given in brackets before the definition. If
you have a voice app in a digital dictionary, the phonetic symbol may be
linked to a pronunciation. The IPA is a working tool not just for lexicographers,
but for speech and language therapists, drama voice coaches, tutors of
those who need to produce some words in a foreign language without
knowing the whole language (such as politicians and musicians), and anyone
who has a professional interest in approximating to a set of sounds.
58 SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS
The IPA covers the sounds of all the world’s known languages. This
book will only be using that part of it that describes the sounds of the English
language. Some of the symbols will already be familiar to you because they
exist in the Roman alphabet; others won’t be, but they will be explained later.
When you work with the symbols that follow, remember that the underlined
part of the word given as an example of each sound refers to how that
sound would be produced by someone with a Received Pronunciation
(RP) accent. This accent does not indicate the region a speaker comes
from, but rather their social class, as historically it was the voice of educated
people from privileged backgrounds. If a speaker has a different accent
from RP, their list of phonemes (termed a phoneme inventory) might well
be different from the one opposite.
Phonetic transcriptions have come into their own because the spelling
system that we use every day to read and write is by no means a faithful
representation of the sounds that we use in language. There is no one-to-
one relationship between the letters that we use to write our language down
and the sounds that we make. Although it is a bit of a simplification, there
are forty-four sounds in English and yet there are only 26 letters that we can
use to represent them. It is immediately obvious that 26 letters can’t
individually represent 44 sounds. However, that’s not to say that we can’t
use combinations of more than one letter to represent a particular sound.
This does happen, but because English has absorbed many words from
other languages over the years, there are many varied and unusual spellings.
You will be looking at the etymologies of different English words in Section
B: Lexical and Semantic Level. Although this means that the lexical system
has many interesting word histories to tell, spelling can be frustratingly
unpredictable. Here is a rather extreme example of the mismatch between
sound and spelling in English:
A rough-coated, dough-faced, thoughtful ploughman strode through

the streets of Scarborough; he coughed and hiccoughed.
If we compare the pronunciation of all of the sounds that are represented by

the string of letters ‘ough’ here, we find that they are not the same; they
don’t rhyme. Even if we just look at the first four, they’re all different:
rough
dough
thoughtful
ploughman
While the same string of letters can represent different pronunciations,

conversely one sound can be represented by different written symbols
(‘meat’, ‘meet’ and ‘metre’ all contain the same vowel sound, but this sound
is spelled in different ways in each word).
Perhaps you can now see why an alphabet for sound is a useful piece
of kit for linguists.
SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS 59
USING THE PHONEMIC ALPHABET
Activity 12.1
To get you familiar with the phonemic alphabet, and in order to show you
some of the differences between sounds and spellings, transcribe the
words containing ‘ough’ in the made-up sentence above by using the
phonemic alphabet below. Answers are at the end of Part II.
The symbols below are available online, in clickable format. That
means that you can go online and hear the symbols being pronounced.
http://www.phonemicchart.com
single vowels diphthongs
i: ܼ ‫ݜ‬ u: ܼԥ eܼ /
sheep ship book shoot here wait
e ԥ ‫ܮ‬: ‫ܧ‬: ‫ݜ‬ԥ ‫ܼܧ‬ ԥ‫ݜ‬

left teacher her door tourist coin show
æ ‫ݞ‬ ‫ܤ‬: ‫ܥ‬ eԥ aܼ a‫ݜ‬

hat up far on hair like mouth
consonants
p b t d ‫ݹ‬ ‫ݶ‬ k H
pea boat tree dog cheese joke coin go
f v ș ð s z ‫ݕ‬ ‫ݤ‬
free video thing this see zoo sheep television
m n ƾ h l r w j
mouse now thing hope love run we you
Speech production and description can involve detailed scientific, lab-based

work. For example, speech and language therapists may need to consider
how a particular physical impairment or brain dysfunction is connected to an
individual’s speech capacity, so at the very least they will need to know
about anatomy and physiology. A forensics expert specialising in accent
identification for a court case will also need to use scientific techniques,
most likely computer-based acoustic software, to support their analysis. If
you are interested in the more scientific applications of phonetics, you
should supplement the basic introduction that follows by consulting the
further reading suggestions at the end of the section.
12.1 THE VOCAL TRACT
Speech sounds are produced in the vocal tract, using air pushed out from
the lungs. Different speech sounds are made by changing the shape of the
vocal tract. This can be done by moving the lips and tongue to touch different
parts of the vocal tract (place of articulation). Sounds can be further modified
by placing the articulators different distances from one another (manner of

articulation). We can make an even wider variety of sounds by vibrating the
vocal folds (voiced sounds) or not vibrating them (voiceless sounds).
VOCAL TRACT
Alveolar ridge Palate Velum
Uvula
Nasal cavity
Teeth
Tongue
Epiglottis
Lips
Pharynx
Vocal folds
Tip
Glottis
Blade
Dorsum
12.2 PLOSIVES: p b t d k g
These sounds are all explosions: they are created by obstructing the flow of
air by bringing parts of the mouth together, then letting go suddenly. To
explore this, place the palm of your hand in front of your mouth and, one by
one, make each of these sounds in an exaggerated way. You should be able
to feel the air from your mouth hitting your palm. English plosives (also called
‘stops’) are differentiated from each other in two ways: they are made in
different places in the mouth (place of articulation), and they use different
amounts of voice (voiced or voiceless sound). While /p/ and /b/ are produced
using the two lips (bilabial), /t/ and /d/ involve contact between the tongue
and the teeth ridge (alveolar); /k/ and /g/ are made by closing off air at the
back of the mouth (velar). Refer to the diagram to see these locations.
Each of these pairs of sounds has one voiced and one voiceless
phoneme, as follows:
Voiceless
ptk
Voiced
bdg
To understand the idea of voice, put your fingers on your ‘Adam’s apple’ and
alternate between the voiceless and voiced phonemes several times. You
should be aware that your vocal cords are vibrating when you say the voiced
sounds. If all the plosives sound voiced to you, this will be because you are
adding a vowel (which are all voiced) and your voiceless plosives are picking
up some of the vowel’s voiced quality. If you are doing this, make the voice-
less sounds as if you were whispering them.
12.3 FRICATIVES: f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
While plosives are produced by completely obstructing the airflow, fricatives

involve a lesser obstruction where air is forced through in a steady stream,
resulting in friction rather than explosion. Plosives cannot be kept going in
the way fricatives can. To illustrate this idea, say an /s/ until you run out of
breath; now try to keep a /p/ sound going. You will find that all you can do
for the latter is to produce a number of separate /p/ sounds, one after the
other.
Fricatives, like plosives, are distinguished from each other by their place
of articulation and by voice, each pair below being made up of a voiceless
and voiced phoneme – apart from /h/, which is voiceless but has no voiced
partner in English:
Voiceless
fθsʃh
Voiced
vðzʒ
As with plosives, go through these phonemes, exploring where they are

made in the mouth and sounding out their differences in terms of voice. (If
your version of ‘h’ sounds voiced, this is because you are adding a vowel
again, and saying something like ‘huh’. The ‘h’ sound above is the sound that
you would make if you were whispering.)
12.4 AFFRICATES: tʃ dʒ
There are only two of these consonant sounds in English. They have double
symbols to represent the fact that each one is a plosive followed by a
fricative. If you make these sounds at very slow speed you may be able to
hear this sequence. /tʃ/ is voiceless and /dʒ/ is its voiced partner.
12.5 NASALS: m n ŋ
The distinctive feature of these sounds is that they are produced in a

particular manner: the airstream comes out through the nose rather than the
mouth. They differ from each other in being made in different places: /m/ is
bilabial, /n/ is alveolar, and /ŋ/ is velar. When you have a cold and air cannot
escape from the nose, nasals become plosives, as in the second version of
‘good morning’ below:
/gʊd mɔ:nɪŋ/
/gʊd bɔ:dɪg/
12.6 LATERALS: l
This sound is sometimes referred to as a ‘liquid’ sound, and is made by

placing the tip of the tongue on the teeth ridge and sending air down the
sides of the mouth. The easiest way to experience this airflow is to put the
tongue in the right position to say an /l/, then breathe in instead of out: you
should be able to feel the air flowing along the sides of your tongue. This is
the reverse of what happens when an RP speaker says an English /l/.
12.7 APPROXIMANTS: r w j
The final three consonants are usually grouped together because they share
the property of being mid-way between consonants and vowels; in some
linguistic descriptions you will see them called ‘semi-vowels’. They all involve
less contact between the organs of speech than many of the other
consonants: compare /r/ with /p/, for example. While /r/ and /j/ are
produced in the palatal area (the roof of the mouth), /w/ is a bilabial.
12.8 GLOTTAL: ʔ
This does not appear on the list of symbols because it does not represent a
sound as such. It is a closure of the vocal cords, resulting in shutting off the
airstream, and it is sometimes produced as an alternative to certain plosive
sounds. To explore this, say the words ‘butter’ and ‘water’, but ‘swallow’ the
/t/ in the middle of each word. The glottal stop is a strong feature of some
English regional accents.
/bʌʔə/
/wɔ:ʔə/
Overleaf is a summary of the consonant system in English. The chart shows

place and manner of articulation. Where there is a pair of sounds contrasted
by voice, this is marked by a colon, with voiceless sounds being to the left
and voiced to the right. /r/ and /j/ are together because they are both
palatal sounds, but they are not separated by a colon because they are not
a voiceless/voiced pair.
Manner of articulation Place of articulation

Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Post- Palatal Velar Glottal
(two lips) dental (teeth) (on the alveolar (roof of the (back of (the glottis,
(lips and teeth (behind the mouth) the mouth) or vocal
teeth) ridge) teeth folds)
ridge)
Plosive p : b t : d k : g
Nasal m n ŋ
Fricative f : v θ : ð s : z ʃ : ʒ h
Affricate tʃ : dʒ
Approximant w r j
Lateral approximant l
*The voiced sounds are on the right and the voiceless ones are on the left.
Aside from the more scientific uses for phonemic symbols, there are impor-
tant insights about social attitudes that can be drawn from studying sound
variations. Some of the sounds you have been studying vary considerably on
a regional and ethnic basis: for example, speakers with strong London
(‘Cockney’) accents and Afro-Caribbean Patwa speakers have no /h/
phoneme, while glottal stops are a common feature in many accents of
English in the UK and beyond. The use or absence of particular phonemes
can be the subject of stigma, and regarded as ‘bad’, ‘sloppy’ or ‘lazy’ speech
by some people. It’s important to realise that these judgements are social
rather than linguistic: they are examples of how language can be used as a
shibboleth – a way in which more powerful groups mark out their own
forms of language as prestigious and ‘correct’ in order to defend their
positions in society. The sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1991) called such
displays of symbolic power ‘symbolic capital’ in order to emphasise the real
financial rewards that result from assumed status and claims of superiority.
Being able to describe aspects of language phonetically can help you
to understand and explain the differences between linguistic facts and
social attitudes. One aspect that should be apparent, if you work further on
accent variation using a phonemic alphabet, is that quite extensive and
complex sets of attitudes are based on rather small features of language –
for example, that a speaker has specific character traits, a certain degree of
social status, or a particular level of intelligence as a result of whether s/he
uses one phoneme or another.
One clear example of how arbitrary social attitudes are – and how a
sound in itself cannot be valued in any objective way – is the pronunciation
of /r/ in the UK and the USA. In the UK, pronouncing an /r/ where it
occurs in the spelling of a word after a vowel (called postvocalic r) is
characteristic of some rural UK accents, which have historically had lower
status than RP. Some examples of words are ‘car’, ‘hurt’, ‘farm’, ‘port’ ; in RP,
the /r/ in these words would not be pronounced. In the USA, the situation
is the reverse: pronouncing an /r/ in these contexts is higher status than
not pronouncing it.
Some knowledge of phonetics can also help us understand how cross-

cultural stereotyping works. For example, some Chinese speakers of English
don’t hear the difference between /l/ and /r/ in English because in their
own first language, these sounds are heard as variants of the same sound.
This difference between how speakers of different languages divide up
their sound systems can produce distinctive speech habits which can then
be exaggerated in stereotypes – in this case, saying ‘velly’ for ‘very’, or
‘yerrow’ for ‘yellow’. Of course, stereotypes in written texts will use the
traditional written alphabet to create their versions, as in the examples just
quoted. This is a world away from the accuracy of a phonetic transcription,
relying on readers to pick up on one or two distinctive features and construct
a voice inside their own heads.
Although novelists are not necessarily trying to create stereotyped
speakers, they too use a small range of language features to depict their
characters in dialogues, sometimes using variant spellings or aspects of
punctuation such as apostrophes to suggest pronunciations. This is termed
eye dialect, because it relies less on the transcription of sound and more on
the idea of language as a set of visual impressions. Here are some examples
of eye dialect from American detective novels. These depict casual speech
rather than particular accents:
Whaddya mean?
Whaddyacallit?
Is that ’cuz a me?
What’s the frickin’ point o’ that?
Yeah, you ’n me both, pal.
The fact that we regularly make social judgements about people by charac-
terising their language as ‘good’ or ‘bad’, as ‘beautiful’ or ‘ugly’, shows how
sounds can be used in a symbolic way just as images can be. The relation-
ship between the sounds that we make and the people or things being
referred to could be just as arbitrary as using a rose to symbolise love, or a
lightbulb to suggest an idea dawning (and note that even the term ‘dawning’
is metaphorical).
However, there is one area where there is some debate about whether
language is totally symbolic and arbitrary. This is an area that is sometimes
termed expressive – language that appears to connect with our physical
senses and imitate the sensations that surround us. The most obvious
example of this is onomatopoeia – words that seem to impersonate the
sounds they describe, like ‘bang’, ‘crash’ and ‘thud’. But is there any real
connection between the sound of a word such as ‘crash’ and the sound of
an actual crash?
One of the difficulties we have in answering the question above is that
we rarely if ever experience onomatopoeic terms in isolation from their
contexts. Many terms for noises are experienced early in our lives in the
form of comics and playful stories. Human characters blurt out ‘eek’, ‘aargh’
and ‘aaahhh’ in the speech bubbles in comics, while cows ‘moo’ and sheep
‘baa’ in early reading books. Because of the strong associations we have for
how such terms are used, it is very difficult to determine whether they have
any meaning in their own right.
ARRRGGGGH!!
Text 12.1
Here is an example of an
expressive term, again from
the art’otel, in the context of
what happens if a guest
forgets to pack an essential torgot it.
item. Goffman (1981) calls don'tworry, 81you hwe fwgotpur
too,hbrvrh.rhw,ng k,, or -<ng kt1 ek
PI,, mnhcl the front deskwhere
we
such terms ‘response cries’, w,I be able supphiyou ~8th the
to
der,redprad"ct
saying that in speech we utter
such cries when we have
recovered our composure following a problem or mishap. This written form,
then, is a kind of dramatic performance of such a cry.
One piece of evidence which appears to reinforce the idea of arbitrariness

is that different languages have different words for noises, when in theory
we should all hear and simulate noises in the same way. For example, while
English dogs go ‘woof woof’ or ‘bow wow’, French ones go ‘oua oua’ and
Greek ones ‘gav gav’; Japanese cats purr by going ‘goro goro’; and the
Spanish for ‘bang’ or ‘crack’ is ‘pum’ or ‘paf’.
There is a collection of animal noises from different languages on the
website of Derek Abbott at the university of Adelaide, below:
http://www.eleceng.adelaide.edu.au/personal/dabbott/animal.html
The website of animal sounds contains plenty of evidence for the arbitrari-
ness of language, and yet there does seem to be a correlation between
some particular sound patterns and certain ideas. For example, several
English words starting with ‘sl’, such as ‘slime’, ‘slug’, ‘slippery’, ‘slick’, ‘slush’,
and ‘slurp’, suggest unpleasant sensations of cloying wetness, while words
starting with ‘gl’, like ‘glitter’, ‘glimmer’, ‘glow’, ‘glare’, ‘gleam’, ‘glisten’ and
‘glass’, seem to share associations with light or suggest brittle qualities.
Of course, there will be exceptions to the connections suggested above.
‘Sleep’ and ‘glad’ don’t fit the pattern, nor do ‘slim’ or ‘glide’. But it may be the
case that through a certain force of numbers, groups of sounds do gather a
habitual set of associations that are added to as new words – for example,
new inventions, or advertising brand names – join the lexicon.
EXPLORING THE REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS

Activity 12.2
In both the activities below it will help if you read the words aloud, in order
to gain physical sensations of how the sounds in them are produced.
1. Look at the two ‘starter’ words in the list below. Do you think the
sounds in any of these words have group associations with certain
ideas or sensations? See if you can continue the list if you believe
so, in order to offer more evidence.
flip, flutter …
twist, twiddle …
bump, lump …
puff, huff …
2. Poetry uses sound effects, sometimes in quite concentrated ways,

to help us create interpretations of ideas and scenes. Read the lines
below, which have all been extracted from longer poems. Are the
sounds involved suggestive of particular ideas in each case? If so,
are there any physical connections between what the sounds repre-
sent, and how the sounds are produced physically?
There is a commentary on this activity at the end of Part II.
a) From a poem by Wilfred Owen (1893–1918) describing a battle in

progress:
Only the stuttering rifles rapid rattle
b) From a poem by Geoffrey Hill (1932–) about the Crucifixion:
…while the dulled wood

Spat on the stones each drop
Of deliberate blood.
c) From a poem by Peter Redgrove (1932–2003) describing wind

around a house:
Limped up the stairs and puffed on the landings

Snuffled through floorboards from the foundations
d) From a poem by Sylvia Plath (1932–1963) addressing a sleeping

baby:
All night your moth breath

Flickers among the flat pink roses
EXPLORING THE REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS
Activity 12.2
(continued)
e) From a poem by Tennyson (1809–1892) describing the sounds of
doves and bees:
The moan of doves in immemorial elms

And murmuring of innumerable bees
f) The first verse of a poem called The Bells by Edgar Allan Poe
(1809–1849):
Hear the sledges with the bells—

Silver bells!
What a world of merriment their melody foretells!
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,
In the icy air of night!
While the stars that oversprinkle
All the heavens, seem to twinkle
With a crystalline delight;
Keeping time, time, time,
In a sort of Runic rhyme,
To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
From the bells, bells, bells, bells,
Bells, bells, bells—
From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.
So far the focus has been on consonants in English, but vowels can also have
a role in sound symbolism. They also vary in the phoneme inventory of
people from different regions and social class backgrounds. For example, the
headline below, from a UK tabloid newspaper, announced that Prince William
of Cambridge was to take a year to decide what royal duties to take on:
“Wills’ year orf”

(The Sun, 12.9.13)
The word ‘orf’ is eye dialect for a vowel sound that used to feature in older
forms of RP – the type of voice heard on older newsreels. The transcription
of this sound would be /ɔ:/ In contrast, modern RP-accented English
speakers would say /ɒ/.
The prince probably doesn’t say ‘orf’ at all, but this sound is being
imitated to suggest that the privileged lifestyle of the royal family has not
gone away. The term ‘Wills’ as a nickname for the prince also shows that the
paper wants to cut him down to size. It’s saying that for anybody else, this
year would be seen as a holiday.
As with consonants, vowels seem to be able to be used to suggest

certain ideas. For example, /i:/ is often associated with diminutive size, as in
the words ‘teeny’, ‘weeny’, ‘wee’. /i:/ also features on the ends of words in
‘baby talk’ – for example, ‘cardies’ for ‘cardigans’, ‘jarmies’ for ‘pyjamas’,
‘drinky’ for ‘drink’, ‘walkies’ for ‘walk’ and so on. As well as individual sounds
appearing to have some symbolic value, vowels can also have cumulative
force, either in repetition or in contrast. For example, ‘teeny weeny’ as a
phrase is more effective for the repetitions in it.
VOWEL PATTERNS
Activity 12.3
English has many expressions that exploit vowel sounds by using either
repetition or contrast. Below is a list of some of them. Sort them into
categories by deciding which of these use repetition and which use
contrast, then identify which vowels are being used. When you have
finished, think about the nature of these terms: what type of language do
they represent? Where might they be used – by whom, and in which
contexts? If you are unfamiliar with any of them, look them up in a
dictionary or phrase finder – there are many online – to check their
meanings and possible contexts of use.
helter skelter flip flop topsy turvey wishy washy fat cat
hoity toity lovey dovey hip hop see saw mishmash
ding dong spick and span big wig knick knack
harum scarum tick tock tit for tat jet set heebie jeebies
hanky panky sing song willy nilly shilly shally nitty gritty
ping pong hotchpotch pitter patter namby pamby
hugger mugger collywobbles hoi polloi jim jams (for pyjamas)
airy fairy arty farty roly poly
There is a commentary on this activity at the end of Part II.
Vowels can also play a part in a range of sound patterns, including rhyme,
which involves the repetition of sounds. There are various degrees and types
of rhyme, including pararhyme, assonance and reverse rhyme. You can
see the operation of full rhyme in some of the expressions above, where the
ending of the word is repeated but there is a change at the beginning of it
– for example, willy nilly, nitty gritty. This aspect of patterning is learned early
as part of our childhood experience of language, via songs, nursery rhymes
and the chants that accompany play.
As well as full rhyme, there are other types of near-rhyme that set up
relationships between sounds, and these can be used where full rhyme may
seem too neat and tidy or childlike (although sometimes full rhyme can be
very effective in serious texts, as a deliberate device).
First, it’s important to realise that rhyme of all kinds is based on the
sounds of words rather than the spelling. Here, the operation of homophones
(words that are spelled differently but have the same sound) can have an
important role. To get your ear tuned in to relationships between writing and
sounds (grapho-phonemics), try the activities below.
HOMOPHONES
Activity 12.4
1. The following are homophones in RP. How many different words
can be represented by these sounds?
a) ni:dz
b) ɑ:mz
c) bru:z
d) kɔ:s
e) səʊl
f) kɔ:t
g) lesən
h) kwɔ:ts
i) kɔ:z
j) rəʊz
k) sent
Answers are at the end of Part II.

There are many forms of language play that adults engage in,
involving sound patterns. For example, the following words are from a
daily newspaper crossword puzzle, where each day the words that form
the answers to the two first clues in the puzzle can become a further,
single word. Guess the single word or alternative phrase that each pair
can produce by saying them aloud. This exercise plays off the boundaries
of written words against sound patterns.
a) heir male
b) flay quay
c) conned oar
d) pyre nears
e) infer know
f) mill inner
g) bling curd
h) clap tout
i) anna kissed
j) bone apart
Answers are at the end of Part II.

Some of the expressions you sorted earlier used contrasting vowels

within the framework of the same consonants, setting up a half-rhyme or
pararhyme – for example, ‘sing song’, ‘shilly shally’. These examples are
playful and light-hearted, but the same strategy can also be used to help
communicate very serious messages. For example, it is used in the poem
‘Strange Meeting’ (1918) by Wilfred Owen (1893–1918) in order to set up
echoes between words, without providing the sense of completeness that
would come with full rhyme. The narrator describes an imaginary journey
down into hollow spaces in the earth where he encounters a dead enemy
soldier who was one of his victims during the battle. Printed below are the
first few lines of this poem.
Text 12.2
STRANGE MEETING
It seemed that out of battle I escaped
Down some profound dull tunnel, long since scooped
Through granites which titanic wars had grained.
Yet also there encumbered sleepers groaned,
Too fast in thought or death to be bestirred.
Then, as I probed them, one sprang up, and stared
With piteous recognition in fixed eyes,
Lifting distressful hands as if to bless.
Pararhyme can be seen in escaped/scooped, grained/groaned, and

bestirred/stared. These lines also use assonance (the repetition of vowels,
without the other components that entail full rhyme): for example, the vowel
sounds in ‘down’ and ‘profound’, and in ‘dull tunnel’. The term ‘collywobbles’
in the list on page 68 was also an example of assonance. Seeing the same
strategy used in both serious and playful contexts shows that there is no
one-to-one correlation between a language feature and an effect.
ENG1502/501
UNIT 4: WORD FORMATION - MORPHOLOGY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 distinguish between inflectional morphology and lexical morphology;
 describe derivational, inflectional, free and bound morphemes;
 identify morphemes and allomorphs;
 describe how the morphological processes of derivation, compounding,

clipping, back formation and blending are used to create new words;
 explain the differences between noun and verb inflections.
INTRODUCTION
This Unit must be read alongside the following sections of Mullany and Stockwell (2010)
A2, B2, and C2
Human beings have the capacity to understand and use words in their languages, even
words they have never encountered before. For example, a speaker of South African
indigenous languages, would know enough morphemes in their languages to recognise
that /Tsotsoping/ or /Gxabeshana/ the first word is probably a word in Sesotho, Setswana
or Sepedi, but not a word in isiZulu, Siswati or isiXhosa; the second one is probably a
word in isiXhosa or isiZulu but not a word in Sesotho or Siswati. You also understand the
meaning of the words. For example, you can say that, the first word is probably a place
name somewhere where one of the Sesotho languages is spoken, and the second word is
most probably someone’s name or surname in isiZulu or isiXhosa. How is that possible? It
is possible because, you have that unconscious knowledge of your language. This is
the central question of morphology, the part of grammar that deals with the internal
structure of words and their meanings.
If you grew up in Wales, you would speak the language of Wales, Welsh. In Wales, there
is a town called /Llanfairpwllgwynllgogerrychwyhndrbowillantysilliogogogoch/. Yes, this is
the name of a town in the Welsh language. To you, because you do not speak Welsh, it is
gibberish, which is to say, it does not make sense. As you try to read the word, you do not
know if it is one word or if it is many words put together, or if it is a sentence. In other
words, you do not understand the internal structure of this word. Yet, you understand
/Gauteng, Tivhumbeni, Qumbu, Babanango, Ventersdorp, eSwatini, or KwaZulu-Natal/
because you are Southern African. Although these are names of places presented in
different South African languages, you are familiar with them. For example, if you speak
these South African languages, you know that /Venters-dorp/, /Baba-nango/, /Gaut-eng/,
/Kwa-Zulu-Natal/,/e-Swat-ini,/ /Tivhumb-eni// are real words and their internal structure is
made up of more than just one element. Each of these words is formed by stringing
together the different elements to make up one word.
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How can you be sure? Try to translate the words into English. For example, the translation
of [Gaut-eng] or [e-Goli] is ‘the place of gold’. As soon as you do this, you get to
understand that, ‘place of gold’ cannot be rendered by one element, in [Gaut-eng] or [e-
Goli] there are two elements, one element is [Gaut-] or [-Goli] which means ‘gold’, and the
other is [-eng] or [e-] which means ‘place of’. This is the internal structure or the
morphology of the word /Gauteng/ or /eGoli/. In contrast, in the Welsh word
/Llanfairpwllgwynllgogerrychwyhndrbowillantysilliogogogoch/, you do not know what the
morphology of the word is because, you do not speak the language. To the Welsh
however, it is easy, they can break the word down into meaningful elements or parts. With
this background in mind, in the following paragraphs, we attempt to answer the question,
“What is morphology?”
What is morphology?
According to Mullany and Stockwell (2015), morphology is the study of elementary units
called morphemes and their combination rules in the formation of words and their
meanings. In simple terms, morphology deals with how words are formed and the way that
formation or structure determines their meaning. To explain further, the morphology of a
language such as Welsh, Sepedi, isiZulu or isiNdebele and any other language is a set of
rules that do two things. First, these rules are responsible for word formation, the
formation of new words. Second, the rules represent the speaker’s unconscious
knowledge of the structure of the already existing words of their language.
Morphemes (word-formation units or elements)
In this section we explain what morphemes are so that it becomes easy to understand
morphology. Finegan and Besnier (1989) state that, morphemes are the smallest units of
language that can be associated with meaning. In the examples we gave earlier such as,
/Kwa-Zulu-Natal/ and /Gaut-eng/ we showed that these words are made up of word
building units or elements like /Kwa-/, /Gaut-/ /-eng/ which are examples of the ‘smallest
units’ in a whole word. Small as they are, they are associated with meaning. We know
that, the meaning of /Kwa-/ is ‘the place of…’ in isiZulu. We also know that, the meaning of
/-eng/ is ‘the place of…’ in Sesotho. This means that, the word /Gauteng/ can be broken
down or divided into its smallest units or morphemes, /Gaut-/ ‘gold’ + /-eng/ ‘place of’.
These smallest units or elements of language need not be words, although sometimes
they are. There are words that cannot be broken down further into meaningful smallest
units, like the word /Qumbu/. This word is both the smallest unit, a morpheme and a word
at the same time. For example, /Qu-/ and /-mbu/ have no meaning on their own in the
same way that /kwa-/ and /-eng/ have.
English speakers know that words such as cat, girl, tall, ask, father, school, orange, tie/
cannot be divided into smaller meaningful units. /Orange/ for example is not made up of
/O+range/ or /Ora + nge/; nor is /father/ made up of /fath+er/. However, many words in the
English language have more than one meaningful element, unit or part.
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Look at the following words:
/cats/ , /girls/, /taller/, /asked;/, /fatherly/, /schooled/, /oranges/, /ties/
All of them are made up of two elements:
/cat+s/ , /girl+s/, /tall+er/, /ask+ed;/, /father+ly/, /school+ed/, /orange+s/,

/tie+s/
Other words have even more elements or units. Consider the following examples:
truer untrue truthfully

truest truth untruthfully
truly truthful untruthfulness
These examples show that a set of words can be built up by adding certain meaningful
elements to a core element, the root. In the example above, the core element or root is
/true/ to which all possible meaningful elements are added. We have already alluded to
the fact that, the meaningful elements of a word are called morphemes. In these
examples, /true/ is a morpheme, the root; the added meaningful elements are also
morphemes: /-er; -est; -ly; un-; -th; -ful; -fully; -ness/. Sometimes there are two or more
morphemes in a word. For example, in /un1-truth2-ful3-ness4/ ‘untruthfulness’, there are
four morphemes.
Free and Bound morphemes
Some morphemes such as /true, mother, uncle, father, orange, apple/ can stand alone;
they cannot be broken down or be divided into smaller meaningful units or elements.
Morphemes that can stand alone and could not be broken down further are called free
morphemes. Morphemes such as /-er; -est; -ly; un-; -th; -ful; -fully; -ness/ cannot stand
alone, they function only as parts of words. These are called bound morphemes.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Identify free morphemes in the short paragraph below:
“Her eyes light up as he smiles and it’s easy to see why Gaby, wife of Blue Bulls and
Springbok prop Trevor Nyakane, is such a firm favourite among the wives and girlfriends of
the capital’s much-loved rugby players. Gaby and Trevor met in Tzaneen, Limpopo and
started dating when Gaby was in her first year of university.
The couple got married in August last year in a lavish ceremony in front of family and
friends, but not before having to reschedule their big day because of rugby commitments.
They would have gotten married in June.
Adapted from Pretoria GET IT Magazine, ‘It’s all about family’, April ,2019:18.
45
Feedback to Activity 4.1
Refer to the section on Free and Bound morphemes in order to answer this question. For
example ‘her’, ‘Blue’ are a free morphemes because they cannot be broken down any
further into meaningful units.
Derivational morphemes
Certain bound morphemes work to change the parts of speech of the words they are
affixed or attached to. For example, /truth/ is a NOUN and if we affix /-full/ it becomes
/truthful/ an ADJECTIVE. If we further affix another morpheme /-ly/ it becomes /truthfully/
an ADVERB. In English, such morphemes tend to be added or affixed at the end of words.
Table 12
Part of speech Derivational Result

morphemes
Noun /doubt/ + -ful Adjective /doubtful/
Adjective /beautiful/ + -ly Adverb /beautifully/
Verb /establish/ + -ment Noun /establishment/
Verb /teach/ + er Noun /teacher/
Adjective /bright/ + en Verb /brighten/
Noun /fright/ +en Verb /frighten/
ACTIVITY 4. 2
Change the following words into different word forms by attaching a suffix. Have the suffix
you have added changed the part of speech of the word? If so, what was the original part
of speech and what is the new one?
expect----------------------------------------------------
interfere--------------------------------------------------
school----------------------------------------------------
take------------------------------------------------------
quality---------------------------------------------------
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Inflectional morphemes
Other bound morphemes work, not to change the parts of speech of the words they are
affixed to, but they change the form of a word without changing the part of speech to
which it belongs. For example, if a word is a verb, it stays a verb except its form or
structure changes.
These bound morphemes are called inflectional morphemes. They work to create
variant forms of words. Below are examples:
Table 13
Part of Class or Inflectional Examples

Speech category morphemes
Noun plural /-s/ cars, churches, apples
possessive /-s/ father’s tie, mother’s shoes
Verb 3rd person /-s/ she cooks, he refuses,
past tense /-ed/ he cooked, he refused
present participle /-ing/ she is cooking, he is refusing
past participle /-ed/ she had cooked; he had

refused
Adjective comparative /-er/ He is taller; she is prettier
superlative /-est/ He is the tallest guy ; she is the

prettiest girl
Now that you understand what morphology is and what it does in language through
derivational and inflectional morphemes, let us explain what is meant by inflectional and
lexical morphology.
Inflectional morphology
In the discussion above, we saw an example of inflectional morphology. We can say that,
inflectional morphology deals with the differences between the structures or forms of the
words or lexemes when inflectional morphemes have been attached to them without
changing the word class. Nouns remain nouns, and verbs remain verbs. For example:
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Table 14
Lexeme New form
car, church, apple cars, churches, apples (plural nouns)

(singular nouns)
Father, mother, Father’s; mother’s, (nouns marked for the possessive)
Cook, refuse (verbs) Cooked; refused (verbs in the past tense)
Cook, refuse Cooking, refusing ( verbs in the present participle)
Cook, refuse Had been cooking; had been refusing (verbs in the
past participle)
Tall, pretty (adjectives) Taller, tallest; prettier, prettiest ( adjectives in the

comparative, superlative forms)
In summary, inflectional morphology serves to mark number like singular or plural on

nouns. On verbs, it marks tense, like present, past or present participle. On adjectives, it
marks the degrees of comparison (comparative and superlatives).
Lexical morphology
Earlier, we also saw an example of lexical morphology when we discussed derivational
morphemes and how they change the word class of a lexeme when they are attached to
it. Consider the following examples again:
Table 15
Part of speech Derivational New part of speech

morphemes
Noun /doubt/ + -ful Adjective /doubtful/
Adjective /beautiful/ + -ly Adverb /beautifully/
Verb /establish/ + -ment Noun /establishment/
Verb /teach/ + er Noun /teacher/
Adjective /bright/ + en Verb /brighten/
Noun /fright/ + en Verb /frighten/
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To recap, we can say lexical morphology uses derivational morphemes to create new
lexemes or words from existing lexical bases. For example, from the lexical base /doubt/
(verb)], lexical morphology can produce other lexemes or words thus /doubtful (adjective),
doubtless (adjective), doubtfully (adverb), undoubtedly (adverb), doubter (noun)/.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Construct sentences of your own using the different inflections provided in the left hand
column.
Inflections Sentences
The plural form of ‘watch’.

The possessive of the word
‘Doctor’.
The Past tense /-ed.
The /-ing/ form of the verb.
Past participle form of a verb your
choice.
The /-er/ comparison form of the
adjective.
The /est/ comparison form of the
adjective.
Word structure and lexical morphology

The examples of inflectional and lexical morphology we have been discussing have
prepared you for the next topic that we discuss, word structure. We would like to focus on
word structure in English and to demonstrate the work of lexical morphology in the
language. In English, the root or lexical base of a word is an already existing word.
Therefore, English morphology is word-based. This means that, words are built on words
as we saw in the examples above.
Look at the following word denationalisation, with the background knowledge you now
have of morphology, you can understand that, each affix you see in the word, has been
added to the English word/root: nation.
However, there are many English words whose internal structure is not made up of
existing roots in the English language. These are the stand-alone lexemes. They should
remind you of the lexeme, /Qumbu/. For example, in the word grateful/ one cannot claim
that /grate-/ is the root and -ful/ is an affix attached to grate because there is no such word
as ‘grate’ in English. There are many such words in English which are an exception to the
rule. For example, /cranberry/, /delay/, outrage/, /inaugural, advance/ are root words
themselves; their internal structure is not a result of cran+berry, de+lay, out+rage/ and so
on.
49
Similarly, words such as receive, deceive, conceive, perceive or remit, submit, permit,
commit do not follow the same inflection process. What looks like affixes in these words
does not do the work of affixes when they are attached to free morphemes or lexemes like
/fill > re-fill/, /do > re-do/. The reason they cannot do a similar work is because, they
have no meaning. For example, there is no meaning in per- when attached to -mit; permit
cannot be broken down further, it exists as a free morpheme, a word in English whose
internal structure consists of the lexeme itself.
Word formation (lexical morphology) in English
All languages, including African languages have the ability to create new words using
morphological rules. Earlier we saw /Tsotsoping/, a word which does not exist. We learned
that, speakers of Sesotho, Sepedi or Setswana would know how to pronounce it, they
would guess that, it is the name of a place somewhere. Why? Because, we said, they
have unconscious knowledge of their languages. This means that, they have unconscious
knowledge of the morphology of their languages as well as the morphological rules the
languages use to create words. In this module, we discuss English as a language.
So how does the English language use lexical morphology to create words? English uses
two types of processes to create words: derivation and compounding.
Derivation
Derivation creates new words, using derivational morphemes by changing the category or
class of the word and its meaning. For example, the derivational affix /-er/ combines with a
verb to create a noun with the meaning ‘one who does something’ as shown in the
examples below:
Table 16
Verb Derivational Derived noun

morpheme
helpv /-er/ helpvern

walkv walkvern
talkv talkvern
teachv teachvern
writev writvern
gardenv gardnvern
drivev drivvern
speakv speakvern
cleanv cleanvern
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Below is a list of English derivational affixes:

Table 17
Some English derivational affixes (morphemes)
Affix Change Semantic effect Examples
Suffixes
-able V-Adj doable, reversible
-ation V-N vexation, collaboration
-er V-N teacher, gardener
-ing V-N she likes sleeping, they pay for

babysitting
-ion V-N protection, deletion
-ive V-A assertive, combative
-ment V-N employment, enjoyment
-al N-A national, regional
-ian N-A Ghanaian, Rhodesian, Canadian
-ic N-A organic, choleric, xenophobic
-ise N-V problematise, organise, africanise
-less N-A penniless, moneyless, toothless
-ous N-A joyous, poisonous, pretentious
-ity Adj-N priority, stupidity
-an N-Adj Angolan, republican, Mozambican
-ly ADJ-ADV ridiculously, hurriedly, quietly
-ness Adj-N Sadness, happiness, faithfulness
Prefixes
ex- N-N former … ex-wife, ex-president
in- Adj-Adj not … in-conceivable, in-secure
V-V reverse… undo, uncover, uncork
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re- x…again re-do, re-think, re-send
Adapted from www.ruf.edu/~Kemmer/Words/affixes.html
Derivational Rules
Each of the examples given in Table 17 illustrate a ‘word formation rule’ that can predict
what words can be created in English. Thus, if there is a rule that says, {prefix /un-/ to an
adjective to get another adjective}, then applying the rule should yield a result such as
this word: {unprefix + ceremoniousadj = unceremonious adj}. If the rule says, {prefix /un-/ to
an adjective to get and adverb}, then applying the rule should yield the following word:
{unprefix + ceremoniousadj = unceremoniouslyadv}.
These rules have another function or work that they do in English. So far, we have been
discussing one of their functions, that is, to form words. The other function, is that the
rules can be used to analyse words. For example, if you come across a word like
/unpalatable/, which means ‘something unpleasant to eat or accept’. You can analyse the
word using a derivational rule if you know and understand lexical morphology. Analysing
the word means, you will break it down to its smallest meaningful units. Thus: /unprefix-
palatnoun-ablesuffix/ where /un-/ means ‘something cannot be done’; /palat-/ refers to ‘palate’
which is the roof of your mouth; you use it sometimes to taste food with the help of your
tongue; /-able/ is an affix which means something ‘can be done’. The resulting word is
/unpalatable/.
Multiple Derivations
The words that as we have been discussing, such as unpalatable, uncooperative,
denationalisation are illustrations of multiple derivations. In their internal structure, they are
complex. You can see the multiple levels of complexity when you begin to analyse them:
unpalatable /unprefix-palatnoun-ablesuffix/
uncooperative /unprefix-cooperatverb-ivesuffix/
denationalisation /deprefix-nationnoun-alinfix-isesuffix.
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Compounding
Compounding is another example of a derivational word formation rule of English. The
rule takes existing words and puts them together to create new words. Here are
examples:
Table 18
Combining parts of Examples Resulting words

speech
noun + noun eye+witness, rain + coat eyewitness, raincoat

adjective + noun quick+sand, slow+cooker quicksand, slowcooker
pronoun + noun she+goat shegoat, shewolf
verb + adverb look+out, watch+out lookout, watchout
verb +noun tell + tale telltale,
gerund+ noun looking+glass lookinglass
noun + adjective air+tight, suger+free airtight, sugarfree
adjective + adjective red+hot, red+handed redhot, redhanded
noun + verb brow+beat; hog+wash browbeat, hogwash
adjective + verb white+wash, whitewash,
adverb + verb up+set, with+stand upset, withstand
adverb + adjective left+handed lefthanded
adjective +noun blue+lie, super+market bluelie, supermarket
ACTIVITY 4.4
Read the following paragraph extracted from the editor’s article entitled ‘They are Dishing
UP’ on a restaurant called Forti Grill and Bar in Pretoria, paying particular attention to the
italicised words. The article appeared in the April issue of Pretoria Get It Magazine, p. 36.
In this paragraph, the italicised words can be broken down into different morphemes.
Analyse the words and identify the free and bound morphemes found in each word. Use
the following example to do this activity:
Free morphemes (base morphemes) Bound morphemes

/dish/ /-ing/ > dishing
/luck/ /-y/ > lucky
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When it comes to good food, one never has to look further than Chef Fortunato
Mazzone, also known as Forti. He is known far and wide across the city and even
beyond its borders. At Forti Grill and Bar, you’ll get some seriously good food. Situated in
the prestigious Time Square Casino, booking is essential when planning dinner at Forti
Grill and Bar. Yes, it’s that popular. As previously mentioned, Chef Forti is no stranger to
local foodies. Just ask anyone who has dined at his previous restaurant, Ritrovo. The
man is a legend. But he doesn’t only cook, he can sing as well – opera to be precise and
it’s beautiful.
Your E-Tutor and Face to face Tutor will take you through this activity.
Clipping
Applying this rule to a word results in a shortened or abbreviated form of words. The
process seems to be popular among students. Sometimes applying the rule results in
acronyms. Acronyms are words formed by taking the initial letters of some, or all of the
words in a phrase or title and pronouncing them as a word, for example, AIDS, UNESCO,
WITS, JO’BURG, UNISA, TAXI and so on. Here are a few more examples of acronyms:
Table 19
Noun Clipping
Professor prof
advertisement advert
preparation prep
doctor doc
laboratory lab
supplementary supp
motorbike bike
combination combo
Catherine Cathy/ Kathy
Elizabeth Liz
operation Op
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Backformation
This is an interesting lexical rule. It is a word-formation rule which takes a word which was
derived using derivational morphemes by affixing them to an existing lexeme (root, base)
and de-affixes the derivational morphemes; it works to reverse the initial process, as it
were. Here are a few examples:
Table 20
Original lexeme (word) Backformation
Enthusiasm Enthuse
donation donate
orientation orient/ orientate
editor edit
liaison liaise
self-destruction self-destruct
hairdresser hairdress
burglar burgle
typewriter typewrite
computer compute
babysitter babysit
Blending
Blending is a process in which two already existing lexemes/ words are created/ combined
to form a new word. For example:
Table 21
Lexemes New word ( Blend)
breakfast + lunch brunch

motor + hotel motel
telephone + marathon telethon
dance + exercise dancercise
electronic + mail email
worldwideweb+seminar webinar
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ACTIVITY 4.5
Using your first language as an example, explain how you would use derivational, clipping,
blending and compounding and backformation to coin new words. Remember to show the
English language equivalents.
Identifying morphemes and allomorphs
At this point, we are confident that, you understand what morphemes are. Let us explain
what allomorphs are. Sometimes a morpheme has only one phonological form, only one
way to pronounce it. However, oftentimes, that morpheme has a number of variations in
pronunciation: it is pronounced differently in different contexts. Those different
pronunciations of the one morpheme are called allomorphs. For example, the inflectional
morpheme /-’s/ which is a possessive marker in words like mom’s car, dog’s fur, the
possessive inflectional morpheme /-’s / is pronounced differently where the noun ends in a
voiced sound like /m, d/: the pronunciation sounds like [mom’z car, dog’z fur]. Therefore,
in this example, -’s is the morpheme and -’z is the allomorph. In the following
paragraphs, we will discuss allomorphs in detail.
Now, before leaving the subject of morphology, let us examine the matter of pronunciation
of some of the inflectional affixes (in this case, suffixes) of English in detail. This will
enable us to identify what morphemes are as opposed to allomorphs. To be clear, we will
examine three contexts where the difference between morphemes and allomorphs is
experienced. These are the plural, the possessive and the third person singular.
Let us examine the plural affixes and see how words are pronounced in the contexts
where each allomorph occurs:
Plural allomorphs
Table 22
[-ɪz] [-z]
bush >bushes[-ɪz] dog >dogs[-z]

judge > judges[-ɪz] friend>friends[-z]
peach > peaches[-ɪz] pen > pens[-z]
bus > buses[-ɪz] seed > seeds[-z]
fuse > fuses[-ɪz] car > cars[-z]
These examples indicate the pattern of distribution for the plural allomorphs of English:
1. [-ɪz] shows up where nouns end in /sh, dg, s, z, ch/ (sounds that are fricative or
sibilant)
2. [-z] shows up where nouns end in /g, d, n, r/ (sounds that are voiced)
3. [-s]. shows up where nouns end in /t, p, k, th, / (sounds that are voiceless)
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Note that, possessives and third person singular will behave in a similar way:
Bess’s [-ɪz] coat

John’s [-z] car
Phillip’s [-s] fiancé
1. [-ɪz] shows up where nouns end in / s, / (fricative or sibilant sound)

2. [-z] shows up where nouns end in / n, / voiced sound)
3. [-s]. shows up where nouns end in /p/ (voiceless stop)
Again, the third person singular morpheme /’s/, will behave similarly when it comes after
certain sounds:
She kisses [-ɪz] her mother every day before she bedtime.
The boy digs [-z] holes all day long.
She stops [-s] at the supermarket to buy groceries.
1. [-ɪz] shows up where nouns end in / s / (fricative or sibilant sound)

2. [-z] shows up where nouns end in / g / voiced sound)
3. [-s]. shows up where nouns end in /p/ (voiceless stop)
Next, let us examine the English past tense morpheme. The inflectional morphemes that
mark the past tense of regular verbs in English has three allomorphs:
Past tense allomorphs
Table 23
[t] [d] [ǝd]
Wish >wish-ed [-t] wave > wave-ed [-d] want > want-ed[ǝd]
Kiss >kiss-ed [-t] bathe >bathe-ed[-d] wait > wait-ed[ǝd]
Talk > talk-ed [-t] play > play-ed [-d] hoot >hoot-ed[ǝd]
Preach > preach-ed [-t] ruin > ruin-ed[-d] plant > plant-ed[ǝd]
57
Torch > torched-ed [-t] tease > car-ed[-d] seed > seed-ed[ǝd]
These examples indicate the pattern of distribution for the plural allomorphs of English:
1. [-t] shows up where verbs end in /sh, s, k, ch/ (sounds that are voiceless)
2. [-d] shows up where nouns end in /v, th, y, n, r/ (sounds that are voiced)
3. [-ǝd] shows up where nouns end in /t, d/ (stop sounds)
ACTIVITY 4.6
The following words provide the possible forms of the regular past tense morpheme of
English.
(i) list the morphemes as well as the allomorphs
(ii) Identify and name the type of morpheme each word illustrates
(iii) Explain how a give morpheme comes to have an allomorph
Example:
Morpheme Allomorph Type of morpheme Explanation
/Walked / [walk-t] /-t/ Past tense /-ed/ [-t] occurs where

the final sound of
/sowed/ [sow-d] /-d/ a word is
voiceless
[-d] occurs where

the final sound of
a word is voiced
Fined
Butted
Stomachs
Coaches
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Cats
Dogs
Pleases her
Takes it
Allison’s coat
Cat’s food
Noun and verb inflection

Before we discuss noun and verb inflection in English, let us first explain the term
‘inflection’. Inflection refers to the morphological process that changes the form of a word
in order to mark what part of grammatical aspect it belongs to. We have already discussed
inflection and gave examples of it in the foregoing paragraphs. An example is the
inflectional morpheme of the plural /-’s/. When we affix this morpheme to a singular
noun, the result becomes a plural noun. For example, /shoe > shoes/.
All languages, to the best of our knowledge, indicates difference in words with respect to
/singular and plural/ as well as between /present and past tense/. Therefore, noun and
verb inflection refer to the morphological processes that nouns and verbs undergo and
become changed in form when they are inflected for the plural or tense respectively. In the
case of English nouns, for example, inflection marks the plural subclass as show below. In
the case of verbs, on the other hand, inflection marks a difference between past, present
future or whatever the case may be. See the examples below:
Noun inflection
Table 24
Singular Plural
Apple apples
boy boys
tree trees
cloud clouds
computer computers
dog dogs
mother mothers
orange oranges
banana bananas
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Verb inflection
Table 25
Present Tense Past Tense
talk talked
cook cooked
carve carved
construct constructed
quarrel quarreled
picture pictured
curl curled
book booked
express expressed
maintain maintained
ACTIVITY 4.7
Explain why /-ing/ is an inflectional suffix in (1) but a lexical one in (2)
(1) They are giving birth to more babies than the locals.
(2) It is often said that giving is more blessed than receiving.
References
A List of English Affixes. Source: www.ruf.rice.edu/~Kemmer/Words/affixes.html
Finegan, E. and Besnier, N. 1989. San Diego: Harcourt Bruce Jovanivich Inc.
Mullany, L. and Stockwell, P.2015. Introducing English language: a resource book for
students (2nd ed). New Yok: Routledge.
Pretoria GET IT Magazine, 2019. Foodie Alert. April 2019.
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UNIT 5: SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE: SYNTAX

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 explain what a complete sentence is;

 explain the differences between a dependent clause and an independent clause;
 distinguish between simple, compound, complex, and compound complex
sentences;
 analyse different sentence types;
 correct sentence fragments and run-on sentences;
 recognize correct and incorrect word order in sentences;
 use the different types of sentences effectively in longer texts.
Introduction
In the previous unit we studied morphology, the internal structure of words to prepare you
for this unit. In this unit we study the internal structure of sentences.
This Unit must be read alongside A4, B4 and C4 of your prescribed text, Mullany and
Stockwell (2010).
The unit introduces you the study of how sentences are formed in English. It examines the
smaller parts of a sentence, phrases and clauses and how these relate in the various
kinds of sentences. Putting together the words into meaningful and grammatically correct
clusters or patterns or sentences is what constitutes syntax.
What is ‘syntax’? A simple definition of ‘syntax’ is given by Aitchison (1993:8). She states
that, “syntax…refers to both the arrangement and the form of words. It is that part of
language which links together the sound patterns and the meaning.” In previous units, you
studied sound patterns, but at that point, you did not link that information to syntax or
sentence structure and meaning.
The Sentence
The largest unit of word combination is the sentence. We have all written many
sentences, some correct and others incorrect. This Unit attempts to show you what tools
you need in order to see what words do when they are in the company of others, how
they relate to each other to create meaning.
Units in a sentence
The units that make up a sentence start with the word. In your high school years you will
recall the major parts of speech you learned. As a way to remind you of what these are,
and in particular how they function in real language, we will highlight the parts of
speech, sometimes referred to as word categories. Most of you will have studied word
categories at High school or matric.
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The verbs (words of action-wash, eat, give, etc), the nouns (words referring to person,
thing, place or idea), the adjectives (words denoting quality, or describe nouns), the
adverbs (words that modify a verb, adjectives, other adverbs and sentences), and the
minor parts of speech: the prepositions (denote several notions such as time, location
e – to, along, with, into tc), pronouns (words can be used instead of or to refer to nouns),
articles (the definite ‘the’, and indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’), conjunctions (coordinating
and subordinating – see list on page 52), auxiliary verbs (verbs used to support the main
verb – be, have, do, will can, could, shall, should, must, might etc).
Activity 5.1
Identify the parts of speech of each of the words in this short excerpt.
Historical Perspective
Later came the first of the Nguni people who arrived with herds of cattle, and mined red
ochre in the hills south of Malelane. Early smelters, which pre-date the main Nguni
influx, have been excavated, indicating that the use of iron and copper was well
advanced during these years. Similarly, early pottery fragments and sculptural artifacts
unearthed in the hills on the Long Tom Pass, notably the “Lydenburg heads” have been
described as a major art find .
Did you find?
Later (adverb) came (v) the (article) Nguni (n) people (n) who (pronoun) arrived (v) with
(preposition) herds (n) of (preposition) cattle (n), and (conjunction) mined (veb) red
(adjective) ochre (n) in (preposition) the (article) hills south of Malelane. Early (adverb)
smelters (n), which (pronoun) pre-date (v) the (article) main Nguni (n) influx (n), have
been excavated, indicating that the use of iron and copper was well advanced (v) during
these years. Similarly, early pottery fragments and sculptural artifacts (n) unearthed in
the hills on the Long Tom Pass, notably the “Lydenburg heads” have been described as
a major art find.
Did you find?

Later (adverb) came (v) the (article) Nguni (n) people (n) who (pronoun) arrived (v) with
(preposition) herds (n) of (preposition) cattle (n), and (conjunction) mined (veb) red
(adjective) ochre (n) in (preposition) the (article) hills south of Malelane. Early (adverb)
smelters (n), which (pronoun) pre-date (v) the (article) main Nguni (n) influx (n), have been
excavated, indicating that the use of iron and copper was well advanced (v) during these
years. Similarly, early pottery fragments and sculptural artifacts (n) unearthed in the hills
on the Long Tom Pass, notably the “Lydenburg heads” have been described as a major
art find.
This basic identification process is easier to do. It names these elements as isolated units
and does not take into account their relationship with the other words in whose company
they appear. What syntax does is to examine these in context as both single elements and
elements within a group.
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THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE

The known structure of the English language sentence is in two parts; the subject and the
predicate. The predicate constitutes of the verb and sometimes the verb and the
compliment. Below are some examples of simple sentences showing the different
patterns.
As described in ‘The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers’ a predicate is the
completer of a sentence. The subject names the “do-er” or “be-er” of the sentence; the
predicate does the rest of the work. A simple predicate consists of only a verb, verb
string, or compound verb:
• The water evaporated.
• The water has been evaporating.
• The water evaporated, disappeared into the air, and never seen again.
A compound predicate consists of two (or more) such predicates connected:
• The water began to flow into the river and eventually filled the pond below the stream. A
complete predicate consists of the verb and all accompanying modifiers and other words
that receive the action of a transitive verb or complete its meaning.
My car (subject) has been stolen. (predicate) John (subject) drove my car (predicate).
The president (subject) gave all the Cabinet ministers a car. (predicate). Tatiana is
attentive. (predicate).
The dog died. (predicate).
The subject is always in a noun phrase or nominal form and the predicate in a verb phrase
or verbal form. Given that the noun can be substituted with a pronoun, the noun phrase
could be as in ‘He is coming’. Of course, a noun phrase can appear inside the predicate
as well, as the object, as in ‘The priest is a corrupt fellow’, where ‘corrupt fellow’ is the
noun phrase.
Here are some examples taken from Silva (1995) which show the structural composition
of the simple sentence.
Table 26
Subject Predicate
Noun phrase Verb phrase Noun phrase
She (pronoun) was humming an old church song
(auxiliary + verb) (determiner+ adjective phrase
(adjective +
noun) + noun
My car has been stolen
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John was driving my car
The table above shows the full constituent structure of the sentence from the part of
speech to phrase level. It also shows you the functional aspects, for example the
pronoun/nouns ‘she’, ‘my car’ and ‘John’ function as the subjects of the sentences and
‘was humming’, ‘has been stolen’ and ‘was driving’ as the verb phases and ‘an old church
song’ and ‘my car’ as noun phrases in the predicate position. The following is another
example showing more details on each of the phrases.
Subject Predicate
Noun Phrase Verb phrase Prepositional phrase (preposition
+ Noun phrase (determiner +
adjective+ noun)
Tears (noun) were gleaming on my mother’s face
(auxiliary + verb)
Let’s start with:

Nouns phrases or nominals
In a sentence or text, nouns are sometimes referred to as content words as opposed to
function words such as prepositions and articles. The noun is the quintessential part of a
sentence. Even in a sentence such as ‘stop’, the noun may not be in the surface structure,
but is implied as in ‘You stop’. There are different kinds of nouns, common nouns (man,
friend, apple, stick), proper nouns (names of particular things and people (August, The
Catcher and the Rye’, the Union Building, Johannesburg), collective nouns which refer to
a collection or group of people, animals, etc, (herd, government, com- mittee), abstract
nouns such as (belief socialism, intelligence, etc).
Let’s look again at the passage and see if we can identify the noun types. Nguni (n):
proper
people (n) : common herds (n): common cattle (n): common
ochre (n), hills (n), Malelane (n), smelters (n), Nguni (n), influx (n), copper (n), pottery (n),
fragments (n), artifacts (n), hills (n), Long Tom Pass (n),
Other single nouns include plural form nouns (children, men, mangoes) and pronouns
(she, he, they etc).
Noun phrases refer to the combination of words in which the noun appears as the main
word around which the other word categories congregate. A noun phrase is either a noun
or any group of words that can be replaced by a pronoun.
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In the sentences illustrating the basic structure of the sentence, you saw that the noun
phrase can be in the subject position, as a subject and in the predicate position, as an
object.
The Noun Phrase and its structure

A noun phrase is a unit comprised of a noun (which becomes the head of the unit) plus
other additional elements which modify the noun. The elements which generally modify
the noun are determiners and adjectives. A noun phrase can be infinite in length. The
bolded sections in the following sentences are noun phrases in different forms
Water is important for survival. (Single words)

Mr. Jones spoke to Dr. James. (Proper names)
The boy ate an apple. (Nouns and articles)
My friend works with her father. (Nouns and possessives) The young girl wore a long,
white dress. (Nouns and adjectives) Some of the kids ate all of the cake. (Nouns
and quantifiers) The man with the gun frightened the people in the bank. (Nouns and
prep. phrases)
The woman who lives there is my aunt. (Nouns and relative clauses) The dogs
sleeping on the deck should be left alone. (Nouns and phrases) Whoever wrote this
is in trouble. (Noun clauses)
http://www.eslgold.com/grammar/noun_verb_phrases.
This table shows you almost all the groups of noun phrases. One very useful way of
determining a noun phase is to take the string of words and substitute them with a
pronoun. So the sentences in the table above would look like this:
It is important for it. (Single words) He spoke to him.

(Single words) He ate it. (Single words) She works with him.
(Single words) She wore it. (Single words) They ate it.
(Single words) He frightened them. (Single words) She is my aunt.
(Single words) It should be left alone. (Single words) He/she is in trouble.
(Single words)
We don’t speak like this, but looking at these sentences you may begin to appreciate the
statement we made earlier that nouns and noun phrases provide the content and
information to make a sentence mean something.
The structure of the noun phrase potentially contains three sections:

Pre-modification; head noun and post-modification. Any given noun phrase will use one or
two or all these parts.
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Let’s look at some examples:
Table 27
Pre-modifier Head noun Post-modifier

The young Girl
The dogs sleeping on the deck
The very tall psychology professor with a north American
The man partner
who is wearing the hat
HIV positive children
The place to stay for the holidays
The doctor’s high salaries
This should give you an idea of the possible patterns that a noun phrase can possible
have.
ACTIVITY 5.2
This activity will give you good practice on the noun phrase. Study the following passage.
Underline the noun phrases. Replace the noun phrase with a pronoun. In the same
passage identify the pronouns. Try to find an appropriate noun or noun phrase to replace
the pronoun.
The world’s greatest snow-capped peaks, which run in a chain from the Himalayas to Tian
Shan on the border of China and Kyrgyzstan, have lost no ice over the last decade, new
research shows.
The discovery has stunned scientists, who had believed that around 50bn tonnes of
meltwater were being shed each year and not being replaced by new snowfall.
The study is the first to survey all the world’s icecaps and glaciers and was made possible
by the use of satellite data. Overall, the contribution of melting ice outside the two largest
caps – Greenland and Antarctica – is much less than previously estimated, with the lack of
ice loss in the Himalayas and the other high peaks of Asia responsible for most of the
discrepancy.
Bristol University glaciologist Prof Jonathan Bamber, who was not part of the research
team, said: “The very unexpected result was the negligible mass loss from high mountain
Asia, which is not significantly different from zero.” (The Guardian, Febraury, 2012)
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We can now move on to other phrase types which are as important as the noun phrase.
The verb and verb phrase
When we talk of a sentence or a clause, its core element is the verb. Verb phrases are
groups of words which take the function of a verb. Verbs and therefore verb phrases form
the head of the predicate of the sentence. They could be single words or accompanied by
other words. There are different forms of the verb in English:
Forms of the verb to be: is, am, are, was, were, be been
Forms of do: do does, did
Forms of have: have had
Other forms: can could, should, shall, will etc
ACTIVITY 5.3
Find all verbs and remove them from the passage. See how the passage will read like.
‘The region abounded with all types of game, plants, birds and insects. The rivers ran full,
providing for the needs of these early inhabitants. Later came the first of the Nguni people
who arrived with herds of cattle, and mined red ochre in the hills south of Malelane. Early
smelters, which pre-date the main Nguni influx, have been excavated, indicating that the
use of iron and copper was well advanced during these years. Similarly, early pottery
fragments and sculptural artifacts unearthed in the hills on the Long Tom Pass, notably
the “Lydenburg heads” have been described as a major art find.
Here is an example with the first sentence without the verbs:

The region with all types of game, plants, birds and insects. The rivers full, providing for
the needs of these early inhabitants. Later the first of the Nguni people who with herds of
cattle, and red ochre in the hills south of Malelane.
At the end of reading this you could say “okay, so what did all the mentioned people,
places, things do?” You are asking for the VERB.
Verbs can be used to convey meaning or perform a grammatical function. In the
sentences:
They drink every weekend.
I believe everything you say. I will taste all the dishes.
The underlined verbs in sentences a-c state an event, a state of being and an action
respectively. They are conveying meaning.
Yet in the sentences: I have been crying
He had won the election.
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The verbs express grammatical functions, ‘have been, and had’ are called auxiliary verbs.
Auxiliary verbs do not carry any lexical meaning, but assist the main verb, to show mainly
tense and aspect.
Verbs, as we saw with nouns, also come in singles and groups. The group is called the
verb phrase.
The Verb phrase can be used in five different ways:
as a predicate
I am studying Linguistics.
The glass was broken by the dog
as a noun phrase modifier
The woman reading the book just yelled at me. My dog is the puppy chewing on the
rawhide.
The most recent news reported by the anchor made me sad.
as an adjective phrase complement You should be excited to study syntax. My mother
is upset to see me leave.
Your professor is curious to know why you dropped her class. The teachers are happy to
learn about teaching methods.
as a subject.
Swimming is good exercise.
Reading books is educational.
Your eating health food impresses me.
To err is human.
To never visit the library disappoints librarians.
as a subject complement
My favourite pastime is reading.
His hobbies are writing and editing articles. My job is to repair damaged books.
Subject-Verb agreement and other sentence structural issues

We mentioned earlier that the verb has to agree in number and tense with the subject. It is
common to find the verb inappropriately used, especially when there are too many words
or phrases coming between the subject and the verb. Always make sure you know if the
subject is singular therefore to take a singular verb or plural to take a plural verb.
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Here is an exercise to illustrate the possible confusion:

The following paragraph contains six errors in subject-verb agreement. Find and correct
each of the six verb errors. Remember to stay in the present tense.
Santa
According to legend, Santa Claus is a fat old man who visits every house on our planet in
about eight hours on one of the coldest nights of the year. Santa, as everybody knows,
stop for a glass of milk and a cookie at each house along the route. He prefer to work
unnoticed, so he wears luminous red suit and travels with a pack of bell-jangling reindeer.
For reasons that most people does not understand, this jolly old man enters each house
not by the front door but through the chimney (whether you has a chimney or not). He
customarily gives generously to children in wealthy families, and he usually remind poorer
children that it’s the thought that counts. Santa Claus is one of the earliest beliefs that
parents try to instil in their children. After this absurdity, it’s a wonder that any child ever
believe in anything again.
Did you do the following?
(1) Change “stop for a glass” to “stops for a glass”; (2) change “prefer to work” to “prefers
to work”; (3) change “people does not understand” to “people do not understand”; (4)
change “you has a chimney” to “you have a chimney”; (5) change “remind poorer children”
to “reminds poorer children”; (6) change “child ever believe” to “child ever believes.”
http://grammar.about.com/od/correctingerrors/a/SVAexercises_2.htm
The most common confusion with subject-verb agreement arises when we use quantifiers
and group nouns such as: some of, neither, nor, either or, a lot of, some, team staff,
audience etc. One way of avoiding this particular era is making sure you have identified
the subject of the sentences.
For example in the following sentences
The list of items is/are on the desk.
The subject is the list not the items. It is the list that is on the desk; what list? of items
which will then take the singular subject ‘is’
So: My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Who is arriving by train? It’s my aunt or uncle, one of them, not both. So the two
singular verbs connected by ‘or’ require a singular verb.
Similarly, if you have two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor they
require a singular verb.
Examples:
Neither Nora nor Chazile is available.
Either Khulana or Siviwe is helping today with stage decorations.
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But when I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor, put it second
and follow it with the singular verb am.
Example: Neither she nor I am going to the wedding.
When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject, put the plural subject
last and use a plural verb.
Example: The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.
Likewise, when a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor, put
the plural subject last and use a plural verb.
Example: Neither Felix nor the others are available.
The other obvious pattern is that you use a plural verb with two or more subjects when
they are connected by and.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well
as, besides, or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular
or plural verb.
Examples: The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and
somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows after
of.
Examples:
Each of the girls sings well. Every one of the cakes is gone.
TAKE NOTE
Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one are two words when the
meaning is each one.
With words that indicate portions – percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none,
remainder, and so forth – look at the noun in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to
determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is
singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.
Pie is the object of the preposition of.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.
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Pies is the object of the preposition.

One-third of the city is unemployed.
One-third of the people are unemployed.
The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number
is followed by a plural verb.
Examples:
The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.
A number of people have written in about this subject.
When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.
Examples:
Neither of them is available to speak right now. Either of us is capable of doing the job.
The words here and there have generally been labelled as adverbs even though they
indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump. There is a high hurdle to jump.
Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.
Examples:
Ten rands is a high price to pay.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle of the
sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the
noun directly in front of them. So, if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural,
use a plural verb.
Examples:
Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports.
The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular verb
writes.
He is one of the men who does/do the work.
The word in front of who is men, which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.
Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on
their use in the sentence.
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Examples:
The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit here.
The staff are in disagreement about the findings.
The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example.
The sentence would read even better as:
The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.
Auxiliary Verbs
Another syntactic structure which calls for attention is when we deal with the verb phrase
are the auxiliary verbs. These are the verbs which accompany the main verb to modify it
for tense, aspect, mood. They normally precede the main verb,
For Example:
I shall go now.
He had won the election.
They did write that novel together. I am going now.
He was winning the election.
They have been writing that novel for a long time.
You may be asking yourself, what is the difference between a verb as we know it, i.e. the
lexical verb (word) and an auxiliary?
Lexical verbs or the words called verbs are the ones that can be marked for tense and
person. In English, these include the past and the present tenses. Lexical verbs – have
meaning – and normally use do-support for questions, negatives and emphasis.
Auxiliary verbs are characteristically used as markers of tense, person, aspect, mood,
and voice.
With lexical verbs, these are expressed by verb inflections; however, with auxiliary verbs,
these are expressed with separate words.
Let’s look at these examples to see the difference:
I had a dog (possessed) vs I had wanted a dog. (‘had’ lexical in the first and
auxiliary in the second example-telling the tense when the dog was wanted)
English, like all languages, is full of problems for the foreign learner. (is is lexical)
Some points are easily explained, such as the difference between for and since, while
others are more tricky. (are is the auxiliary).
Try this out and see if you can make the difference:
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Underline the auxiliary and double underline the lexical verb as shown in the first example
(1) Language is constantly changing and being adapted to speaker’s needs
(2) Grammar descriptions written in the earlier part of the nineteen hundreds are still
being taught by some instructors.
(3) Grammar descriptions written in the earlier part of the nineteen hundreds are still
being taught by some instructors.
(4) Modern linguistic descriptions have rejected many errors of the older tradition and
have supported departures from traditional grammar with reasoned argument.
Modal Auxiliaries
This is another type of helping verb. We will not get into details about them, but we will
give you some basic information on them. They are sensitive as they don’t like being done
certain things to them, for example, modal auxiliaries don’t:
• like being used with other auxiliary verbs such as do, does, did etc.
• like being followed by to, with the exception of ought to.
• change form, like add an “-s” or “-ed”, for example.
• have infinitives (to may, to shall etc.) or participles (maying, shalling, shalled etc.).
You cannot say to shall, to must or to may.
• allow you to sound the ‘l’ in pronunciation
The verbs can, could, will, would, should, may, might, must, ought and shall are verbs
which ‘help’ other verbs to express a meaning and are called modal verbs. These modal
verbs have no meaning by themselves. A modal verb such as would has several varying
functions; it can be used, for example, to help verbs express ideas about the past, the
present and the future. It is therefore wrong to simply believe that “would is the past of
will”: it is many other things.
ACTIVITY 5.4
Attempt the following task on modals:
(1) You seem to be having trouble there. _________ I help you?
will would shall
(2) I don’t have enough money to buy lunch. __________ you lend me a couple of
dollars?
may could shall
(3) That ice is dangerously thin now. You ________ go ice-skating today.
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mustn’t might not should not
(4) It’s way past my bedtime and I’m really tired. I ________ go to bed.
should ought could
(5) He ______________ have committed this crime. He wasn’t even in the city that
night.
might shouldn’t couldn’t
(6) John is over two hours late already. He ___________ missed the bus again. should
have must have will have
(7) I’m really quite lost. _______________ showing me how to get out of here?
would you mind would you be must you be
(8) That bus is usually on time. It _________ to be here any time now. might
has ought
(9) I read about your plane’s near disaster. You ____________ terrified!
must have been might have been shall have been
(10) It’s the law. They ____________ have a blood test before they get married. might
could have to
Adapted from http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/auxiliary.htm
Your E-Tutor and Face to face Tutor will take you through this activity.
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The Adjective and the Adjective Phrase

They modify and intensify nouns directly or indirectly. We have already seen this in the
examples under the noun descriptions the kinds of adjectives that can modify the noun.
This again underscores the importance of the nouns as the main glue in the sentence.
Look at the following two paragraphs (1 and 2) what is the frequency of adjective phrases
and why do you think one paragraph has more adjectives than the other?
(1) Xai Xai (pronounced’ Shai Shai’) is a large town in the south of Mozambique, situated
on the Limpopo River, 220 kilometres north of the capital, Maputo. Xai Xai is the capital of
the Gaza Province. English is spoken in Mozambique, but the official language in
Mozambique is Portuguese. Portuguese and Shangaan are the languages spoken in the
Gaza Province.
Xai Xai is a bustling town with markets, shops, petrol stations, banks and internet cafes.
(2) The beach town known as Praia de Xai Xai has been a popular tourist attraction since
Mozambican tourism was first developed. It is not difficult to see why Praia de Xai Xai –
with all its natural beauty and exquisite beaches – is the preferred destination for many
holidaymakers. Praia de Xai Xai is situated 12 kilometres from the main town of Xai Xai.
The road is tarred, but care must be taken to avoid pedestrians and vehicles that stop
without warning to drop off or pick up passengers.
The Adverb and Adverb Phrase
We saw that an adjectives modifies a noun, an adverb modifies a verb. Adverbs modify all
other parts of speech except for the noun. So an adverb can:
• Modify an adjective: ‘awfully expensive’
• Modify an adverb: ‘she eats quite frequently’
• Modify prepositions: ‘right outside the door’
Adverbs say more about time (now, then, today, never, till); place (there, here, below,
above, outside; manner (slowly, eagerly, badly, well); degree ( very, reasonably, quite,
too); number (once, twice, finally again); certainty ( certainly, surely, perhaps, not)
interrogative (how, why, what, when).
(1) Adverb modifying a verb
‘She walks beautifully’
(2) Adverb modifying an adjective:
‘That is a very good book’
(3) Adverb modifying another adverb
‘She walks very slowly’
Try and find other examples of adverbs in sentences.
Adverb phrases are group of words which function in exactly the same way as adverbs.
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• We expect our grandparents to arrive in about an hour.
• My cousin watches television almost as much as you do.
• The weatherman says it will rain all day.
• Your brother plays soccer better than my brother does.
Look at the following sentences. Decide whether the bolded sections are adverbs or
adverb phrases. Note that some of the group of words are neither phrases nor clauses.
• We served drinks to our friends when they arrived.
• In the morning, we played cards.
• We will all leave immediately.
• We moved to Cornwall because we wanted to live in the countryside. In winter, we
decided to move to the south west.
• I finished work early.
I left work early so that I could catch the 4.30 train.
• Take a packed lunch with you, in case you get hungry.
The Prepositional Phrase
As the name suggests, the head of the prepositional phrase is the preposition. The
structure of a prepositional phrase is comprised of a preposition + noun phrase. Its main
function in a sentence is to signal a relationship between the object of the preposition and
some other elements in the sentence – in terms of time, space, location and association.
For example
The mat on the floor is swollen from the floor moisture (which mat?) Before leaving, Sam
gave us his address (when did he give his address?)
Prepositional phrases can be tricky. If placed at the wrong point in the sentence they can
create confusion. The principle is that you place them as close as possible to the element
they refer so as to avoid confusions as:
‘The boy (past) saw a man with a telescope’.
The ambiguity created by the modifying phrase can be problematic. Was the boy carrying
the telescope or did the boy use the telescope to see the man? This ambiguity is created
by the prepositional phrase, as it’s not clear as to which noun (boy or man) is being
modifying.
Sentences according to structure
We look first at the three structures.
Simple sentences: consist of one independent/main clause (IC)
e.g. [Mobile phones have taken over people’s lives.]
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[Mobile phones are becoming an essential gadget for making a teenager’s life mobile,
flexible and easy.]
Compound sentences: consist of two or more independent/main clauses (IC) joined
together using a coordination conjunction or a conjunctive adverb.
e.g. [Although Senzo was supposed to collect the documents and complete the report on
Friday (DC)] but [the documents were unavailable until Thursday (IC)].
[The use of mobile phones is important for networking;] however, [it can distract a lot of
drivers on the road.]
Complex sentences: consist of one independent clause (IC) and at least one
dependent clause (DC). The subordinate/dependent clause is introduced or linked to the
main clause by means of a subordinating conjunction. Each type of clause is identified in
the following complex sentences:
e.g. [Although Senzo was supposed to collect the documents and complete the report on
Friday (DC)], [the documents were unavailable until Thursday (IC)].
Compound-complex sentences: consist of a combination of the complex and the com-
pound sentences.
e.g. [Even though the documents were unavailable until Thursday, (DC)] [Senzo collected
what he had, (IC)] and [he submitted the report on Friday. (IC)]
N.B. The brackets [ ] are used to indicate the clauses
Clauses (independent (main) and dependant (subordinate))

[ Web developers should develop their proficiency with visual language (IC)] [because
Web pages involve as much visual communication as verbal (DC)].
If you look again at the sentences, you will realize that all the clauses have been
bracketed.
Inside the Clause
Clauses make up the biggest unit within a sentence. They, in turn, are made up of
phrases. So the clause ‘Web developers (NP) should develop (VP) their proficiency (NP)
with visual language’ (PP) – made up of four phrases. Phrases: refer to a combination of
words which function as a unit within a clause. You can have several phrases within a
clause. The English language uses several phrase types namely: Noun Phrase (NP), Verb
Phrase (VP), Adjective phrase (AP), Prepositional phrase (PP), and adverb phrase
(AdvP).
e.g. [(Mobile phones) NP (are becoming) VP (an essential gadgets) NP (for making) PP (a
teenager’s life) NP, (flexible) AP and (extremely exciting) AdvP].
It is these units or structures, the clauses and phrases that we move around when we
write. If we confuse the way the units should be structured and positioned in relation to
each other in a text, then we run the risk of making errors, miscommunicating, distorting
messages or making no sense at all.
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Look at the following sentence:
(A) The boy, he is at home. (the boy and ‘he’ refers to one thing – so one of them must
go). This is a typical direct translation error caused by first language interference. In Zulu,
for example the sentence would read:
U (the) mfana (boy) u (he) se(at) khaya (home).
To appreciate the type of error, it takes one to understand that a noun phrase and its
corresponding pronoun cannot be used together to refer to the subject of the sentence.
The same clauses and phrases are used by text creators, poets, news writers, and
politicians etc. to create the desired effect. As was noted in Unit one, some of these
structures can be inverted for different effect. Some can be expanded, modified again to
create an effect.
There are two ways in which we will be looking at the sentence: The structural and the
functional points of view. What do we mean by this and why is it so important?
Look at the following sentences:
• The waitress served the meal.
• The waitress, who was employed yesterday, served the meal.
• The waitress was employed yesterday and served the meal on the same day.
What is the difference between these two sentences?
• 2 and 3 are longer than 1 (obvious).
• 2 has more punctuation marks than 1 and 3 (commas).
• 2 tells us more about the waiter than 1 does (which waiter/employed previous day).
• 3 tells more about what the waitress did and when she did it.
• 2 and 3 has two verb forms and 1 has one verb (see underlined).
Looking at the differences we have listed, structurally, these sentences are indeed
different.
In terms of the structural labelling and naming of sentences, sentence 1 is a simple
sentence, 2 is a complex sentence and 3 is a compound sentence. Let’s explore in detail
what the structures are.
Every piece of text will use one or all these types. Depending on the domain in question,
texts may use many sentence types, but these three are basic.
These labels may not be new to many of you. We will briefly explain them more to remind
you than to teach you what they are.
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ACTIVITY 5.5
Below is a text on how to tender a garden, taken from the ‘Home’ magazine (July, 2008).
Design Decisions by Michelle Terblanche
(1) “Divide your garden into sections and remember that everything doesn’t have to be
done in a day. (2) For example, an area can be covered in gravel or bark now to be
planted later. (3) Fine gravel is fairly cheap and will keep the place neat and tidy until your
finances are balanced. (4) You can use pine needles, peach pips, or nut- shells. (5) The
water feature or braai can wait a while too. (6) In the meantime, you can work wonders
with the bench and three pretty pots.
(7) Your small garden can cost you the price of a new car, but it can also cost you as little
as a week’s groceries and both can be equally beautiful. (8) The difference lies in the type
of garden you’re planning, your expertise and energy, and your design decisions.”
Do the following analysis of this extract for sentences. Don’t look at the feedback before
completing the task.
There are number of sentences.
Sentence 1 is a simple, compound, complex sentence (underline the type) Sentence 2 is a
simple, compound, complex sentence (underline the type) Sentence 3 is a simple,
compound, complex sentence (underline the type) Sentence 4 is a simple, compound,
complex sentence (underline the type) Sentence 5 is a simple, compound, complex
sentence (underline the type) Sentence 6 is a simple, compound, complex sentence
(underline the type) Sentence 7 is a simple, compound, complex sentence (underline the
type) Sentence 8 is a simple, compound, complex sentence (underline the type)
Feedback
Now you can check your answers 1 = compound; 2 = compound; 3 = compound;
4 = simple; 5 = compound; 6 = compound; 7 = compound; 8 = compound.
Even though we haven’t printed the rest of Miss Terblanche’s article, we did establish that
the dominant sentence structure she uses is the compound sentence, some simple
sentences and very few complex sentences. It’s difficult to say whether she avoided the
complex sentence, or she doesn’t know how to construct one, or maybe she didn’t even
think about variety in sentence use. Whatever the reason, we wouldn’t like to believe that
she left them out of ignorance. It is for this reason that you must learn about the various
sentence type, so that you can choose which one to use and more importantly
‘spice’ your text with a variety of sentences. Look again at this sentence:
(a) Benjamin avoids hard work and this bothers me. (b) Benjamin’s avoidance of
hard work bothers me (c) It bothers me.
In these sentences we clearly are playing around with the words and phrases, moving
them around. A main clause has been changed into a noun phrase. We can do this
process (called nominalization) whereby a statement is changed into a noun phrase, only
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if we understand how noun phrases are formed and what their functions are.
Nominalization occurs more frequently in academic texts and other technical texts.
Sentences, clauses, phrases and text creation
Now that we have given you background information on the terminology used in the
discussion of sentences and introduced you to the sentence names and classification, we
will move on to look in more detail at the sentence kinds and how they can be effectively
used. Remember, the success of any piece of writing, be it academic or non-academic,
depends on how well your sentences have been crafted. Moreover, at University level you
are supposed to develop the skill to choose the appropriate sentences to use for the kind
of writing you are doing.
We have stated that there are four main kinds of sentences that matter, these vary
depending on the number and types of clauses they have. The compound and the
complex sentences are formed by coordinating several phrase and clauses and this is
done by using conjunctions.
THE CONJUNCTION IN A SENTENCE

A conjunction is a function word that serves as a connector or a linking word to join words,
phrases, or clauses. Coordinating conjunctions are used for compound sentences and
subordinating conjunctions are used to form complex sentences. One way to make sure
you master the use of conjunctions is to see how accomplish writers use them in real
texts. Cohesion and coherence in texts, that is, if someone says ‘this writing flows well’,
it’s because the conjunctions have been used appropriately and effectively.
There is a long list of conjunctions that can be used to create complexity in sentences.
Below is a list of the conjunctions, grouped according to the function they perform in a
sentence. Most of these will be familiar to you, but the important thing is that you
familiarize yourself with their function.
Time: after, after, which, and, as along as, as soon as, at which, before, once, since, the
moment, then, till, until, when, whenever, whereupon, while
Result: and, and so, else, or else, otherwise, so, so that
Contrast, Concession, Alternatives: although, apart from, but, despite, even if, even
though, except that, in spite of, or, much as, nor, nor that, though, whereas, while, whilst,
yet.
Reason: as, as a result of, because, because of, considering, due to, for, given that, in
case, in view of the fact that, that, just in case, on account of, seeing that/that, since.
Purpose: in case, in order that, in order to, so, so as to, so that, to
Conditional: as long as, even if, if, on condition that, provided (that), providing (that), so
long as, unless, whether… or
Manner: as, as if, as though, in a way, just as, like, much as, the way. Addition: and, as
well as, besides, besides which, in addition to. Giving examples: for instance, for
example, in particular.
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SENTENCES IN TEXTS
The usage of these conjunctions will not be illustrated to you through created sentences,
but we will invite you to study each of the texts and extract the conjunction, stating the
function of each.
ACTIVITY 5.6
Passage 2
Historical Perspective
In the mountains above Barberton scientists have found traces of “Stromatolites”, the
remnants of blue-green algae formed 3 500 million years ago when oxygen was added to
the earth’s atmosphere in significant quantities to create the first evolutionary step towards
life forms.
Throughout the Mpumalanga hills and mountains exist hundreds of examples of San
(bushman) art. This art serves as a window looking into the lives of the San hunters and
gatherers who inhabited the area centuries before the arrival of the Nguni people from the
north.
The region abounded with all types of game, plants, birds and insects. The rivers ran full,
providing for the needs of these early inhabitants. Later came the first of the Nguni people
who arrived with herds of cattle, and mined red ochre in the hills south of Malelane. Early
smelters, which pre-date the main Nguni influx, have been excavated, indicating that the
use of iron and copper was well advanced during these years. Similarly, early pottery
fragments and sculptural artifacts unearthed in the hills on the Long Tom Pass, notably
the “Lydenburg heads” have been described as a major art find. \
Passage 3
My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small
rural communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about
10,000 people. Similarly, my college town, Subnormal, consists of about 11,000 local
residents. This population swells to 15,000 people when the college students are
attending classes. A second way in which these two towns are similar is that they are
both located in rural areas. Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which is
devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. In the same way, Subnormal lies in the
centre of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle. Thirdly, these towns are similar
in that they contain college campuses. Gridlock, for example, is home to Neutron College,
which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-
Watching Festival. Likewise, the town of Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus of
Quark College, which is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also
for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.
http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/compcont.html
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REFLECTION
What can you say about the flow of each of these passages based on the way the
conjunctions have been used?
CONCLUSION
This unit has given you enough working tools to handle words, and group of words as they
appear in texts. The next unit will show further how meaning is made using these tools
and how meaning can shift depending on the context of a situation. So whilst we
acknowledge that words are formed in particular ways and so are sentences, the
productivity of the English language makes it possible to generate many meanings from
the standard meanings that we know. The ability to recognise sentence types, use a
variety of them, can improve our written product.
In the second year of this course we will do more advanced work on composition where
your knowledge of the structures we have covered here will be useful.
Additional practice on complex sentences. Try this exercise on complex sentences.

Complete each of the following sentences with the most appropriate option from the ones
provided.
Your E-Tutor and Face to face Tutor will take you through these activities.
(1) She had blonde hair when she was a child, but ______ she got older and older, her
hair went darker and darker.
(a) when (b) after (c) while (d) as
(2) Will you go to the history museum tomorrow? Sure I will, ____________ it doesn’t
rain heavily.
(a) even if (b) in case (c) as soon as (d) as long as
(3) When the Internet was created in 1969, only a few people knew about it. That’s
______it came into existence as a secret US government project.
(a) why (b) that (c) because (d) when
(4) ______ is known to us all is that the old scientist, for ______ life was hard in the
past, still works very hard in his eighties.
(a) As; whose (b) What; whom (c) It; whose (d) As; whom
(5) Miss Green took up the story at the point ______ the thief had just made off with
the jewels.
(a) when (b) which (c) in which (d) where
(6) It was not until dark ______ he found ______ he thought was the correct way to
solve the problem.
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(a) that; what (b) when; what (c) then; that (d) what; that
(7) Native Americans from the south-eastern part of ______is now the United States
believed that the universe in which they lived was made up of three worlds.
(a) where (b) what (c) that d) which

(8) ______ life pace continues to speed up, we are quickly losing the art of
enjoyment.
(a) With (b) As (c) When (d) While
(9) I had not believed in falling in love with somebody at first sight ______ I met
David on Valentine’s Day three years ago.
(a) where (b) after (c) when (d) before
(10) I really don’t know ______ I had my money stolen.
(a) where it was that (b) it was where (c) that it was when (d) when was it that
Syntax Glossary
Looking at the way the terminology has been used. Refer to your linguistic dictionary
resources, find the meaning of each of the words in the list below.
Lexical Subject Predicate Complement Modifier Determiner Nominal Verbal
Embedded Auxiliary verb Inflection Tense
Person Mood Voice Domain Text
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References
Bauer, L. (1988) Introducing Linguistic Morpholog y, Edinbugh University Press. Great
Britain
Ronald, C., Goddard, A., Reah, D., Sanger, K. & Swift, N. (1997) Working with Texts: A
Core Introduction to Language Analysis, London & New York: Routledge.
Delahnty, G.P. & Garvey, J.J. (1994) Language, Grammar and Communication. A course
for teachers of English. International editions, Mr Graw-Hill, Inc.
Frank, M. (1993) Modern English. A Practical Reference Guide, Prentice Hall
Horne, F. & Heinemann, G. (2006) English in Perspective, Cape Town: Oxford University,
Press.
Huddleston, R. (1984) Introduction to the Grammar of English, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Payne, T.E. (2006) Exploring Language Structure: A Student’s Guide, Cambridge
University Press. United Kingdom.
Swan, M. (2009) Practical English Usage, (4th ed.) Oxford University Press. Print. (353-4)
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (1972) A Grammar of Contemporary
English, London: Longman.
Thomson, A.J. & Martinet, A.V. (1986) A Practical English Grammar, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Yule, G. (2004) The Study of language, (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press. United
Kingdom.
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UNIT 6: SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• define semantics and pragmatics
• differentiate between linguistic meaning and speakers meaning
• distinguish between denotation and connotation
• recognise different types of meaning
• combine words, sentences, phrases and clauses to form meaning
• define how and what meanings are expressed
• discuss the importance of context, as well as how it shapes and affects meaning
• analyse the relevance of words in speech, reading, writing, texts, and the world.
INTRODUCTION
In this unit we introduce the concepts of semantics and pragmatics, as well as their
importance in everyday communication. We are going to look at the meaning of individual
words in a language; that is, how words convey meaning, what kinds of meaning are
expressed by certain words, what the role of words in sentence construction is. And how
words combine to create meaningful communication. In addition, we explore what
knowledge we need in order to interpret words in context. Words are important building
blocks of any language because through their use we gradually acquire knowledge of
language and learn what particular words actually mean. That said, communicating is a
dynamic process, with an intended purpose. When we communicate we often use things
other than verbal language to convey meaning. Thus, this unit will also explore the
relationship between non-verbal signs, symbols, physical objects and meaning and how all
these factors contribute to, shape and affect meaning.
In this unit, we shall start by defining the terms semantics and pragmatics, then turn to the
relationship between words, time, space, symbols, sings and meaning; and finally look at
the different kinds of meaning including denotation, connotation, literal and metaphoric
meaning.
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WHAT IS MEANING?
Semantics and pragmatics are closely related concepts. Semantics is the study of how
meaning is expressed by elements of any language, whereas pragmatics refers to the
study of language or meaning in specific communicative contexts. These elements include
meaning of words, phrases, sentences, or texts. The study of semantics is important
because it enables us to understand how language users construct meaning, how they
acquire a sense of meaning as speakers, listeners, readers and writers. In addition, how
the meaning of certain words or phrases change over time? In other words, an analysis of
meaning involves investigating the relationship between language and everything we use
language to talk about in everyday interactions. An understanding of how we use
language to talk about the world, how we use language in different social situations, how
language changes, how varieties of English influence and affect meaning are fundamental
to appreciating how communication works. The study of semantics; therefore, broadly
refers to how meaning is constructed, interpreted, illustrated, symbolised, imagined,
concealed or disguised. However, semantics is not limited to meaning in written or
oral/verbal language only but includes things like facial expressions, body language,
gestures as well as cultural signs, symbols and objects – all of which contribute to our
understanding of the meaning of particular situations, events and social behaviour.
Word order and meaning

Now let us look at the following examples that illustrate how words combine into
meaningful sentences, and what meaning is being communicated.
• Dog bites man
• Man bites dog
Here we notice that the same words – man, dog, bites – have been used in these
sentences, but the meaning conveyed is not the same. This shows us that the manner in
which a sentence is structured or how words are put together lead to a different meaning
of a whole sentence. In both sentences, the word order indicates how man and dog are
related to the verb bites. The subject in first sentence is the dog and the object is the man,
whereas in the second sentence the order is changed with the man becoming the subject
and the dog as object. This clearly illustrates that how words are sequenced in a sentence
affect and influence meaning. Hence form (word order in this case) and meaning in
language are interrelated.
For a detailed discussion about how words are made up and how words are combined
form larger units such as sentences and phrases refer to the previous Unit 3 on Words
and Sentences.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Study the pairs of sentences below, and answer these questions: What do these
sentences mean? What is the difference between these sentences? How does the word
order change the meaning within each sentence?
• This is my daughter’s picture.
My daughter’s picture this is.
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• My father painted.
Painted my father.
• The boy kicked the ball.
The ball kicked the boy.
• The film was based on the novel.
The novel was based on the film.
• The school bell rings at midday.
At midday the school bell rings.
Your E-Tutor and Face to face Tutor will take you through these activities.
Time, space and meaning
As you will learn in Unit 5 on Language Varieties, language changes depending on the
circumstances in which it is being used; when it is used, as well as the purpose for its use.
The meaning of some words, sentences and phrases may have changed and evolved
over time to such an extent that it has become acceptable to use these to express certain
ideas, views, meaning. Note that the concept of time, as it is used in this context, refers to
historical changes that have taken place in language, and their degree of influence. Think
of the difference between old/traditional English and modern English, for example.
Consider the word ‘meat’ in the following sentences. What does the word mean in
each sentences?
• Upon what meat doth this our Caeser feed? (anything nourishing that we eat or drink to
sustain life, provide energy and promote growth)
• It is unhealthy to eat red meat every day. (animal flesh)
The two sentences show how the meaning of the word ‘meat’ has changed over time. In
Shakespeare’s time the word meat referred to food in general; and in recent times the
same word is used specifically to mean animal flesh. What is important here is that the
word ‘meat’ which was wide-ranging to include food substances such as bread, drinks and
fish in the past, is now used to mean animal flesh. This demonstrates to us that time is a
crucial factor affecting the meaning required in communication.
Like time, geographical space also contributes to how the meaning of certain words
becomes understood. The relationship between the actual space in which words are used,
the purposes for which they are used, and the meaning associated with these words is an
important one. Put differently, space influences meaning and in turn, meaning is shaped
by space. Consider the use of the word ‘cool’ in this exchange below for example.
• Speaker A: How are you?
Speaker B: I am cool.
• Speaker C: I’m gonna go down to the beach. You wanna come.
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In order to realise that speaker B uses the word ‘cool’ to mean that they are ‘fine’ or ‘well’;
and that speaker C means that ‘I am going to go down to the beach. Do you want to
come?’ you will need to know something about the space. Such background knowledge
will enable you to arrive at an understanding of what the speakers mean, how they relate
to one another, and whether the conversation interaction is formal or informal. Other
examples include the word ‘robot’ which is used in the South African context to refer to a
set of traffic lights; or ‘braai’ which in the American and British context are called
‘barbeque’. As you will read in Unit 5, language varieties, geographical space and
meaning are interrelated. The manner in which we express ourselves, the choices of
words we use often make us recognisable to other speakers of English from other parts of
the world.
ACTIVITY 6.2
(1) Consider the way in which meaning is conveyed in these sentences: What is the
difference between these sentences? How do you think time, and space, has affected the
meaning in each sentence?
• See you shortly.
See you in a bit.
• Pass me that salt.
Give me that salt.
• They are watching news on the television.
They are watching news on the telly.
• How are you?
Howzit?
• She said she was okay.
She said she was OK.
(2) Write down 5 English words, from any other parts of the world, and describe their
meaning in their particular geographical contexts.
Non-Verbal Language (or Paralinguistic Tools) and Meaning
Like individual words, non-verbal language (also referred to as paralinguistic signs), play
an important role in communication. When we speak we often use non-verbal signs such
as body language, facial expressions and gestures in order to express our intended
message. The use of non-verbal signs enables us to build a picture in our mind of what is
being communicated and to understand the meaning of a particular thing, situation, or
concept. For example, after spending a Sunday afternoon with your colleagues, you may
wish to wave goodbye to them as a sign to show that it is time to leave.
ACTIVITY 6.3
Read the conversation and comment on the use of non-verbal communication.
Mother: Sipho did you write your homework? Sipho: Not yet mother.
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Mother: Switch off that television! Now!

(Sipho leaves the room and bangs the door hard).
Why did Sipho bang the door? How and what is the meaning implied in the last sentence
by the mother?
Signs/Symbols and Meaning
The relationship between signs/symbols and meaning is an important one. We come
across different kinds of signs or symbols everyday and they all refer to different things. A
sign or symbol is something which is used to represent another thing – it might be a
picture, a letter, or an object. For example, when we see traffic signs – no entry and stop
signs; a toilet and no smoking signs, we immediately know what is required of us,
understand how we should behave in certain circumstances; and in some cases these
signs help us to locate specific places or things. Signs/symbols in themselves could be
rendered meaningless, but it is when these are used in context and for a particular
purpose that we are able to decode what it is that they represent, denote, or
communicate.
Signs and Symbols
Stop No entry
Toilet No Smoking
South African Flag Coat of Arms of South Africa

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ACTIVITY 6.4
Look at the following signs/symbols and write down what each of these mean.
WORDS IN CONTEXT
As mentioned earlier, the studies in semantics and pragmatics are so interwoven that
drawing clear and distinct separation between the two is difficult because of the blurring of
the boundaries. Put differently, in order to understand the speaker’s meaning, you will
need to know something about the context or to have input of contextual information, and
vice versa. The study of ‘meaning in use’, ‘meaning in interaction’ (Mullany and Stockwell,
2010) or ‘meaning in the world’ – known as pragmatics – suggests that treating words,
sentences and phrases in isolation from their context of use may render meaning
complex, ambiguous and vague. In summary, meaning and its surrounding context are
firmly linked; thus through pragmatics we are able to arrive at an understanding of what a
speaker means by uttering certain words and expressions.
For example, suppose you wish to understand the following sentence “The boy I
mentioned before is dangerous” you will need to know something already to figure out
what the speaker is trying to convey to you. First, you need prior knowledge of who the
boy is (pragmatics). Second, understand the linguistic meaning of this sentence. Finally,
with all this background information, you will be in a position to realise that perhaps the
speaker is advising you to be careful of this boy (semantics).
In addition, let us consider the word ‘goal’ in the sentences below and reflect on the
extent which the context helps us work out the meaning.
• My goal this year is to complete my degree programme.
• Scoring a goal in soccer is not as simple as it looks.
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In the first sentence, the word ‘goal’ occurs in a context relating to personal ambition,
desire and aspiration (it is used figuratively or metaphorically) whereas in the second
sentence it has to do with performance in sports, in particular soccer (it is used more
literally). In the sentences above, it is clear that the meaning of the word ‘goal’ takes on a
different meaning depending on context. This demonstrates that words can never be
explained in isolation because the context forms an essential part of understanding how
we read, interpret, and make sense of language in our daily interactions.
Ambiguity
This section builds on the previous one where we looked at meaning and context. This
section discusses the complex relationship between words and meaning. As we have
illustrated earlier, the same word can change its meaning depending on how and for what
purposes it is used (i.e. context). All of this can influence meaning and lead to ambiguity.
What is ambiguity?
Ambiguity refers to a situation where a word, phrase, sentence is open to more than one
possible interpretation. In this way, the meaning becomes unclear and vague. However,
context may play an important role where ambiguity exists in that it helps us to form
specific and intended interpretation. In other words, the same expression, statement or
use of language may be ambiguous in one context and unambiguous in another. It is
important to realise that there are many kinds of ambiguity which includes interpretations
of individual words (i.e. lexical ambiguity); sentences, phrases, newspaper headlines, or
idiomatic expressions (i.e. semantic ambiguity). Lexical ambiguity is when the use of small
language unit like a specific word can be interpreted differently, and semantic ambiguity is
when it is not possible to decide on the intended meaning of a sentence, phrase etc.
For example, the following sentences are ambiguous:
• The department of education has advertised positions for teachers of English, isiZulu
and Afrikaans.
Ambiguity: Has the department advertised positions for teachers who can each teach
one of these languages or all three languages?
• Peter gave her cat food.
Ambiguity: Did Peter give her cat some food or did Peter give cat food to her?
• The man hit the old lady with an umbrella.
Ambiguity: Did the man use an umbrella to hit the old lady or did the man hit the
old lady who is carrying an umbrella?
In all the instances above, the context does not clearly indicate the intended meaning
hence these sentences remain ambiguous. In addition, ambiguity can be used
intentionally to create meaning and produce a certain effect. This is often the case in texts
such as newspaper articles where a writer can deliberately use ambiguous language,
phrases or headlines in order to produce a certain effect from the readers, which in most
cases is used to lure them into buying and reading the paper.
91
Let us look at this phrase as a possible newspaper headline ‘Tourism is getting out of
control’. Notice how this headline can have different interpretations. It could be
suggesting that the increase in the number of tourists has had a negative impact on the
environment and as such it is not good; or that there is a necessity for a set of rules and
regulations about the behaviour expected of tourists; or that restrictions could put be in
place to manage the number of tourists allowed to visit. Because this headline lends itself
to more than one interpretation; its meaning is ambiguous and imprecise.
The above examples looked at semantic ambiguity. The following section is concerned
with lexical ambiguity. The word ‘produce’ on its own potentially has different meanings,
unless it is used in a context which will help us to identify which meaning is intended. It
could mean crops and food, or to manufacture something. ‘Assemble’ can mean to fit
together pieces of a puzzle, to build and create a structure, or to come together at a
meeting. ‘Erection’ could be referring to a building or sexual arousal. It is clear that all
these words on their own have at least two or three potential meanings hence they are
ambiguous. Such words are called homographs. (see 2.1 of Unit 3)
Homophones
Homophones are words that have the same sound (pronunciation) but different meaning
and usually spelling. For example, the nouns ‘hour’ and ‘our’ are pronounced the same
but the meaning and spelling are different. If we look at the noun ‘rose’ (flower) and verb
‘rose’ (past tense of ‘rise’) we notice that although they have the same sound and
spelling, the meaning is different. Another example is the noun ‘bear’ (the animal),
‘bear’ (to tolerate), ‘bare’ (naked) all of which are pronounced the same but differ in
meaning, and in spelling as in the case of the word ‘bare’.
Synonyms
If different words have similar meaning, they are called synonyms. Different words can be
used alternatively to mean the same thing or refer to the same idea. For example, instead
of using the word ‘certain’ we can use the word ‘definite’, ‘determined’, ‘obvious’,
‘clear’. In addition, instead of the word ‘questionable’ you can use the synonyms
‘dubious’, ‘arguable’, ‘debatable’, ‘ambivalent’ all of which can be used to mean
exactly the same thing.
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ACTIVITY 6.5
(1) Analyze the exchange between the two speakers in terms of what you have read in
this section of the unit. Do you understand what the conversation is all about? What kind
of knowledge do you need in order to understand this conversation?
Speaker A: I think we could visit her tomorrow. Do you agree?

Speaker B: Um … I’m not sure. Speaker A: Isn’t she brave?
Speaker B: What a good business woman! She has a lot of wisdom and is brave indeed.
(2) Read the sentences below and describe the difference in meaning of the highlighted
words in bold. In addition, explain how the context changes the meaning in each of the
following pairs of sentences.
• The machine is not in action now.
It is urgent that you take action in that matter.
• John was awarded his degree in communication at the University of South
Africa.
Quality is perceived as a degree of excellence.
• John made a conscious decision to smoke.
He remained conscious until the ambulance arrived.
KINDS OF MEANING
Denotation
Denotative meaning is the core or central meaning of a word or lexeme. It is therefore
understood as the dictionary definition of a word; sometimes known as the cognitive or
referential meaning. Hence denotative meaning of words is considered objective, neutral
or without any emotional associations. For example, the word ‘chair’ in English is used to
refer to a particular piece of furniture in the real world; and the word ‘computer’ would be
understood to describe a specific type of electronic device. However, denotation is related
to connotation, which leads to semantic change. This means that some words have more
than just their denotative or dictionary meaning. Depending on how and for what purposes
these words are used, these words could be described as connotative. Consider the
dictionary meaning of the word ‘pig’ which is ‘an omnivorous hoofed bristly mammal’.
Although this definition here is fairly neutral and simply refers to nothing other than a type
of an animal, the connotation of the same word becomes different. The connotative
meaning of ‘pig’ has negative implications and is associated with greed, dirt, or an
annoying person, for example. For a further discussion on this topic of denotative meaning
refer to Unit 6 on Language in Action.
93
Connotation
Unlike denotation discussed previously, connotation is connected to the state of mind and
culture, thus is can be described as overtones, personal or emotional associations
aroused by words. In other words, connotative meaning refers to the associations or feel
which a word has rather than what it explicitly denotes (i.e. denotative meaning). Hence
two words with the same definition may actually have different connotations. For example,
the word ‘blue’ could be interpreted to mean a colour or an emotion, as in blue or sad
music – ‘My mother bought a blue car’ and ‘He plays blues music’. With time, some of
these associations become widespread and common usage. Consider the word
‘virtual’, (which in the past denotatively meant certainty, absolute, definite; for example,
‘I am virtually part of the family’ ) has changed over the years and is now commonly used
to imply ‘artificial, changeable, fluctuating , flexible’ particularly in the realm of cyberspace,
as in
‘Virtual classrooms at the university of South Africa are designed to help students with
their learning’.
ACTIVITY 6.6
Describe the denotative and connotative meaning of the words in this table. What are the
similarities and differences of the words?
Word Denotative Connotative

Home
Dog
Dark
Rough
Witch
Fresh
Cold
Literal meaning
This is when the speaker says a sentence, uses words, or phrases to mean exactly and
literally what he says. Like all types of meaning, literal meaning is related to, and often
shaped by the context in which an utterance, a word, sentence, or phrase is used. In other
words, the context enables the audience to gain a better understanding of the intended
meaning of an idea, activity, event etc.
Example: In an air-conditioned seminar room the visiting professor commented: “It is cold
in here”.
Considering the circumstances under which the statement was uttered, the speaker’s
intention is to comment about the temperature in the room and to convey that the room is
cold due to the air-conditioning.
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Metaphoric meaning
Study this short statement. After the visiting professor’s exciting lecture on Shakespeare’s
play on Romeo and Juliet, and a series of unanswered questions he had posed to the
students, she remarked: “It is cold in here”.
Unlike the previous example, the meaning of ‘cold’ here does not refer to temperature.
The professor’s uses this word to allude to the students’ lack of participation, lack of
interest or passivity with regard to the subject matter.
CONCLUSION
In this unit we have looked at the relationship between words and meaning, and the extent
to which context helps us to form an opinion about something, to interpret a situation and
to understand the intended meaning. We have also discussed the difference between
lexical and semantic meaning, as well as different kinds of meaning such an ambiguity,
synonyms, homophones to illustrate that the manner in which words, phrases and
sentences are used affects and influences the meaning. In the next unit, we shall look at
English language varieties as well as factors that have contributed to the development as
an international language.
Glossary
Here is a list of some important terms used in this unit. Using your own words, define and
describe these terms.
Semantics Pragmatics Lexeme Denotation
Connotation Referential Language Varieties Homophone Synonym
Lexical Ambiguity
Semantic Ambiguity
References
Mullany, L. & Stockwell, P. (2010) Introducing English Language, A Resource Book for
Students. London and New York: Routledge.
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CHAPTER 12

Sounds and symbols

A rough-coated, dough-faced, thoughtful ploughman strode through

If we compare the pronunciation of all of the sounds that are represented by

While the same string of letters can represent different pronunciations,

USING THE PHONEMIC ALPHABET

e ԥ ‫ܮ‬: ‫ܧ‬: ‫ݜ‬ԥ ‫ܼܧ‬ ԥ‫ݜ‬

æ ‫ݞ‬ ‫ܤ‬: ‫ܥ‬ eԥ aܼ a‫ݜ‬

Speech production and description can involve detailed scientific, lab-based

12.1 THE VOCAL TRACT

by placing the articulators different distances from one another (manner of

Alveolar ridge Palate Velum

While plosives are produced by completely obstructing the airflow, fricatives

As with plosives, go through these phonemes, exploring where they are

The distinctive feature of these sounds is that they are produced in a

This sound is sometimes referred to as a ‘liquid’ sound, and is made by

Overleaf is a summary of the consonant system in English. The chart shows

Manner of articulation Place of articulation

Some knowledge of phonetics can also help us understand how cross-

One piece of evidence which appears to reinforce the idea of arbitrariness

EXPLORING THE REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS

2. Poetry uses sound effects, sometimes in quite concentrated ways,

There is a commentary on this activity at the end of Part II.

a) From a poem by Wilfred Owen (1893–1918) describing a battle in

Only the stuttering rifles rapid rattle

b) From a poem by Geoffrey Hill (1932–) about the Crucifixion:

…while the dulled wood

c) From a poem by Peter Redgrove (1932–2003) describing wind

Limped up the stairs and puffed on the landings

d) From a poem by Sylvia Plath (1932–1963) addressing a sleeping

All night your moth breath

EXPLORING THE REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS

The moan of doves in immemorial elms

Hear the sledges with the bells—

“Wills’ year orf”

As with consonants, vowels seem to be able to be used to suggest

There is a commentary on this activity at the end of Part II.

Answers are at the end of Part II.

Answers are at the end of Part II.

Some of the expressions you sorted earlier used contrasting vowels

Pararhyme can be seen in escaped/scooped, grained/groaned, and

UNIT 4: WORD FORMATION - MORPHOLOGY

 distinguish between inflectional morphology and lexical morphology;

 describe derivational, inflectional, free and bound morphemes;

 identify morphemes and allomorphs;

 describe how the morphological processes of derivation, compounding,

 explain the differences between noun and verb inflections.

Look at the following words:

/cats/ , /girls/, /taller/, /asked;/, /fatherly/, /schooled/, /oranges/, /ties/

All of them are made up of two elements:

/cat+s/ , /girl+s/, /tall+er/, /ask+ed;/, /father+ly/, /school+ed/, /orange+s/,

truer untrue truthfully

Part of speech Derivational Result

Noun /doubt/ + -ful Adjective /doubtful/

Adjective /beautiful/ + -ly Adverb /beautifully/

Verb /establish/ + -ment Noun /establishment/

Verb /teach/ + er Noun /teacher/

Adjective /bright/ + en Verb /brighten/

Noun /fright/ +en Verb /frighten/

Part of Class or Inflectional Examples

Noun plural /-s/ cars, churches, apples

possessive /-s/ father’s tie, mother’s shoes

Verb 3rd person /-s/ she cooks, he refuses,

past tense /-ed/ he cooked, he refused