KSSM 2020 DP DLP Science Form 5 Part 2

HEME
Exploration of
2
Elements in Nature
Malaysia is the largest producer and exporter of latex gloves

in the world. Natural rubber is an organic carbon compound.
Is synthetic rubber also an organic carbon compound?
Video
http://buku-
teks.com/sc5113
Lithium is used to
build electrochemical cells namely
cells, which are
electrolytic cell and
chemical cell. Name one
electrolytic battery from another
type of ion which can potentially
replace lithium-ion battery. Is the
rate of chemical reaction in
electrochemical cells high or low? Lithium Fluorine
113
CHAPTER
4 RATE OF
REACTION
Define rate of reaction.
State five factors that affect rate of reaction.
Give three examples of applications of the

concept of rate of reaction in daily life
and industries.
Let’s study
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114
Science Bulletin
The process of making toast involves a chemical reaction known
as the Maillard reaction. In the Maillard reaction, carbohydrate
reacts with protein to form Amadori compounds that cause bread
to become brown and turn into toast. The Maillard reaction is a
fast reaction.
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115
4.1 Introduction to Rate of Reaction
Fast Reactions and Slow Reactions in Daily Life

A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more reactants are converted to
one or more products.
Chemical reaction
Reactant Product
For example, the reaction between the reactants, colourless potassium iodide
solution and colourless lead(II) nitrate solution will produce yellow-coloured
lead(II) iodide precipitate and colourless potassium nitrate solution as the products.
Lead(II) nitrate + Potassium iodide Lead(II) iodide + Potassium nitrate

Reactants Products
During a reaction, reactant changes into product. As such, the quantity of

the reactant decreases while the quantity of the product increases in that reaction
(Figure 4.1).
Quantity of reactant Quantity of product

Quantity of product
Quantity of reactant increases with time
decreases with time
Time Time
Figure 4.1 Graphs of changes in quantities of reactant and product

against time
Observe and understand the similarities and differences between the graphs of
changes in the quantity of reactant or product against time in fast reactions and
slow reactions (Figures 4.2(a), (b) and 4.3).
Quantity of Quantity of
reactant product
Fast reaction: Fast reaction:
Slow reaction:
Quantity of Quantity of
Quantity of reactant
reactant product Slow reaction:
decreases slowly.
decreases increases quickly. Quantity of product
quickly. increases slowly.
0 Time 0 Time
(a) Quantity of reactant against time (b) Quantity of product against time
Figure 4.2 Graphs of changes in quantities of reactant and product against time
116 4.1.1
Chapter 4 Rate of Reaction
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Figure 4.3 Similarities and differences between fast reaction and slow reaction
Photographs 4.1 and 4.2 show

examples of reaction in daily life.
Which photograph represents
a fast reaction and a slow reaction?
Explain your answer.
Photograph 4.1 Photograph 4.2

Burning of butane gas Rusting of iron
Activity 4.1
21st Century Skills
To identify examples of fast reactions and slow reactions • TPS
• Discussion
Instructions
1. Carry out this activity in groups.
2. Gather information on several examples of reactions usually found in daily life from
the Internet, print media and other electronic media.
3. Identify and discuss whether the examples of reactions that you have collected are fast
reactions or slow reactions.
4. Present the outcome of your group discussion in the form of a multimedia presentation.
4.1.1 117
Rate of Reaction
Rate of reaction is the change in the quantity of reactant or product per unit time.
Change in the quantity of reactant or product

Rate of reaction =
Time taken for the change to occur
Among the changes in quantity of reactant or product

that can be observed or measured in a specific period of Entrepreneurship
time to determine the rate of reaction include: Why is the price of cheese
• decrease in the mass, volume or concentration normally high? How can the
of the reactant price of cheese be reduced?
• increase in the mass, volume or concentration
of the product
• decrease or increase in the pressure, temperature, pH value, electrical conductivity,
heat conductivity or intensity of colour of the reacting mixture
• increase in the volume or pressure of the gas released
• increase in the height of the precipitate formed
Determining the Rate of Reaction

Example
0.3 g of magnesium tape reacts completely with excess dilute hydrochloric acid in
30 s (Figure 4.4). Calculate the rate of reaction of this reaction.
0s 10 s 20 s 30 s
Magnesium
tape
Figure 4.4 Quantity of magnesium tape, a reactant,

decreases with time
Solution
Decrease in mass of magnesium
Rate of reaction =
Time taken
(0.3 – 0.0) g
= 30 s
0.3 g
= 30 s
= 0.01 g s–1
118 4.1.2 4.1.3

The rate of reaction of a reaction can be measured as:

1. Average rate of reaction
The average value for the rate of reaction that occurs in a specific time interval.
Example
Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)
35.0
Observe Figure 4.5.
30.0 Calculate the average rate of reaction:
25.0 (a) for the first minute
20.0 (b) for the first 2 minutes
15.0
(c) in the second minute
(d) in the third minute
10.0
(e) for the whole reaction
5.0
0 Time (s)
60 120 180 240 300 360
Figure 4.5
Solution
(a) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)
Average rate of First minute is
35.0 reaction for the from 0 s to
first minute 60 s
30.0
25.0 Total volume of hydrogen gas
20.0 collected in the first
60 seconds
15.0 =
Time of reaction
10.0
20.00 cm3
5.0 =
60 s
0 Time (s) = 0.33 cm3 s–1
60 120 180 240 300 360
(b) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)

Average rate of First 2 minutes
35.0 reaction for the is from 0 s to
30.0 first 2 minutes 120 s
25.0 Total volume of hydrogen gas

20.0 collected in the first
15.0 120 seconds
=
Time of reaction
10.0
30.00 cm3
5.0 =
120 s
0 Time (s)
60 120 180 240 300 360 = 0.25 cm3 s–1
4.1.3 119
(c) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)
Average rate of Second minute
35.0 reaction in the is from 60 s to
30.0 second minute 120 s
25.0 Total volume of

20.0 hydrogen gas collected
from 60 s to 120 s
15.0 =
Time of reaction
10.0
(30.00 – 20.00) cm3
=
5.0 (120 – 60) s
0 Time (s) 10.00 cm3
60 120 180 240 300 360 =
60 s
= 0.17 cm3 s–1
(d) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)

Average rate of Third minute is
35.0 reaction in the from 120 s to
30.0
third minutee 180 s

hydrogen gas collected
20.0
from 120 s to 180 s
15.0 =
Time of reaction
10.0 (35.00 – 30.00) cm3
=
5.0 (180 – 120) s
0 Time (s) 5.00 cm3
60 120 180 240 300 360 =
60 s
= 0.08 cm3 s–1
(e) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)

Average rate of reaction for the
35.0 whole reaction
25.0
hydrogen gas collected
=
Time taken for the reaction
20.0
to complete
15.0 35.00 cm3
= Reaction ends at
10.0 180 s
1 180 s and not
= 0.19 cm3 s–1 360 s
5.0
0 Time (s)
60 120 180 240 300 360
120 4.1.3
2. Rate of reaction at a particular point of time or instantaneous rate of reaction

The rate of reaction at any particular point of time or specific instance.
Example 1
Example
Rate of Gradient of the
reaction at = tangent to the
time t curve at time t
Observe Figure 4.6. P
50.0
Rate of Gradient of the
reaction tangent to the
at the = curve at the
40.0
20th second 20th second
PQ
=
RQ 30.0
(49.0 – 21.0) cm3
=
(29 – 9) s
28.0 cm3 20.0 R Q
=
20 s
= 1.40 cm3 s–1
10.0
Science
How to draw a tangent 0
http://buku-teks.com/ 10 20 30 40 Time (s)
sc5121 Figure 4.6
Example 2
In an experiment, excess zinc granules reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid

(Figure 4.7).
Hydrogen gas
Delivery tube
Burette
Conical flask Retort stand

Water
Dilute hydrochloric acid
Zinc granules Basin
Figure 4.7
4.1.3 121
The volume of hydrogen gas released is recorded at intervals of 40 seconds. The graph
of volume of hydrogen gas against time is shown in Figure 4.8.
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 Time (s)
Figure 4.8
For this reaction,

(a) calculate the rate of reaction at the 60th second
(b) calculate the rate of reaction at the 120th second
Solution
(a)
50.0
43.0 Y
40.0
30.0
23.0 X Z
20.0
10.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 240 Time (s)
122 4.1.3
Rate of reaction at the 60th second

= Gradient of tangent of curve at the 60th second
YZ
= Rate of reaction at time t = Gradient of tangent of curve at time t
XZ YZ
=
(43.00 – 23.00) cm3 XZ
=
(100 – 20) s
20.00 cm3
=
80 s
= 0.25 cm3 s–1
(b) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)
50.0 Q
47.5
40.0 P
38.5 R
30.0
20.0
10.0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 Time (s)
Rate of reaction at the 120th second

= Gradient of tangent of curve at the 120th second
QR Rate of reaction at time t = Gradient of tangent of curve at time t
=
PR QR
=
PR
(47.50 – 38.50) cm3
=
(160 – 80) s
9.00 cm3
=
80 s
= 0.11 cm3 s–1
4.1.3 123
Activity 4.2
21st Century Skills
To solve numerical problems involving data analysis • TPS
• Discussion
Instructions
1. Carry out this activity individually.
2. Solve the following numerical problems involving data analysis:
(a) 1.3 g of zinc powder is mixed with excess
dilute nitric acid. 480 cm3 of hydrogen gas is Table 4.1
collected in 10 s. Calculate the average rate
of reaction for the whole reaction in cm3 s–1. Volume of oxygen
(b) The volume of oxygen gas released from Time (s)
gas (cm3)
a mixture of hydrogen peroxide solution
0 0.00
and manganese(IV) oxide powder is
recorded at intervals of 30 seconds for 30 14.50
270 seconds in Table 4.1. 60 23.00
(i) Based on Table 4.1, draw a graph of
90 28.50
volume of oxygen gas against time.
(ii) Calculate the average rate of reaction: 120 33.00
• for the first 2 minutes 150 36.50
• in the second minute
180 39.00
• for the whole reaction
(iii) Calculate the rate of reaction: 210 40.00
th
• at the 60 second 240 40.00
• at the 150th second
270 40.00
• at the 240th second
Formative Practice 4.1

1. Give one example of a fast Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)
reaction and one example of
a slow reaction in daily life. 70.0
2. Define rate of reaction.
60.0
3. Figure 1 shows the graph
of volume of hydrogen gas 50.0
released against time.
40.0
Calculate the average rate of
reaction: 30.0
(a) for the first 2 minutes
(b) in the second minute 20.0
(c) for the whole reaction
10.0
0
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 Time (s)
Figure 1
124 4.1.3
4.2 Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction

There are five factors affecting the rate of reaction (Figure 4.9).
Factors affecting rate of reaction
Temperature of reactants Concentration of reactants Size of solid reactants
Presence of catalyst Pressure (reactions involving

reactants in gaseous form)
Figure 4.9 Factors affecting the rate of reaction
1. When the temperature of reactants increases, the rate of reaction increases.

2. When catalyst is used in a reaction, the rate of reaction increases.
3. When the concentration of reactants increases, the rate of reaction increases.
4. When pressure increases, the rate of reaction involving gaseous reactants increases.
5. When the size of solid reactants decreases, the rate of reaction increases.
Let us carry out Experiments 4.1 – 4.4 to study how factors such as the
temperature of reactants, concentration of reactants, size of reactants and presence of
catalyst affect the rate of reaction.
Experiment 4.1
Aim: To study the effect of temperature of reactants on rate of reaction
Problem statement: How does temperature of reactants affect the rate of reaction?
Hypothesis: The higher the temperature of reactants, the higher the rate of reaction.
Variables: (a) manipulated : Temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution

(b) responding : Time taken until ‘X’ is no longer visible
(c) constant : Concentration and volume of sodium thiosulphate
solution, concentration and volume of sulphuric acid
and size of conical flask
4.2.1 125
Materials: 0.2 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate solution, 1 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid
and a piece of white paper with an ‘X’ at the centre
Apparatus: 250 cm3 conical flask, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, 10 cm3 measuring
cylinder, stopwatch, thermometer, Bunsen burner, tripod stand and
wire gauze
Procedure:
1. Using a measuring cylinder, measure and pour 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate
solution into a clean and dry conical flask.
2. Leave the solution for 5 minutes.
3. Measure and record in the table the temperature of the sodium thiosulphate solution.
4. Place the conical flask on the ‘X’ on the white paper (Figure 4.10).
Conical flask
Sodium thiosulphate
solution White paper with ‘X’
Figure 4.10
5. Measure and quickly pour 5 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid into the sodium thiosulphate
solution and start the stopwatch simultaneously.
6. Observe the ‘X’ from the mouth of the conical flask (Figure 4.11).
Eye
Conical flask
Sodium thiosulphate
solution + sulphuric acid
White paper
with ‘X’
Figure 4.11
7. Stop the stopwatch once the ‘X’ on the white paper is no longer visible.
1
8. Record the time taken in the table. Calculate the value of .
time
126 4.2.1
9. Repeat steps 1 to 8 by replacing the sodium thiosulphate solution at room temperature

with sodium thiosulphate solution heated to 35°C, 40°C, 45°C and 50°C (Figure 4.12).
Thermometer
Conical flask
Sodium thiosulphate
Wire gauze solution
Tripod stand
Heat
Figure 4.12
Result:
Temperature of Room
35 40 45 50
sodium thiosulphate solution (°C) temperature
Time taken until ‘X’ is

no longer visible (s)
1
(s–1)
time
Data analysis:
Draw the following graphs:
(a) graph of temperature against time
1
(b) graph of temperature against
time
Conclusion:
Is the hypothesis accepted? What is the conclusion for this experiment?
Questions:
1. State the factor that affects the rate of reaction in this experiment.
2. How does the factor concerned affect the rate of reaction?
3. State the operational definition of rate of reaction based on this experiment.
4.2.1 127
Experiment 4.2
Aim: To study the effect of concentration of reactants on the rate of reaction
Problem statement: How does concentration of reactants affect the rate of reaction?
Hypothesis: The higher the concentration of reactants, the higher the rate
of reaction.
Variables: (a) manipulated : Concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution

(b) responding : Time taken until ‘X’ is no longer visible
(c) constant : Volume of sodium thiosulphate solution,
concentration and volume of sulphuric acid and
size of conical flask
Materials: 0.20, 0.16, 0.12, 0.08, 0.04 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate solutions,
1 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid, distilled water and a piece of white paper
with an ‘X’ at the centre
Apparatus: 250 cm3 conical flask, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, 10 cm3 measuring
cylinder and stopwatch
Procedure:
1. Using a measuring cylinder, measure and pour 50 cm3 of 0.20 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate
solution into a clean and dry conical flask.
2. Place the conical flask on the ‘X’ on the white paper (Figure 4.13).
3. Measure and quickly pour 5 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid into the sodium thiosulphate
solution and start the stopwatch simultaneously.
4. Observe the ‘X’ from the mouth of the conical flask (Figure 4.14).
Eye
Conical flask Conical flask
Sodium thiosulphate
Sodium thiosulphate
solution + sulphuric
solution
acid
White paper White paper

with ‘X’ with ‘X’
Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14

5. Stop the stopwatch once the ‘X’ on the white paper is no longer visible.
1
6. Record the time taken in the table. Calculate the value of .
time
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 by replacing the 0.20 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate solution with
sodium thiosulphate solution of different concentrations as given in the table.
128 4.2.1
Result:
Concentration of
0.20 0.16 0.12 0.08 0.04
sodium thiosulphate solution (mol dm–3)
Time taken until ‘X’ is no longer

visible (s)
1
(s–1)
time
Data analysis:
Draw the following graphs:
(a) graph of concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution against time
1
(b) graph of concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution against
time
Conclusion:
Questions:
1. State the factor which affects the rate of reaction in this experiment.
2. How does the factor affect the rate of reaction?
Experiment 4.3
Aim: To study the effect of size of solid reactants on rate of reaction
Problem statement: How does the size of reactants affect the rate of reaction?
Hypothesis: The smaller the size of solid reactants, the higher the rate
of reaction.
Variables: (a) manipulated : Size of marble

(b) responding : Time taken to collect 30.00 cm3 of gas
(c) constant : Temperature, mass of marble, concentration and
volume of hydrochloric acid
Materials: Small pieces of marble chips, large pieces of marble chips and
0.1 mol dm–3 dilute hydrochloric acid
Apparatus: 250 cm3 conical flask, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, rubber stopper with
delivery tube, burette, basin, electronic balance, retort stand with
clamp and stopwatch
4.2.1 129
Procedure:
1. Fill the burette and basin with water. Then, invert the burette into the basin filled with
water and clamp the burette vertically using a retort stand (Figure 4.15).
Vo
Burette
Retort
stand
Basin
Water
Figure 4.15
2. Adjust the water level in the burette. Observe and record the initial burette reading, V0.
3. Measure 40 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 dilute hydrochloric acid using a measuring cylinder. Pour
the measured acid into a clean and dry conical flask.
4. Weigh 2 g of large pieces of marble chips using an electronic balance. Then, put the 2 g of
marble pieces into the conical flask.
5. Immediately close the conical flask with the rubber stopper which is connected to
a delivery tube. The other end of the delivery tube is placed under the burette (Figure 4.16).
Start the stopwatch.
6. Observe the burette reading. When 30.00 cm3 of gas is collected, stop the stopwatch.
Observe and record the reading on the stopwatch.
Delivery tube Burette Retort

stand
Dilute hydrochloric
acid
Basin
Water
Marble chips
Figure 4.16
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 by replacing the large pieces of marble chips with small pieces of
marble chips of the same mass.
130 4.2.1
Result:
Size of marble Time taken to collect 30.00 cm3 of gas (s)
Large pieces of marble chips
Small pieces of marble chips
Data analysis:
1. Compare the time taken to collect 30.00 cm3 of carbon dioxide released from the reaction
using large pieces of marble chips to the reaction using small pieces of marble chips.
2. Compare the rate of reaction of a reaction using large pieces of marble chips to the rate of
reaction of a reaction using small pieces of marble chips.
Conclusion:
Question:
How does the size of marble chips affect the rate of reaction between marble and
hydrochloric acid?
Experiment 4.4
Aim: To study the effect of presence of catalyst on rate of reaction
Problem statement: How does the presence of a catalyst affect the rate of reaction?
Hypothesis: Presence of catalyst increases the rate of reaction.
Variables: (a) manipulated : Presence of catalyst

(b) responding : Time taken to collect 30.00 cm3 of gas
(c) constant : Temperature, volume and concentration of
hydrochloric acid
Materials: Small pieces of zinc, 0.1 mol dm–3 dilute hydrochloric acid and
0.5 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution
Apparatus: 250 cm3 conical flask, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, rubber stopper with
delivery tube, burette, basin, electronic balance, retort stand with
clamp, spatula and stopwatch
4.2.1 131
Procedure:
1. Fill the burette and basin with water. Then, invert the burette into the basin filled with
water and clamp the burette vertically using a retort stand (Figure 4.17).
CAUTION!
Vo The mixture of hydrogen and
air in the burette can explode
when ignited. Do not ignite
the gas in the burette.
Burette Retort stand
Basin
Water
Figure 4.17
2. Adjust the water level in the burette. Observe and record the initial burette reading, V0.
3. Measure 40 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 dilute hydrochloric acid using a measuring cylinder.
Pour the measured acid into a clean and dry conical flask.
4. Weigh 2 g of zinc pieces using an electronic balance. Then, put the 2 g of zinc pieces into
the conical flask.
5. Immediately close the conical flask with the rubber stopper which is connected to a
delivery tube. The other end of the delivery tube is placed under the burette (Figure 4.18).
Start the stopwatch.
Delivery Burette
tube
Retort stand
Pieces of Basin
zinc Water
Dilute hydrochloric acid
Figure 4.18
6. Observe the burette reading. When 30.00 cm3 of gas is collected, stop the stopwatch.
Record the reading on the stopwatch.
132 4.2.1
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 by replacing the 40 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 dilute hydrochloric acid with
a mixture of 40 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 dilute hydrochloric acid and 5 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3
copper(II) sulphate solution (Figure 4.19).
Delivery Burette
tube
Retort stand
Basin
Dilute hydrochloric acid + Water
copper(II) sulphate solution
Zinc pieces
Figure 4.19
Result:
Mixture in the conical flask Time taken to collect 30.00 cm3 of gas (s)
Zinc pieces and dilute hydrochloric acid
Zinc pieces, dilute hydrochloric acid and

copper(II) sulphate solution
Data analysis:
1. Compare the time taken to collect 30.00 cm3 of hydrogen gas released from the reaction
using a mixture of zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid to the reaction using a mixture of zinc,
dilute hydrochloric acid and copper(II) sulphate solution as a catalyst.
2. Compare the rate of reaction of a reaction using a mixture of zinc and dilute hydrochloric
acid to a reaction using a mixture of zinc, dilute hydrochloric acid and copper(II) sulphate
solution as a catalyst.
Conclusion:
Questions:
1. State the factor which affects the rate of reaction in this experiment.
2. How does the factor affect the rate of reaction?
4.2.1 133
Besides the factors studied in Experiments 4.1 – 4.4, BRAIN
one other factor which affects the rate of reaction is TEASER
pressure. Pressure affects the rate of reaction of a reaction
that involves gaseous reactants. For reactions involving Why is the rate of reaction
gaseous reactants, the rate of reaction usually increases for solid or liquid reactant
normally not affected
when pressure increases. Name two examples of industrial by pressure?
processes which use high pressure to increase their
rate of reaction.

1. State five factors which affect the rate of reaction.
2. Complete the following statements:
(a) The the temperature of reactants, the higher the rate of reaction.
(b) The the concentration of reactants, the higher the rate of reaction.
(c) The the size of reactants, the higher the rate of reaction.
3. State one factor that only affects the rate of reaction involving reactants in the
form of gas.
4.3 Applications of the Concept of Rate of Reaction
In daily life and industries, factors that

affect the rate of reaction are normally
adjusted to change the rate of reaction of
a reaction. For example, a refrigerator lowers
the temperature of food or drinks kept in it.
This lowering of temperature slows down
food spoilage.
Photograph 4.3 Example of

an appliance which applies the
concept of rate of reaction
134 4.2.1 4.3.1
Haber Process
In the Haber Process, a mixture of nitrogen gas, N2 and hydrogen gas, H2 in the
ratio of 1:3 at a temperature of 450°C – 550°C and a pressure of 200 atm is passed over
iron filings, Fe which functions as a catalyst to produce ammonia, NH3 (Figure 4.20).
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
Nitrogen Hydrogen Ammonia
Unreacted
nitrogen
and hydrogen
gases
Nitrogen
gas
Mixture of nitrogen and
hydrogen gases is
compressed at a Ammonia gas
Iron filings (catalyst),
pressure of 200 atm cools to form
Hydrogen temperature
liquid ammonia
gas 450°C – 550°C
Reactor Cooling chamber
Compressor Liquid ammonia
Figure 4.20 Production of ammonia using Haber Process
Contact Process
In the Contact Process, sulphur is burnt in an excess of air to produce sulphur dioxide
gas, SO2.
S + O2 SO2
Sulphur Oxygen Sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide gas mixed with an excess of air at a temperature of 450°C and a
pressure of 1 atm is passed over vanadium(V) oxide, which functions as a catalyst, to
produce sulphur trioxide gas, SO3.
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
Sulphur dioxide Oxygen Sulphur trioxide
4.3.1 135
Sulphur trioxide gas is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to produce
oleum, H2S2O7.
SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7

Sulphur trioxide Sulphuric acid Oleum
Oleum is diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid (Figure 4.21).
H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4

Oleum Water Sulphuric acid
Sulphur dioxide, SO2 Sulphur trioxide, SO3

+ oxygen, O2
Concentrated sulphuric acid
Sulphur Waste gases
Dry air Oleum,

Water H2S2O7
Vanadium(V) oxide
(catalyst) Sulphuric acid,
H2SO4
Figure 4.21 Production of sulphuric acid using Contact Process
Factors which increase the rate of reaction in Haber Process and Contact Process are
as follows:
(a) Haber Process (b) Contact Process

Temperature : 450°C – 550°C Temperature : 450°C
Pressure : 200 atm Pressure : 1 atm
Catalyst : Iron filings Catalyst : Vanadium(V) oxide

1. (a) Name one life process in the human body which involves the concept of rate
of reaction.
(b) How does the application of rate of reaction influence the life process in
question 1(a)?
2. State the factors which influence the rate of reaction in the following processes:
(a) Haber Process
(b) Contact Process
136 4.3.1
Su
Summary
S ry
y
Rate of Reaction
Change in the quantity of reactant or product per unit time
High rate of reaction Low rate of reaction
Fast reaction Slow reaction
Factors:
• temperature of reactants
• size of solid reactants
• concentration of reactants
• presence of catalyst
• pressure
are applied in
Chapter 4
Haber Process Contact Process
137
Rate of Reaction
Self-Reflection
Se
elf-Reflectio
on
After studying this chapter, you are able to:
4.1 Introduction to Rate of Reaction 4.2 Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
Explain with examples fast reactions Carry out experiments to study
and slow reactions in daily life. factors affecting rate of reaction.
Define the rate of reaction. 4.3 Application of the Concept of
Determine the rate of reaction. Rate of Reaction
Communicate about the application
of the concept of rate of reaction in
daily life and industries.
Summative Practice
Pracctice 4 Quiz
http://buku-
Answer the following questions: teks.com/
sc5138
1. (a) What is meant by chemical reaction?
(b) Is the rate of reaction affected by pressure?
2. A student carried out an

Carbon dioxide
experiment to study a factor
which affects the rate of
reaction between marble
Delivery Burette
(calcium carbonate) and dilute tube Retort
hydrochloric acid. Figure 1 Dilute hydrochloric
stand
shows the apparatus set-up acid
for the experiment. Basin Water
Marble chips
Figure 1
The student carried out the experiment using marble chips (Set I) and repeated
the experiment by replacing the marble chips with marble powder (Set II). Table 1
shows the results of the experiment for Set I and Set II.
Table 1
Time (s) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Volume of gas collected

0.00 12.50 23.00 31.00 37.50 42.00 45.00 45.00
in Set I (cm3)
Volume of gas collected

0.00 20.00 32.00 39.00 43.00 45.00 45.00 45.00
in Set II (cm3)
138
(a) In this experiment, state the:

(i) manipulated variable
(ii) responding variable
(iii) constant variable
(b) State one hypothesis for this experiment.
(c) Based on Table 1, draw two graphs of volume of gas collected against time for
Set I and Set II experiments on the same set of axis on a graph paper.
(d) Based on Set II, calculate:
(i) average rate of reaction for the first minute
(ii) average rate of reaction for the first two minutes
(iii) average rate of reaction in the second minute
(iv) rate of reaction at the 60th second
(v) average rate of reaction for the whole reaction
(e) Based on the results of Set I, calculate the average rate of reaction for the
whole reaction.
Enrichment Practice
Pra
actiice
3. Digestive enzymes function as biological catalysts to change the rate of
decomposition of complex food molecules into simpler molecules in the digestive
system. What is the use of digestive enzymes other than aiding in the digestion of
food? Figure 2 shows one application of biological catalysts in daily life.
BIOLOGICAL WASHING POWDER

Contains protease and lipase
Optimum action at 40°C
More efficient than ordinary detergent
Do not use boiling water
Do not wash clothes made of silk
Figure 2
(a) Give two examples of biological catalyst in the washing powder.

(b) What is the effect of the biological catalyst towards food stains on clothes?
(c) State one factor that influences the effectiveness of the biological catalyst in
the reaction.
(d) How does this factor influence the action of the biological catalyst?
139
CHAPTER
5 CARBON
COMPOUNDS
Name two natural carbon compounds that are Malaysia’s exports

which contribute significantly to the economy.
What makes oil palm special compared to other products, such as

soya bean, as a source of cooking oil?
Let’s study
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140
Science Bulletin
According to sources from the ESRL’s Global Monitoring Laboratory (GML) of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the composition of greenhouse gases including carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere continues to rise. To date, efforts ranging from global bodies like the United Nations (UN)
down to individuals have yet to successfully address the carbon dioxide issue.
Keywords
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r *OPSHBOJDDBSCPODPNQPVOE r 6OTBUVSBUFEGBU
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141
5.1 Introduction to Carbon Compounds
Carbon Compounds in Nature Carbon compounds

Carbon compounds are compounds
which contain the element carbon, C.
Carbon compounds can be divided into
two groups, namely organic carbon Organic carbon Inorganic carbon
compounds and inorganic carbon compounds compounds
compounds (Figure 5.1).
originate from originate from
BRAIN Living things Non-living things

TEASER
If compound X contains Carbon dioxide in
the carbon element, is Petroleum,

the atmosphere
Burning
of fuels
Decay
Limestone,
Respiration Respiration Photosynthesis
compound X an organic silk,

Are eaten by
Green plants
Dead
Organisms Fossil fuels
carbon dioxide
Form
(petroleum, natural gas, coal)
carbon compound charcoal

or an inorganic carbon
compound? Figure 5.1 Organic carbon compounds
and inorganic carbon compounds
Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle shows how carbon elements are recycled through the formation
or decomposition of carbon compounds in living things and organic substances in the
environment through processes such as respiration, combustion, decomposition and
photosynthesis (Figure 5.2).
Carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere
Burning
of fuels
Decay
Respiration Respiration Photosynthesis
Are eaten by
Green plants
Dead
Organisms Fossil fuels
Form
(petroleum, natural gas, coal)
Figure 5.2 Carbon cycle

142 5.1.1 5.1.2
Chapter 5 Carbon Compounds
Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere through three main processes:
(a) Respiration
Carbon dioxide is a carbon compound which is released into the atmosphere through
the respiration of all living things including animals, plants and microorganisms.
(b) Combustion
Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Natural
phenomena such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires also release carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere.
Photograph 5.1 Smoke from Photograph 5.2 Smoke from forest fire
petrol combustion
(c) Decomposition
During the process of decomposition by decomposers such as bacteria and fungi,
carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is absorbed by
green plants from the atmosphere to Light
carry out photosynthesis (Figure 5.3). energy Oxygen
The importance of photosynthesis includes:
• enabling green plants to make their
own food Photosynthesis
Photosy
Ph
PPho
Photo
hhotosynth
hoto
oottto
tos
oossyyynth
osyn ynthesis
yn
nnth
tthes
hes
hes
hesis
esi
siss
sis
• providing food to animals ((happens
(h
hap
hhaappp
appens
aapp
pppenseens in
chlorophyll)
chlo
chhloorophy
orophyll)
ophy
phyllll)lll)
• increasing the oxygen content in the air
• removing excess carbon dioxide from the
air to maintain the carbon dioxide content Glucose
ucos
cose
o e
in the air
Figure 5.3 Photosynthesis
Water
143
5.1.2
Activity 5.1
21st Century Skills
To illustrate the carbon cycle in the form of a diagram • ICS
• Project-based activity
Instructions
1. Complete the carbon cycle diagram in Figure 5.4.
Plant
Factory
Animal
Rubbish
SOYA
KICAP
SOYA
SOYA
Algae and
aquatic animals
Figure 5.4
2. Present and display your illustration of the carbon cycle to the class.
3. Justify the enhancements or changes made to your group’s illustration of the carbon cycle.

1. What is organic carbon compound?
2. What is inorganic carbon compound?
3. Give two examples of inorganic carbon compounds.
4. What is carbon cycle?
5. State the importance of carbon cycle.
144 5.1.2
5.2 Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon compounds are organic carbon compounds made up of only carbon

and hydrogen elements.
Hydrocarbon Compounds from Natural Sources

The formation of hydrocarbon compounds from natural resources are shown in
Figures 5.5 and 5.6.
Sea Sea
Seabed
Mud and Fossils of

Seabed stone animals
Remains of dead marine life buried Over millions of years, these and plants
in the seabed. remains are buried deeper and
deeper into the seabed under
thick layers of rock and mud.
Sea
Natural gas The combined effects of pressure exerted by the

layers of sand and mud, heat absorbed from the
surroundings, and decomposition caused by
Petroleum bacteria changes the buried remains into
petroleum and natural gas.
Figure 5.5 Formation of petroleum and natural gas
Coal
Millions of years ago, the Over millions of years, the The combined effects of pressure exerted
remains of dead plants remains become buried deeper by the layers of rock, heat absorbed from
were naturally buried and deeper into the ground the surroundings, and decomposition
underground. under thick layers of rocks. caused by bacteria changes the buried
plant fossils into coal.
Figure 5.6 Formation of coal
5.2.1 145
Fractional Distillation of Petroleum Science
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons. This mixture Fractional
of hydrocarbons needs to be separated through the distillation in a
fractional distillation process before the petroleum distillation tower at
an oil refinery and
fractions can be used. Fractional distillation is used
uses of different
because the petroleum fractions have different petroleum fractions.
boiling points. http://buku-teks.com/sc5146
Activity 5.2
21st Century Skills
To separate crude oil into four different petroleum fractions using • TPS
fractional distillation • ISS
Materials
Crude oil, wooden splinter, ice, water and glass wool Safety Precautions
• Wash your hands with soap
Apparatus and water if you get crude
Measuring cylinder, boiling tube, retort stand, test tubes, oil on your hands.
test tube rack, beaker, rubber stopper with delivery tube, • Heating crude oil releases
petroleum vapour which is
thermometer (0oC – 360oC), Bunsen burner and
highly flammable.
evaporating dishes
Instructions
1. Fill a boiling tube with 10 cm3 of crude oil. CAUTION!
2. Prepare the apparatus set-up (Figure 5.7).
• Use crude oil only.
• Do not substitute crude oil
Thermometer with any other fuel.
(0°C – 360°C)
Retort stand
Delivery tube
Test tube
Boiling tube Ice
Crude oil
Glass wool
Heat
Distillate
Figure 5.7 Fractional distillation of petroleum
146 5.2.1
3. Heat the crude oil in the boiling tube gently from room temperature to 80ºC.
4. Stop heating the crude oil when its temperature reaches 80ºC. Continue the heating process
when its temperature drops below 80ºC.
5. When there is about 1 cm3 of distillate collected in the test tube, replace the test tube
with another empty test tube.
6. Label the distillate collected from room temperature to 80ºC as Fraction 1.
7. Repeat step 3 to collect three more fractions of petroleum at the following ranges
of temperatures:
(a) 80ºC – 150ºC with the collected distillate labelled as Fraction 2
(b) 150ºC – 230ºC with the collected distillate labelled as Fraction 3
(c) 230ºC – 250ºC with the collected distillate labelled as Fraction 4
8. Observe and record the colour of each of the fractions labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4.
9. Pour each petroleum fraction into separate evaporating dishes.
10. Observe and compare the rate of flow or viscosity of each petroleum fraction.
11. Record the viscosity of each petroleum fraction obtained.
12. Ignite each petroleum fraction with a burning splinter. Compare and record how flammable
each fraction is.
Observation
Fraction 1 2 3 4
Range of boiling points 30oC – 80oC 80oC – 150oC 150oC – 230oC 230oC – 250oC
Colour
Viscosity
Flammability
Questions
1. Name the method of separation used in this activity.
2. Is petroleum a compound or a mixture? Give your reasons.
3. Based on the information from Science Info on page 146, name the distillate obtained
from the fractions labelled as follows:
(a) Fraction 1:
(b) Fraction 2:
(c) Fraction 3:
(d) Fraction 4:
4. What characteristic of the petroleum fractions is applied in the fractional distillation
of petroleum?
5.2.1 147
Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Figure 5.8 shows two types of hydrocarbon compounds, namely saturated
hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon compounds
Saturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Have at least one double covalent bond

Have single covalent bonds (C C) or triple covalent bond (C C)
between carbon atoms (C–C) between carbon atoms
H H H H H H
H C C C H H C C C H
H H H H
Example: Alkane Example: Alkene
Figure 5.8 Hydrocarbon compounds
Homologous Series
In organic chemistry, a homologous series is made up of a specific group of organic
compounds which have similar chemical properties. Examples of homologous series are
the alkane and the alkene.
Alkane
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbon compounds. Each carbon Single covalent bond
atom in an alkane molecule forms single covalent bonds with
other carbon atoms (Figure 5.9). H H H
As alkane is a homologous series, each member of the alkane H C C C H
homologous series can be represented by the general formula
H H H
Cn H2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, …
Figure 5.9 Alkane
Alkene
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds. Each alkene
molecule has at least one double covalent bond between two H H H
carbon atoms (Figure 5.10). H C C C H
As alkene is a homologous series, each member of the alkene H
homologous series can be represented by the general formula Double covalent bond
Cn H2n where n = 2, 3, …
Figure 5.10 Alkene
148 5.2.2
The names of the first six members of alkane and first five members of alkene are given
in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Names of alkanes and alkenes
Number of carbons, n Alkane Alkene
1 Methane –
2 Ethane Ethene
3 Propane Propene
4 Butane Butene
5 Pentane Pentene
6 Hexane Hexene
Activity 5.3
21st Century Skills
To build and name molecular models of alkane and alkene • ICS, ISS
• Project-based activity
Materials
Environmental-friendly materials for building model such as waste paper and wooden splinters
Instructions
2. Build and name models of the following alkane and alkene molecules using used materials:
(a) first 6 members of the alkane homologous series
(b) first 5 members of the alkene homologous series
3. Present your built models to the class.
Alternative Energy and Renewable Energy Sources in

Daily Life
Fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal and natural gas are non-renewable energy sources
which are fast depleting. As such, alternative energy sources are becoming increasingly
important in supplying the energy for daily life.
Alternative energy sources are sources of energy that will not deplete easily such
as nuclear energy or other renewable energy sources. Examples of renewable energy
sources are as follows:
• solar energy • geothermal energy

• wind energy • tidal energy
• hydroelectric energy • wave energy
• biomass energy
Many countries, including Malaysia, have the potential to build nuclear power
stations to obtain energy. The advantages and disadvantages of building nuclear power
stations should be taken into consideration before any decision is made.
5.2.2 5.2.3 149
Activity 5.4
21st Century Skills
To produce methane gas from school canteen food waste • ICS, ISS, TPS, STEM
• STEM project-based
activity
Instructions
2. Gather information related to alternative energy and renewable energy sources in daily life.
3. Read and understand the following information:
Rubbish disposal sites release carbon dioxide and methane gases as a result of organic
waste decay. There are some countries which use methane gas to generate electrical energy.
4. Gather and analyse ways to produce methane gas from

food waste from the Internet. Safety Precautions
5. Plan and carry out a project using the STEM approach to
produce methane gas from the decay of food waste in Be careful when collecting the
your school canteen. methane gas.
6. Present your group project to the class.
CAUTION!
Methane gas is highly
flammable.

1. What is hydrocarbon?
2. State one similarity and one difference between saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
3. Name one gas which is produced from food waste decay to generate
electrical energy.
5.3 Alcohol
Alcohol is an organic carbon compound which contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
elements. Alcohol is prepared through the fermentation process by using the action of
yeast on food containing glucose or starch such as sugar, grapes, apples, sugarcane, rice,
wheat, potato and barley.
150 5.2.3 5.3.1

Alcohol Preparation Process

In the fermentation process, the zymase in yeast converts glucose into ethanol and
carbon dioxide as in the following equation:
Zymase (enzyme in yeast)
Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
Activity 5.5
21st Century Skills
To prepare ethanol through fermentation • TPS
• Inquiry-based activity
Materials
Distilled water, yeast, sugar, starchy substances such as bread and rice, fruits such as banana and
apple, porcelain chips and limewater
Apparatus
Beaker, glass rod, conical flask, measuring cylinder, delivery tube with stopper, test tube,
distillation flask, Liebig condenser, thermometer, Bunsen burner, tripod stand and wire gauze
Instructions
2. Your teacher will instruct each group to prepare either apparatus set-up A, B or C as follows:
Apparatus set-up A Procedure
(a) Put 100 g of sugar and 50 cm3 of

distilled water into a beaker. Stir the
Test tube mixture with a glass rod until it forms
Conical flask a sugar solution.
(b) Add 10 g of yeast into the sugar
Sugar solution
+ yeast Limewater solution and pour the mixture into a
conical flask.
(c) Prepare the apparatus set-up
Figure 5.11
(Figure 5.11).
Apparatus set-up B Procedure

(a) Place 100 g of starchy substance like
bread and 50 cm3 of distilled water in
Test tube
Conical flask
a beaker. Stir the mixture with a
glass rod.
Mixture of bread, (b) Add 10 g of yeast into the mixture and
yeast and pour the mixture into a conical flask.
distilled water Limewater (c) Prepare the apparatus set-up
Figure 5.12 (Figure 5.12).
5.3.1 151
Apparatus set-up C Procedure
(a) Place 100 g of fruits such as mashed

bananas and 50 cm3 of distilled water in
Conical flask Test tube a beaker. Stir the mixture with a
Mixture of banana, glass rod.
yeast and distilled (b) Add 10 g of yeast into the mixture and
water Limewater pour the mixture into a conical flask.
(c) Prepare the apparatus set-up
Figure 5.13
(Figure 5.13).
3. Keep apparatus set-ups A, B

and C in the laboratory for Thermometer
a week. Observe and record
changes in the conical flask
mixture and the limewater in
the test tube.
Water outlet
4. After one week, filter the
mixture into a conical flask Water bath Liebig
and pour the filtrate into a condenser
distillation flask.
5. Distill the contents in the Filtrate
distillation flask using the xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
apparatus set-up shown in Porcelain Water

Figure 5.14. chips inlet
Heat
6. Collect the distillate at a
temperature of 78ºC.
7. Observe and record the colour Distillate
and smell of the collected
Figure 5.14
distillate in the table.
Observation
Observation
Substance
Beginning of activity End of activity
Mixture in apparatus
set-up A, B or C
Limewater
Colour:
Distillate –
Smell:
Questions
1. What product turns the limewater cloudy?
2. What is the purpose of the distillation process in this activity?
3. What is the principle used to separate ethanol from the products of fermentation
through distillation?
152 5.3.1
The Physical and Chemical Properties of Alcohol

The physical properties of alcohol are as follows:
• colourless
• liquid at room temperature
• has a distinctive smell
• the boiling point increases when its
number of carbon atoms increases
• the solubility in water decreases when
its number of carbon atoms increases
Apart from these physical properties,
carry out Activity 5.6 to study the
physical and chemical properties of alcohol. Photograph 5.3 Use of alcohol as an
antiseptic which is applied before an injection
Activity 5.6
21st Century Skills
• CPS, ISS
To study the physical and chemical properties of ethanol
Materials
Ethanol, ethanoic acid, concentrated sulphuric acid, limewater, dry cobalt chloride paper, matches
and water
Apparatus
Boiling tube, measuring cylinder, delivery tube, dropper, evaporating dish, test tube holder,
filter funnel, beaker, test tube, retort stand, connecting tube and Bunsen burner
Instructions
A. Physical properties of ethanol
Observe and record the following Delivery tube
physical properties of ethanol: Connecting
tube
• colour
• state of matter at room temperature Test tube
Filter
• smell
funnel
• solubility in water
Evaporating
B. Combustion dish
1. Measure 2 cm3 of ethanol using a Ethanol Limewater
measuring cylinder and pour into an
Figure 5.15
evaporating dish.
2. Ignite the ethanol in the evaporating dish (Figure 5.15).
3. Observe and record the colour of the flame.
4. Test the gas released with limewater.
5. Test the droplets of liquid formed on the filter funnel with dry cobalt chloride paper.
C. Esterification
1. Measure 2 cm3 of ethanol and 2 cm3 of ethanoic acid using a measuring cylinder and pour
both liquids into a boiling tube (Figure 5.16(a)). Shake the boiling tube.
5.3.2 153
Dropper Test tube holder
Ethanoic acid Concentrated

sulphuric acid
Ethanol
Water
Heat
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 5.16
6. Add five drops of concentrated sulphuric acid into the
boiling tube mixture (Figure 5.16(b)) in a fume chamber. CAUTION!
Shake the boiling tube.
7. Heat the mixture for several minutes (Figure 5.16(c)). Concentrated sulphuric acid
8. Pour the mixture into a beaker filled with water is very corrosive. Its use is
limited within the fume
(Figure 5.16(d)). Observe and record the characteristics
chamber.
of the product.
Observation
A. Physical properties of ethanol
Physical property of ethanol Observation

Colour
State of matter at room temperature
Smell
Solubility in water
B. Combustion
Characteristic Observation
Colour of flame
Change(s) to limewater
Change(s) to dry cobalt chloride paper
C. Esterification
Characteristic Observation
Smell of product
Solubility of product in water
Questions
1. What is produced from the combustion of alcohol?
2. (a) What is produced from the reaction between ethanol and ethanoic acid?
(b) What are the physical properties of the product of the reaction between ethanol and
ethanoic acid?
3. What is the function of sulphuric acid in the process of esterification?
154 5.3.2
Uses of Alcohol in Daily Life

Alcohol is widely used in various fields in daily life as follows:
Fuel
Alcohol is a good fuel because this organic carbon compound is highly flammable,
burns with a blue flame and produces a complete and clean combustion without soot.
For example, alcohol is used as a biofuel for motorised vehicles in the Philippines.
Medicine
Alcohol is used as an antiseptic and disinfectant to kill microorganisms and it is also
used as a solvent for various types of medicine.
Cosmetics
Alcohol is also used as a solvent for various cosmetics such as perfume, lotion
and lipstick.
Industry
Alcohol is normally used as a solvent in industry because it can dissolve organic
substances that are used to prepare various types of industrial substances such as liquid
cleaners and food. Alcohol is also a reactant in the formation of ester which is used in
food processing, cosmetics, paint and other industries. Ethanediol, on the other hand,
is a type of alcohol used as an antifreeze in industries.
Photograph 5.4 Uses of industrial substances which contain alcohol and ester in daily life
5.3.3 155
Effects of Excessive Alcohol Consumption
Alcohol consumption, especially in excess, causes
addiction. Alcohol addiction normally causes social Click@Web
problems in families and social crimes that disrupt Scientific studies on effects of
societal peace. alcohol consumption
A person who is drunk as a result of excessive http://buku-teks.com/sc5156
alcohol consumption normally causes various
problems such as dangerous driving and altercations.
Expectant mothers who consume excessive alcohol can
cause defects in their baby known as foetal alcohol
syndrome. Babies with foetal alcohol syndrome
have small-sized head and brain, abnormal face and
stunted growth.
Table 5.2 Adverse effects of excessive alcohol

consumption on health
Part of the body Adverse effects of excessive alcohol consumption
Brain Damage to brain cells as well as compromised coordination

and nervous system cause disruptions to body balance and
difficulty in estimating distance
Eyes Blurred vision
Lungs Increased rate of breathing
Heart • Increased rate of heartbeat

• High blood pressure
Stomach Irritation to stomach wall causes bleeding and ulcers
Liver • Damage to liver cells

• Liver cells die and harden
• Cirrhosis
• Liver cancer
Kidney Kidney damage due to overactive elimination of waste

substances
Urinary bladder Frequent urination
156 5.3.4
Activity 5.7
21st Century Skills
To produce posters or pamphlets or a scrap book on the effects of • ICS
excessive alcohol consumption on health • Project-based activity
Instructions
2. Gather information from various sources about the effects of excessive alcohol consumption
on health.
3. Discuss the information gathered.
4. Prepare posters or pamphlets or a scrap book based on the outcome of your group
discussion.
5. Present and display the posters or pamphlets or a scrap book on the science notice board
in your class or science laboratory.

1. What is alcohol?
2. How is alcohol prepared?
3. What is the purpose of distillation in the process of alcohol preparation
through glucose fermentation?
4. State two uses of alcohol in daily life.
5. Why is drunk driving caused by the excessive intake of alcohol a serious
traffic offence?
5.4 Fats
Fat is a type of organic carbon compound which
contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements.
What is the importance of fats as a class of food for
humans? Photograph 5.5 shows various sources of fats
in the human diet.
Milk Coconut oil Groundnut Meat Butter
Photograph 5.5 Sources of fats
5.3.4 5.4.1 157

Fats exist in two states, solid and liquid. Solid fats at room temperature usually
originate from sources of animal fats. For example, chicken, cow, goat and fish. Fat in
the form of liquid is known as oil. Oil normally originates from plants. For example,
palm oil, coconut oil and soya bean oil.
As in hydrocarbons, fats can be divided into saturated fats and unsaturated fats.
The similarities and differences between saturated fats and unsaturated fats are shown
in Figure 5.17.
Saturated fats Unsaturated fats

Similarities
t Organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

t Do not dissolve in water
t Important source of fatty acids in the body
Differences
Animals Source Plants
Solid State at room temperature Liquid
High Melting point Low
Maximum Number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule Not maximum
Not possible Addition of hydrogen atoms to molecule Possible
Figure 5.17 Similarities and differences between saturated fats and unsaturated fats
Effects of Eating Food Containing Excessive Fats on Health

Fats represent an important component of a balanced diet in human nutrition.
Eating of food containing excess fats especially saturated fats will increase the level of
cholesterol in the blood and affect our health.
Saturated fats from animal sources such as cheese, eggs, butter and meat contain
high levels of cholesterol. The importance of cholesterol in the human body includes
building of cell membranes, synthesising bile and sex hormones, and producing
vitamin D in skin that is exposed to sunlight.
158 5.4.2 5.4.3

However, excessive cholesterol in the blood can

affect human health as follows:
Click@Web
(a) Gallstones and jaundice
Information on cholesterol
Excessive cholesterol in the blood can form http://buku-teks.com/sc5159
gallstones which block the bile duct. Blocked
bile duct can cause jaundice.
(b) Cholesterol deposited in the inner wall of
arteries and atherosclerosis
Cholesterol that accumulates and deposits on
the inner artery walls causes the artery lumen
to become narrow. This narrowed artery can
disrupt or block flow of blood in a condition
known as atherosclerosis (Figure 5.18).
Cholesterol
build-up
Normal Lumen
lumen
Figure 5.18 Cross section of healthy artery

and effect of atherosclerosis on artery
Atherosclerosis can cause hypertension or high blood pressure, stroke (burst or

blocked artery leading to the brain) and fatal heart attack.
Steps to avoid health problems caused by excessive cholesterol in blood include:
• reducing the intake of saturated fats in nutrition
• consuming unsaturated fats which can lower the cholesterol level in blood
Activity 5.8
21st Century Skills
To gather information on fats • ICS
• Discussion
Instructions
2. Gather information from the Internet, print media and other electronic media on
the following:
(a) fat content of various sources in daily life
(b) saturated and unsaturated fats
(c) effects of excessive fat intake on health
4. Present the outcome of your group discussion to the class using a multimedia presentation.
5.4.3 159
1. What are fats?
2. Give one example of fats and the source.
3. State one similarity and one difference between saturated fats and
unsaturated fats.
4. State three health problems caused by food intake which contains excess fats.
5.5 Palm Oil
Structure of Oil Palm Fruit

Pulp Shell
Observe the structure of the oil palm
fruit in Photograph 5.6. The oil palm fruit
is made up of three parts, namely:
• pulp (mesocarp) which contains the
most palm oil
• kernel which contains the best
quality palm kernel oil
• shell (endocarp) which does not
contain oil Kernel
Photograph 5.6 Structure of

oil palm fruit
Activity 5.9
21st Century Skills
To observe the structure of the oil palm fruit and identify the quantity aspect of • TPS
• Inquiry-based
oil from pulp and kernel
activity
Materials
10 oil palm fruits
Apparatus
Forceps, knife, magnifying glass, press, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze and white tile
Instructions
1. Place an oil palm fruit on a white tile. Hold the oil palm fruit using forceps and make
a cross-sectional cut on the oil palm fruit using a knife (Figure 5.19).
160 5.4.3 5.5.1 5.5.2

2. Observe and sketch the structure of the

oil palm fruit and label the parts in the
Knife
structure of the oil palm fruit.
3. Wash all the oil palm fruits with water.
4. Put the oil palm fruits into a beaker filled Oil palm
with water and boil the water and the oil fruit
palm fruits for 20 minutes (Figure 5.20).
5. Remove the oil palm fruits from the beaker
using forceps. Figure 5.19
6. Separate the pulp from the shell of the oil
palm fruit (Figure 5.21).
7. Put the pulp into a press to be squeezed.
Collect the palm oil extracted from the Boiling Oil palm fruit
pulp in a beaker (Figure 5.22). water
8. Cut open the shell and remove the kernel. xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
9. Repeat step 7 by replacing the pulp with

the kernel.
10. Compare and contrast the quantity of Heat
oil extracted from the pulp and kernel.
Record the quantity of oil collected in
the beaker. Figure 5.20
Observation Pulp
Sketch and label a cross section of the
oil palm fruit.
Shell
Figure 5.21
Press
Palm oil
Figure 5.22
Oil extracted from Quantity of oil collected

Pulp
Kernel
Questions
1. What is the aim of boiling the oil palm fruits?
2. What is the difference in the quantity of oil extracted from the pulp and the kernel?
3. State the difference in colour of the oil extracted from the pulp with the oil extracted from
the kernel.
5.5.1 5.5.2 161

Sequence in the Industrial Extraction Process of Palm Oil
The sequence in the industrial extraction process of palm oil is shown in Figure 5.23.
Bunch of oil palm fruits
Sterilisation
The whole bunch of oil palm fruits is sterilised with steam at a high pressure and temperature. The heat from
the steam kills microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi which can spoil the oil palm fruits. Steam also
softens the pulp of the oil palm fruits and makes it easier to remove the fruits from the bunches.
Threshing
The oil palm fruits are detached from their bunches in a threshing machine.
Digestion
The oil palm fruits are reheated at a high temperature and pounded by rotating beater arms to separate the pulp
from the shell. The pulp and shell which contain the kernel are then processed separately.
Pulp (Extraction of palm oil (PO)) Kernel (Extraction of palm kernel oil (PKO))
The pulp is squeezed with a hydraulic or spindle The shell which contains the kernel is steamed at a high
press to extract PO. pressure. Then, the kernel is separated. The kernel is
dried and PKO is extracted from it with a hydraulic or
spindle press.
Filtration
The pulp fibres are separated from the PO through Filtration
filtration. The kernel is separated from the PKO through filtration.
PO – Palm oil
Purification PKO – Palm kernel
t Steam is flowed through the PO to remove odour and eliminate acid which oil
causes the PO to become sour.
t PO flows through activated carbon to be decolourised.
Pure PO Pure PKO
Figure 5.23 Sequence of the industrial extraction process of palm oil
162 5.5.3
Activity 5.10
21st Century Skills
To prepare a review about a visit to a palm oil processing factory or to the • TPS, ISS, ICS
Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) • Inquiry-based activity
Instructions
1. Pay a visit to a palm oil processing factory or to the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB).
2. Gather and record information on the sequence of the industrial extraction process of palm
oil in your notebook.
3. Based on the information gathered, review the industrial extraction process of palm oil.
Components of Palm Oil

Palm oil is made up of two parts, namely glycerol and various types of fatty acids
(Figure 5.24).
Palm oil
Glycerol Fatty acids
Figure 5.24 Components of palm oil
Palm oil is made up of saturated fatty acids such as palmitic acid and stearic acid,
as well as unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acid and linoleic acid.
Composition of Palm Oil and Other Vegetable Oils

The composition of palm oil and other vegetable oils is shown in Table 5.3.
Activity 5.11
21st Century Skills
To study the differences in composition such as glycerol and fatty acid in palm ICS
oil and other vegetable oils
Instructions
2. Conduct online searches through the Internet to gather information on the differences in
composition such as the glycerol and fatty acid content in palm oil and other vegetable oils.
4. Present your findings using a graphic organiser.
5.5.3 5.5.4 5.5.5 163

Table 5.3 Comparing and contrasting the composition of palm oil with other vegetable oils
Weight percentage of fatty acids (%)
Saturated Mono Poly

Ratio of unsaturated unsaturated
unsaturated
Oil or fat fats/
saturated Alpha
fats Capric Lauric Myristic Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic
linoleic
acid acid acid acid acid acid acid
acid
Coconut
oil 0.1 6 47 18 9 3 6 2 -
Corn oil 6.7 - - - 11 2 28 58 1
Olive oil 4.6 - - - 13 3 71 10 1
Palm oil 1.0 - - 1 45 4 40 10 -
Palm
0.2 4 48 16 8 3 15 2 -
kernel oil
Peanut
4.0 - - - 11 2 48 32 -
oil
Sesame
6.6 - - - 9 4 41 45 -
oil
Soya
5.7 - - - 11 4 24 54 7
bean oil
Source: MPOB, UCCS, NCBI and Oil Palm Knowledge Base
164 5.5.5
The Chemical Properties of Palm Oil

The chemical properties of palm oil are explained in the following aspects:
(a) Oxidation
Oxidation of palm oil occurs when its oil molecules combine with oxygen in the
air or from other reactants. The oxidation of palm oil produces free radicals and
compounds which are harmful to human health.
(b) Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis occurs in palm oil when palm oil molecules react with water. In the
hydrolysis process, the reaction between palm oil and water produces glycerol and
fatty acids.
(c) Esterification
Esterification of palm oil occurs when its fatty acid molecules react with alcohol to
produce ester (methyl ester), that is palm oil biodiesel.
Emulsification Process of Palm Oil

Video
The emulsification of palm oil is a process where palm
oil is broken into smaller droplets. This increases the Emulsification
process of oil
total surface area of the palm oil. How does the increase such as palm oil
in total surface area of palm oil influence the rate of http://buku-teks.
digestion of palm oil? The emulsification of palm oil by com/sc5165a
bile juice is shown in the video on the right.
Nutritional Content of Palm Oil My Malaysia

The nutritional content of palm oil are as follows: Scientists from the Malaysian
Palm Oil Board have
(a) Fats conducted various research
Palm oil is a balanced oil with the same amount of on the nutritional content of
saturated fats and unsaturated fats (Table 5.3). palm oil.
http://buku-teks.com/sc5165b
(b) Vitamins
Palm oil is a rich source of vitamin E and vitamin A.
5.5.6 5.5.7 5.5.8 165

(c) Antioxidants
Palm oil contains antioxidants such as carotene and vitamin E which slow down or
stop the oxidation process.
(d) Substances in palm oil which constitute less than 1%
Among the substances contained in palm oil include sterol, phosphatides, triterpene
and aliphatic alcohols. These substances add nutritional value, stability and facilitate
the filtration of oil.
Use of Palm Oil in Healthcare and Food

Besides a balanced content of saturated fats and unsaturated fats, palm oil contains
many nutrients suitable for use in various types of food such as cooking oil, vegetable
oil, margarine and chocolate.
Palm oil is also used to make non-food substances (Photograph 5.7).
Photograph 5.7 Examples of palm oil-based products
Activity 5.12
21st Century Skills
To study the use of palm oil-based products as well as their effects • ICS
on human health • Discussion
Instructions
2. Conduct online searches through the Internet to gather information on the uses of palm oil-
based products in:
(a) medicine (b) plastic surgery (c) cosmetics (d) prosthetics
3. Discuss the information gathered. Give reasons why the use of palm oil-based products and
their effects on human health need to be justified.
4. Present your findings using a graphic organiser or multimedia presentation.
166 5.5.8 5.5.9

Soap Production
Soap is a fatty acid salt normally produced through Entrepreneurship
the reaction between palm oil and concentrated alkali A soap business can be carried
(concentrated sodium hydroxide or concentrated out from home. The substances
potassium hydroxide) as in the following used are natural substances,
word equation: natural fruit extracts and
fragrances from approved
aromatic resources for making
Oil + Alkali Fatty acid salt (soap) + Glycerol organic soap.
Experiment 5.1
Aim: To produce soap through saponification
Problem statement: How is soap produced?
Materials: Palm oil, 5 mol dm–3 concentrated sodium hydroxide solution,

distilled water, sodium chloride, filter paper, red litmus paper and
blue litmus paper
Apparatus: Beaker, measuring cylinder, glass rod, Bunsen burner, tripod stand,
wire gauze, filter funnel, retort stand, spatula, test tube and conical flask
Procedure:
50 cm3 of 5 mol dm–3 Distilled water

Sodium chloride Filter
sodium hydroxide solution paper
Soap
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Heat Heat
10 cm3of palm oil Filtrate

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Figure 5.25 Process of soap production
1. Measure and pour 10 cm3 of palm oil into a clean beaker using a measuring cylinder.
2. Measure and pour 50 cm3 of 5 mol dm–3 concentrated sodium hydroxide solution into the
beaker (Figure 5.25(a)). Observe and record the changes of the mixture in the beaker.
3. Stir and boil the mixture in the beaker for 5 minutes (Figure 5.25(b)). Observe and record
the changes to the mixture in the beaker after heating.
5.5.10 167
4. Stop heating the mixture. Measure and pour 50 cm3 of distilled water as well as three
spatula full of sodium chloride into the solution in the beaker (Figure 5.25(c)). Observe and
record changes to the mixture in the beaker.
5. Stir and boil the mixture in the beaker again for 5 minutes (Figure 5.25(d)).
6. Filter the mixture in the beaker (Figure 5.25(e)).
7. Rinse the residue with distilled water and dry it.
8. Add a little water to the dried residue in a test tube and shake it. Observe and record the
changes when the residue is mixed with water and shaken, and when you touch it with your
fingers (Figure 5.25 (f)).
9. Test the mixture of the residue and water with red and blue litmus papers. Observe and
record the change in colour, if any, to the red and blue litmus papers.
Observations:
Record your observations for procedures 2, 3, 4, 8 and 9.
Conclusion:
What is the conclusion for this experiment?
Molecular Components of Soap and Cleansing Action of Soap

Molecular Components of Soap
Soap molecules are made up of two parts (Figure 5.26), namely:
(a) the ‘head’ or ‘hydrophilic’ part which can dissolve in water and is made up of an
ionic group.
(b) the ‘tail’ or ‘hydrophobic’ part which cannot dissolve in water but can dissolve in
oil or grease. This part is made up of a hydrocarbon chain.
Head Tail
Hydrophilic part Hydrophobic part

(can dissolve in water) (can dissolve in grease or oil)
Figure 5.26 Molecular structure of soap
Why is soap able to dissolve in water as well as in oil or grease?
168 5.5.10 5.5.11

Cleansing Action of Soap

The cleansing action of soap is as follows: Water
Soap
(a) when soap dissolves in water, the
surface tension of the water is
reduced. Therefore, the surface of
cloth becomes completely wet with Surface of Greasy
cloth dirt
soap water.
(a)
(b) the hydrophobic part of the soap
molecules will dissolve and attach
to the greasy dirt on the cloth
surface while the hydrophilic part Water
will dissolve in water
(Figures 5.27(a) and (b)).
(c) scrubbing and brushing the cloth
will dislodge the greasy dirt from Surface of
the cloth surface to form greasy cloth
droplets that are surrounded by (b)
soap molecules and suspended in
soapy water (Figure 5.27(c)).
(d) soap bubbles produced by soapy
Greasy Water
water trap greasy droplets in the
droplets
soapy water. When the soapy surrounded
water and bubbles are removed by soap
during rinsing, the greasy dirt will molecules
also be removed as well. In this
way, soap removes greasy dirt and Surface of
cloth (c)
cleans the cloth.
Figure 5.27 Cleansing action of soap
Sustainable Management and its Importance in the

Palm Oil Industry
The scope of sustainable management and its importance in the palm oil
industry include:
(a) Land use
Replanting is carried out to optimise land use.
(b) Wastewater
Palm oil mill effluent (POME) (Photograph 5.8) produced from sterilisation
processes are made into organic fertilisers and biogas energy substances.
5.5.11 5.5.12 169

(c) Air quality
The quality of air improves
when carbon dioxide is
absorbed and oxygen is
released by oil palm trees
during photosynthesis.
(d) Oil palm waste
Sustainable management of
oil palm industry normally
practises zero waste concept
by converting oil palm waste
into various types of useful
products (Figure 5.28).
Photograph 5.8 POME from palm oil mill
Fronds made into fertilisers Tree trunks as Empty fruit bunches turned
wood replacement into compost
Types of biomass (Oil palm waste)
Shells are burnt Pulp fibre is made into POME turned into
to boil water carpets and textile biogas and fertilisers
Figure 5.28 Applications of the zero waste concept in the oil palm industry
170 5.5.12
Activity 5.13
21st Century Skills
To conduct a debate or forum on the efficient management of the palm oil • ICS, ISS, TPS
industry to counter the negative perceptions of Western countries on local • Debate
palm oil
Instructions
2. Gather information from the Internet, print media and other electronic media on the
negative perceptions of Western countries on local palm oil.
Example of negative perception

The oil palm industry has been linked to worldwide deforestation. This happens when
forests are burnt to provide agricultural land for planting oil palm trees.
3. Discuss and generate ideas on sustainable management to counter the negative perceptions
of Western countries on local palm oil. The scope of discussion should include:
(a) land use
(b) wastewater
(c) air quality
(d) oil palm waste
4. Conduct a debate or forum to discuss this topic.

1. Name the oil extracted from the following parts of the oil palm fruit:
(a) pulp
(b) kernel
2. Why are the oil palm fruits steamed before oil is extracted?
3. What are the reactants that react with palm oil in the following processes?
(a) Hydrolysis
(b) Esterification
4. Name two antioxidants found in palm oil.
5.5.12 171
Summary
S y
172
Saturated
Alkane
hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon Organic carbon Inorganic carbon Oil palm fruit
compounds compounds compounds
Unsaturated
Alkene
hydrocarbons
Pulp Kernel
Its importance
fermentation
Glucose or starch Alcohol Carbon cycle
Palm oil Palm kernel oil
Carbon Compounds
Physical properties of alcohol: Chemical properties
• colour of alcohol:
• odour • combustion Chemical Contents: Products:
Fats
• physical condition at room • esterification properties: • unsaturated • soap
temperature • oxidation fats • medicine
• volatility • hydrolysis • saturated fats • plastic
• boiling point • esterification • vitamins surgery
• antioxidants • cosmetics
Saturated fats Unsaturated fats • prosthetics
Uses of alcohol:
• fuel
• medicine
• cosmetics
• industry
Excessive alcohol consumption
Alcohol addiction
Self-Reflection
Se
elf-Reflectio
on
5.1 Introduction to Carbon 5.5 Palm Oil
Compounds Describe the structure of oil
Identify carbon compounds palm fruit.
in nature. Identify the quantity of oil from pulp
Explain the importance of and kernel.
carbon cycle. Explain in order the process of palm
oil extraction in industry.
5.2 Hydrocarbons Describe components of palm oil.
Describe hydrocarbon compounds Compare and contrast the
and explain how carbon compounds composition of palm oil with other
are obtained from natural sources. vegetable oils.
Name members of the homologous State the chemical properties of
series of alkanes and alkenes from palm oil.
carbon 1 to carbon 6. Explain the emulsification process of
Communicate about alternative palm oil.
energy sources and renewable energy List the nutritional content of
in daily life. palm oil.
Justify the use of palm oil in
5.3 Alcohol healthcare and food.
Describe the preparation of alcohol. Carry out an experiment to produce
Identify the physical properties and soap through saponification.
chemical properties of alcohol. Communicate about the cleansing
Communicate about the uses of action of soap.
alcohol in daily life. Generate ideas on sustainable
Communicate about the effects of management and their importance in
excessive alcohol consumption. the palm oil industry.
5.4 Fats
State the content of fats and its
sources.
Compare and contrast between
saturated and unsaturated fats.
Explain with examples, the effects of
eating food containing excess fat
on health.
173
Summative Practice
Pracctice 5 Quiz
http://buku-
sc5174
1. Figure 1 shows an experiment to study the preparation
of a type of carbon compound.
Test tube
Conical flask
Sugar solution
+ yeast
Limewater
Figure 1
(a) Name the process in Figure 1.

(b) What type of carbon compound is prepared?
(c) State your observation of the limewater.
(d) State the inference for your answer in 1(c).
2. Figure 2 shows a cross section of an artery blocked by substance P which causes

the lumen of the artery to become narrow and disrupts or blocks blood flow.
Substance P
Lumen
Figure 2
(a) Name the condition.

(b) Name substance P.
(c) What class of food causes blocked arteries?
(d) Suggest two ways to avoid blocked arteries.
174
3. Figure 3 shows a cross section of an oil palm fruit.
X:
Y:
Z:
Figure 3
(a) Name the parts labelled X, Y and Z.

(b) Name the type of oil extracted from parts X and Y.
(c) Complete the flow chart for the extraction process of palm oil.
(i) Threshing (ii)
Purification (iii) Extraction
(d) Give three reasons why palm oil is suitable as cooking oil.
Enrichment Practice
4. Assume that you are tasked to build a new palm oil mill which operates based on
zero waste concept.
Figure 4
Build a graphic organiser to show how zero waste concept is applied in the oil palm
industry such as the conversion of oil palm waste into oil palm biomass.
175
CHAPTER
6 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
State three uses of electrolysis.
Name the process used in the treatment

of wastewater by applying electrolysis.
Give one example of a fruit and one

example of a plant part which can
be used to build a chemical cell that
produces electrical energy.
Let’s study
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176
Science Bulletin
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The properties of superior car batteries include, their ability to produce and store a lot of energy,
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exploding. What are the advantages of the battery fitted to electric cars?
Charging the electric car battery Lithium-ion batteries in an electric car
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177
6.1 Electrolytic Cell
Electrochemistry is a study in chemistry of the relationship between electrical and

chemical phenomena like those occurring in two types of electrochemical cells
as follows:
(a) Electrolytic cell
In an electrolytic cell, electric current flows through an electrolyte to produce
a chemical reaction. Electrical energy is converted to chemical energy through
electrolysis.
(b) Chemical cell (voltaic cell or galvanic cell)
In a chemical cell, chemical changes that occur in the cell produce an electric
current. Chemical energy is converted to electrical energy in the cell.
Electrolysis
In Form 2, you studied about
electrolysis that is used to determine Test tube
the composition of elements in water
molecules using an electrolytic cell Carbon
(Figure 6.1). electrodes Distilled water
Electrolysis is the decomposition + dilute
hydrochloric
of a compound in the molten or acid
aqueous state into its constituent
elements when electric current flows + –
through it. What are the decomposed Switch
compound and constituent elements
produced in the electrolysis process Figure 6.1 Electrolytic cell
(Figure 6.1)?
An electrolytic cell is made up of: Battery
• an electrical source such as battery + – e-
• an anode which is the electrode
connected to the positive terminal Rheostat A
of an electrical source e-
• a cathode which is the electrode
Anode (+) Cathode (–)
connected to the negative terminal
of an electrical source
• an electrolyte which contains positive Cation + _ +
ions (cations) and negative ions _
+
(anions) (Figure 6.2) _ _ Anion
Electrolyte
+ +
Figure 6.2 Electrolytic cell
178 6.1.1
Chapter 6 Electrochemistry
Electrical Source
The function of the electrical source in an electrolytic cell is to produce electric
current to carry out electrolysis. Electrolysis cannot take place if there is no electric
current flowing through the electrolyte.
Electrode
Electrode is the electric conductor that is connected to the battery and enables electric
current to enter or leave the electrolyte during electrolysis. The electrode connected to
the positive terminal of the electrical source is known as the anode while the electrode
connected to the negative terminal of the electrical source is known as the cathode.
Electrolyte
Substances in the molten or aqueous state which allow electric current to flow through
them and undergo chemical changes are known as electrolytes. Substances which
do not allow electric current to flow through them in the molten or aqueous state are
known as non-electrolytes.
Table 6.1 Examples of electrolyte and non-electrolyte
Examples of electrolyte Examples of non-electrolyte
• Molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 • Naphthalene, C10H8

• Molten sodium chloride, NaCl • Acetamide, CH3CONH2
• Sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH • Glucose solution, C6H12O6
• Copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4 • Ethanol, C2H5OH
Electrolytes are ionic compounds in the molten or aqueous state which consist
of positive ions, cations and negative ions, anions. For example, sodium chloride is
an electrolyte which is an ionic compound made up of sodium ions, Na+ (positively
charged ions) and chloride ions, Cl– (negatively charged ions).
NaCl Na+ + Cl–
Activity 6.1
21st Century Skills
To draw and label the structures of an electrolytic cell • TPS
Instructions
1. Carry out this activity individually.
2. Draw and label the electrolytic cell in Figure 6.1. The parts that need to be labelled include:
(a) anode
(b) cathode
(c) electrolyte
3. Present the drawing of the labelled electrolytic cell to the class.
6.1.1 179
Electrolysis Process
During the electrolysis process,
• positively charged ions (cations) move to the cathode (negative electrode)
• negatively charged ions (anions) move to the anode (positive electrode)
For example, during the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2, positively
charged lead(II) ions, Pb2+, move to the negatively charged cathode while negatively
charged bromide ions, Br–, move to the positively charged anode (Figure 6.3).
Battery
+ – Positively Negatively
charged anode charged cathode
Anode Cathode
Molten Pb2+ Pb2+

Br –
lead(II) bromide,
Br –
PbBr2 Br –
Pb2+
Br – Lead(II) ion, Pb2+
Heat Br –
Bromide Br –
ion, Br –
Figure 6.3 Movement of ions towards electrodes during

the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2
Electrolytes in the solid state cannot conduct electricity because there are no
free-moving ions to conduct the electricity.
Experiment 6.1
Aim: To study the electrolysis of ionic compounds in solid, molten and
aqueous states
Problem statement: Can ionic compounds in solid, molten and aqueous states be
electrolysed?
Hypotheses: 1. Ionic compounds in molten and aqueous states can be electrolysed.

2. Ionic compounds in solid state cannot be electrolysed.
Variables: (a) manipulated : State of ionic compound, namely solid, molten

or aqueous
(b) responding : Condition of light bulb
(c) constant : Type of electrode
Materials: Solid lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 and 0.1 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate
solution, CuSO4
Apparatus: Battery, carbon electrodes, connecting wires with crocodile clips,

crucible, tripod stand, pipe clay triangle, Bunsen burner, switch, beaker,
light bulb, electrolytic cell, spatula and test tubes
180 6.1.1 6.1.2

Procedure:
A Electrolysis of ionic compound in solid and molten states

Teacher’s demonstration (carried out in a fume chamber)
1. Put solid lead(II) bromide powder, PbBr2, into a dry
CAUTION!
crucible until it is half-full. Bromine gas is poisonous. Do
2. Place the crucible on a pipe clay triangle atop a tripod not inhale the bromine gas.
stand (Figure 6.4).
3. Complete the circuit by connecting the carbon electrodes, switch, battery and light bulb
with connecting wires and crocodile clips.
4. Turn on the switch. Observe and record the changes that happen to the light bulb.
5. Heat the solid lead(II) bromide, PbBr2, until it melts (Figure 6.5).
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4.
Battery Battery
+ – + –
Switch Switch
Light bulb Light bulb
Crocodile clip Crocodile clip

Carbon electrodes Carbon electrodes
Crucible Solid lead(II) bromide, Crucible Molten lead(II) bromide,
PbBr2 PbBr2
Pipe clay Pipe clay
triangle triangle Heat
Figure 6.4 Electrolysis of solid Figure 6.5 Electrolysis of

lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2
B Electrolysis of ionic compound in aqueous state

1. Prepare the apparatus set-up with an electrolytic cell half-filled with 0.1 mol dm–3
copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4 , and two test tubes filled completely with
0.1 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4 (Figure 6.6).
0.1 mol dm–3 Test tube

copper(II) sulphate
solution, CuSO4
Carbon electrodes
Crocodile clip
+ –
Switch
Light bulb
+ –
Battery
Figure 6.6
2. Turn on the switch for 5 minutes. Observe and record the changes that happen to the
light bulb.
6.1.2 181
Observation:
Material Condition of light bulb Inference
Solid
lead(II) bromide, PbBr2
Molten
lead(II) bromide, PbBr2
0.1 mol dm–3

copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4
Conclusion:
Are the hypotheses accepted? What is the conclusion for this experiment?
Questions:
1. Why should the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2, be carried out in a
fume chamber?
2. What is the purpose of connecting a light bulb to the electrolytic cell?
3. Why does electrolysis not occur in ionic compounds that are in the solid state?
Factors Affecting the Products in Electrolysis

Three factors which affect the selection of ions to be discharged at the electrodes in the
electrolysis of aqueous solutions are:
• position of ions in the electrochemical series
• concentration of electrolyte
• types of electrode
Science
When a positive ion is discharged, the ion will receive one or more electrons, become neutral, and form
an atom or a molecule. When a negative ion is discharged, the ion will donate one or more electrons,
become neutral, and form an atom or a molecule.
182 6.1.2 6.1.3

Position of Ions in the Electrochemical Series

In the electrochemical series, metals are arranged according to the tendency of their atom
to donate electron(s). The higher the position of a metal in the electrochemical series,
the easier it is for the metal to donate electron(s). Figure 6.7 shows the arrangement of
ions in the electrochemical series according to their tendency to be discharged.
Cation Anion
Potassium ion, K+ Fluoride ion, F –
Sodium ion, Na+ Sulphate ion, SO42–
Calcium ion, Ca2+ Nitrate ion, NO3 –
Magnesium ion, Mg2+ Chloride ion, Cl –
Aluminium ion, Al3+ Ease of Bromide ion, Br –
Zinc ion, Zn2+ Iodide ion, I –
Iron(II) ion, Fe2+
discharge Hydroxide ion, OH –
Tin ion, Sn2+ increases
Lead(II) ion, Pb2+
Hydrogen ion, H+
Copper(II) ion, Cu2+
Silver ion, Ag+
Figure 6.7 Arrangement of ions in the electrochemical series according to their

tendency to be discharged
Ions at the bottom of the electrochemical series have higher tendencies to be discharged.
Example 1
Electrolysis of sodium sulphate solution

(a) Ions present in a sodium sulphate solution during electrolysis are sodium ions,
sulphate ions, hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions
(b) Cathode (negative electrode)
(i) Attracts positive ions, namely sodium ions and hydrogen ions
(ii) Hydrogen ions are selected to be discharged because the hydrogen ion is
less electropositive compared to the sodium ion
(iii) Hydrogen gas is produced at the cathode
(c) Anode (positive electrode)
(i) Attracts negative ions, namely sulphate ions and hydroxide ions
(ii) Hydroxide ions are selected to be discharged because the hydroxide ion is
less electronegative compared to the sulphate ion
(iii) Oxygen gas is produced at the anode
6.1.3 183
Example 2
Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution
(a) Ions present in a copper(II) sulphate solution during electrolysis are copper(II)
ions, sulphate ions, hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
(i) Attracts positive ions, namely copper(II) ions and hydrogen ions
(ii) Copper(II) ions are selected to be discharged because the copper(II) ion is
less electropositive compared to the hydrogen ion
(iii) Copper is deposited at the cathode
(i) Attracts negative ions, namely sulphate ions and hydroxide ions
less electronegative compared to the sulphate ion
Experiment 6.2
Aim: To study the effect of the position of ions in the electrochemical series
on the tendency of the ion to be discharged at the electrode
Problem statement: How does the position of ions in the electrochemical series affect the
tendency of the ion to be discharged at the electrode?
Hypothesis: The lower the position of an ion in the

Cation Anion
electrochemical series, the easier it is K+ F–
for the ion to be discharged. Na+ SO42–
Ca2+ NO3–
Variables: (a) manipulated : Position of ion in the Mg2+ Cl –
electrochemical series Al3+ Br –
(b) responding : Product at electrode Zn2+ I–
(c) constant : Concentration of Fe2+ OH–
electrolyte and type Sn2+
of electrode Pb2+
discharge
increases
H+
Ease of
0.5 mol dm–3 magnesium nitrate Cu2+

Materials:
Ag+
solution, Mg(NO3)2, 0.5 mol dm–3
sodium sulphate solution, Na2SO4 and
wooden splinter
Figure 6.8 Arrangement of
Apparatus: Battery, carbon electrodes, connecting ions in the electrochemical
wires with crocodile clips, electrolytic series according to their
cell, ammeter, test tubes and switch tendency to be discharged
184 6.1.3
Procedure:
1. Prepare the apparatus set-up with an electrolytic
cell half-filled with 0.5 mol dm–3 magnesium nitrate Test tube
solution, Mg(NO3)2.
2. Fill completely two test tubes with 0.5 mol dm–3
magnesium nitrate solution, Mg(NO3)2, and invert Carbon Magnesium
both test tubes in the electrolytic cell (Figure 6.9). electrodes nitrate
3. Turn on the switch. Observe and record the solution,
Crocodile
changes that occur at the anode and cathode. clip
Mg(NO3)2
4. Turn off the switch when the test tube is almost + –
full with gas released from the electrode. Switch A Ammeter
5. Test the gas released using a glowing wooden + –
splinter and a burning wooden splinter.
6. Observe and record the results. Battery
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 by replacing magnesium nitrate
solution, Mg(NO3)2, with sodium sulphate solution, Figure 6.9
Na2SO4.
Science
Glowing wooden splinter Burning wooden splinter
test (test for oxygen gas) test (test for hydrogen gas)
• Insert a glowing wooden Glowing • Bring a burning wooden Burning
splinter into the test tube wooden splinter close to the mouth wooden
containing the gas. splinter of the test tube containing splinter
• If the glowing wooden the gas.
splinter ignites, the gas in • If the gas explodes with a
the test tube is oxygen. ‘pop’ sound, the gas in the
test tube is hydrogen.
Observation:
Test for gas released at

Electrolyte
anode cathode
Magnesium nitrate Glowing wooden splinter test: Glowing wooden splinter test:
solution, Mg(NO3)2
Burning wooden splinter test: Burning wooden splinter test:
Sodium sulphate Glowing wooden splinter test: Glowing wooden splinter test:
solution, Na2SO4
Burning wooden splinter test: Burning wooden splinter test:
Conclusion:
6.1.3 185
Questions:
1. Name the ions in the following solutions:
(a) magnesium nitrate solution, Mg(NO3)2
(b) sodium sulphate solution, Na2SO4
2. Based on your observations in Experiment 6.2, name the gas produced at the anode and
cathode for each electrolyte in the table below.
Product formed at
Electrolyte
anode cathode
Magnesium nitrate solution, Mg(NO3)2
Sodium sulphate solution, Na2SO4
3. Name the ion selected to be discharged at the anode and cathode for each electrolyte in
the table below.
Ion selected to be discharged at

Electrolyte
anode cathode
Magnesium nitrate solution, Mg(NO3)2
Sodium sulphate solution, Na2SO4
Concentration of Electrolyte
The concentration of ions in an electrolyte also affects the selection of ion to be discharged.
Negative ions which are more concentrated in an electrolyte are more likely to be discharged
at the anode. However, the selection of positive ions to be discharged at the cathode is still
influenced by the position of the positive ions in the electrochemical series.
Example
Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution and dilute
sodium chloride solution
(a) Ions present in a concentrated or dilute sodium chloride solution during
electrolysis are sodium ions, chloride ions, hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
(i) Attracts positive ions, namely sodium ions and hydrogen ions
(ii) Hydrogen ions are selected to be discharged because the hydrogen ion is
less electropositive compared to the sodium ion
(iii) Hydrogen gas is produced at the cathode
(i) Attracts negative ions, namely chloride ions and hydroxide ions
(ii) The negative ion discharged at the anode is influenced by the concentration
of the negative ion in the electrolyte as follows:
186
6.1.3
• the concentration of chloride ion is higher than the concentration of

hydroxide ion in a concentrated sodium chloride solution such as
1.0 mol dm–3 sodium chloride solution, therefore the chloride ion will be
selected to be discharged even though the position of the chloride ion is
higher than the hydroxide ion in the electrochemical series. Chlorine gas is
produced at the anode.
• the concentration of chloride ion is lower than the concentration of
hydroxide ion in a dilute sodium chloride solution such as
0.0001 mol dm–3 sodium chloride solution, therefore the hydroxide ion will
be selected to be discharged because it is less electronegative compared to
the chloride ion. Oxygen gas is produced at the anode.
Experiment 6.3
Aim: To study the effect of concentration CAUTION!
of ions in electrolytes on the selection
Chlorine gas is poisonous.
of ion to be discharged at the anode
Problem statement: How does the concentration of hydrochloric acid, HCl, influence
the selection of ion to be discharged at the anode?
Hypothesis: Ions of a higher concentration will be selected to be discharged

at the anode
Variables: (a) manipulated : Concentration of ion in electrolyte

(b) responding : Product at anode
(c) constant : Type of electrode
Materials: 1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl, 0.0001 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid,
HCl and wooden splinter
Apparatus: Battery, carbon electrodes, connecting wires with crocodile clips,

electrolytic cell, ammeter, test tubes, litmus paper and switch
Procedure:
Test tube
1. Prepare the apparatus set-up with an
electrolytic cell half-filled with
1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl. Carbon
Hydrochloric acid,
2. Fill completely two test tubes with electrodes
HCl
1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl, and
invert both test tubes in the electrolytic Crocodile clip
cell (Figure 6.10).
+ –
3. Turn on the switch. Observe and record Switch
the changes which occur at the anode. A Ammeter
4. Turn off the switch when the test tube + –
is almost filled with gas released from Battery
the anode.
Figure 6.10
6.1.3 187
5. Test any gas released using a glowing wooden splinter, and moist blue and red litmus papers.
6. Observe and record the results of the gas tests.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 by replacing 1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl, with
0.0001 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl.
Science
Moist blue litmus paper test Moist red litmus paper test
Moist blue Moist red
• Place a piece of moist blue • Place a piece of moist red
litmus paper litmus paper
litmus paper close to the litmus paper close to the
mouth of the test tube mouth of the test tube
containing the gas. containing the gas.
• If the moist blue litmus paper • If the moist red litmus paper
turns red, the gas in the test turns blue, the gas in the test
tube is acidic. tube is alkaline.
• If the colour of the moist blue • If the moist red litmus paper
litmus paper bleaches, the gas in does not change colour, the
the test tube is halogen gas. gas in the test tube is acidic
• If the moist blue litmus paper or neutral.
does not change colour, the gas in
the test tube is alkaline or neutral.
Observation:
Electrolyte Test for gas produced at the anode
1.0 mol dm–3 Glowing wooden splinter test:

hydrochloric acid, HCl Moist blue litmus paper test:
Moist red litmus paper test:
0.0001 mol dm–3 Glowing wooden splinter test:

hydrochloric acid, HCl Moist blue litmus paper test:
Moist red litmus paper test:
Conclusion:
Questions:
1. What is the difference in the concentration of chloride ion, Cl–, between 1.0 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid, HCl and 0.0001 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl?
2. Based on your observations in Experiment 6.3, name the product formed at the anode of
each of the following electrolytes:
(a) 1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl
(b) 0.0001 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl
3. Name the ion selected to be discharged at the anode of each of the following electrolytes:
(a) 1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl
(b) 0.0001 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, HCl
188 6.1.3
Types of Electrode
The type of electrode used also affects the selection of ion to be discharged as follows:
(a) If the metal used as the anode is the same as the metal ion in the electrolyte, then
• at the anode, the metal atoms will ionise to form positive ions that dissolve into
the electrolyte
• at the cathode, the metal ions will discharge to form atoms of the metal which
are then deposited at the cathode
• the concentration of metal ions in the electrolyte does not change because the
rate of metal atoms ionised to form metal ions at the anode is the same as the
rate of metal ions discharged to form metal atoms which are then deposited at
the cathode
(b) If the type of substance used as the anode is not the same as the type of metal
ion in the electrolyte, then
• the atoms of the anode do not dissolve in the electrolyte. Negative ions in the
electrolyte are discharged at the anode
• at the cathode, the less electropositive ion will be selected to be discharged
Example
Electrolysis of silver nitrate solution using:

• Silver electrode
(a) Ions present in a silver nitrate solution during electrolysis are silver ions,
nitrate ions, hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
(i) Attracts positive ions, namely silver ions and hydrogen ions
(ii) Silver ions are selected to be discharged because the silver ion is less
electropositive compared to the hydrogen ion
(iii) Silver is deposited at the cathode
(i) Forms silver ions when silver atoms at the anode ionise. Nitrate ions and
hydroxide ions are not discharged
(ii) The silver electrode dissolves in the electrolyte
(d) The concentration of silver ions in the electrolyte does not change because
the rate of silver atoms ionised to form silver ions at the anode is the same as
the rate of silver ions discharged to form silver atoms which are deposited at
the cathode.
• Carbon electrode
(a) Ions present in a silver nitrate solution during electrolysis are silver ions,
nitrate ions, hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
6.1.3 189
(i) Attracts positive ions, namely silver ions and hydrogen ions
(ii) Silver ions are selected to be discharged because the silver ion is less
electropositive compared to the hydrogen ion
(iii) Silver is deposited at the cathode
(i) Attracts negative ions, namely nitrate ions and hydroxide ions
less electronegative compared to the nitrate ion
(d) The concentration of silver ions in the electrolyte decreases because the silver
ions from the electrolyte are discharged to become silver atoms and deposited
at the cathode.
Experiment 6.4
Aim: To study the effect of the type of electrode on the selection of ion to
be discharged at the electrode
Problem statement: How does the type of electrode affect the selection of ion to be
discharged at the anode?
Hypotheses: 1. If carbon electrodes are used during the electrolysis of

copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4, then the hydroxide ion, OH–,
is selected to be discharged at the anode.
2. If copper electrodes are used during the electrolysis of
copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4, then the copper(II) ion, Cu2+,
is formed at the anode.
Variables: (a) manipulated : Type of electrode (carbon or copper)

(b) responding : Product of electrolysis at the anode
(c) constant : Type and concentration of electrolyte
Materials: 0.1 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate

solution, CuSO4 and wooden splinter Carbon
electrodes
Apparatus: Battery, carbon electrodes, copper
electrodes, connecting wires with
Copper(II) sulphate
crocodile clips, electrolytic cell,
solution, CuSO4
ammeter, test tubes and switch
Procedure: Ammeter
1. Prepare the apparatus set-up with an electrolytic + –
A
cell half-filled with 0.1 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate
solution, CuSO4. + –
2. Fill completely a test tube with 0.1 mol dm–3 Switch
Battery
copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4 and then invert
the test tube at the anode (Figure 6.11). Figure 6.11
190 6.1.3
3. Turn on the switch for 15 minutes. Observe and record the changes that occur at
the anode.
4. Test any gas released using a glowing wooden splinter.
5. Observe and record the result of the gas test.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 4 by replacing the carbon electrodes with copper electrodes.
Observation:
Type of electrode Glowing wooden splinter test at anode
Carbon electrode
Copper electrode
Conclusion:
Are the hypotheses accepted? What is the conclusion for this experiment?
Questions:
1. Name the ions present in the electrolyte during electrolysis.
2. Name the ions selected to be discharged or the ions produced at the anode for the
following types of electrodes:
(a) carbon electrode
(b) copper electrode
Application of Electrolysis in Industries

Examples of applications of electrolysis in industries include:
(a) Extraction of metals
In Form 3, you have studied the position of metals in the reactivity series of metal
and methods of metal extraction from their ores. Metals like potassium, sodium,
calcium, magnesium and aluminium are extracted from their molten ores or salts
through electrolysis.
(b) Purification of metals
In the purification of metal, the impure metal is used as the anode while the
pure metal is used as the cathode. During electrolysis, the metal at the anode will
dissolve into the electrolyte to form ions. These ions will move to the cathode to be
discharged and deposited at the cathode as pure metal.
(c) Electroplating of metals
In the process of electroplating a metal, gold, platinum and silver are electroplated
on other metals to make the metal look more attractive and to withstand corrosion.
(d) Wastewater treatment using electrocoagulation
Electrocoagulation is an innovative technique to treat wastewater (Figure 6.12).
Electrocoagulation applies two processes, namely electrolysis and coagulation.
6.1.3 6.1.4 191

• Electrolysis
➊ At the anode, a metal Floc floating in
electrode such as e – hydrogen gas bubble e– Cathode
aluminium ionises in the Floating such as
floc 4 carbon
electrolyte to produce Al3+
H2
positively charged 1
Hydrogen
3+ Metal anode 2
aluminium ions, Al . Al3+
OH–
gas bubble
such as H+
➋ At the cathode, hydrogen
aluminium 3 H+
ions, H+ are selected to OH–
sheet
be discharged to form Pollutant
hydrogen gas. Hydrogen Floc 5
gas bubbles are released Wastewater

from the cathode and rise Sedimented
to the water surface. floc
• Coagulation
Figure 6.12 Electrocoagulation
➌ Coagulation occurs when
aluminium ions, Al3+, hydroxide ions, OH– and pollutants in the wastewater
combine to produce coagulants known as floc.
➍ Floc, trapped in hydrogen gas bubbles released from the cathode, are brought
up to the water surface.
➎ The remaining flocs sinks and accumulates at the base.

1. Draw and label the structures of an electrolytic cell.
2. Describe the movement of ions to electrodes during electrolysis.
3. Give four examples of applications of electrolysis in industries.
6.2 Chemical Cell
A simple chemical cell is made up of two Voltmeter

different metals immersed in an electrolyte V
and connected to an external circuit with
connecting wires (Figure 6.13).
Observe the simple chemical cell which – +
is made up of magnesium and copper Magnesium Copper
electrodes in Figure 6.14 and the
electrochemical series in Figure 6.15. Copper(II) sulphate
solution, CuSO4
Figure 6.13 Example of a simple

chemical cell
192 6.1.4 6.2.1
V ION
Voltmeter
Potassium ion, K+
Sodium ion, Na+
Calcium ion, Ca2+
– +
Increasing electropositivity
Magnesium ion, Mg2+
Magnesium Copper
Aluminium ion, Al3+
Zinc ion, Zn2+
Iron(II) ion, Fe2+
Tin ion, Sn2+
Lead(II) ion, Pb2+
Copper(II) sulphate Hydrogen ion, H+
solution, CuSO4 Copper(II) ion, Cu2+
Silver ion, Ag+
Figure 6.14 Simple chemical cell Figure 6.15 Electrochemical series

showing arrangement of ions in
order of electropositivity
By referring to the simple chemical cell in Figure 6.14, magnesium becomes the
negative terminal and copper becomes the positive terminal. This is because magnesium
is more electropositive than copper (Figure 6.15). Magnesium is more likely to donate
electrons compared to copper.
• Magnesium which donates electrons forms • Electrons from magnesium are received by the
magnesium ions and dissolves in the copper(II) ion from the electrolyte and not by the
electrolyte (copper(II) sulphate solution). hydrogen ion because the copper(II) ion is less
• Magnesium acts as the negative terminal of electropositive than the hydrogen ion.
the chemical cell. • Solid copper is formed and deposited on the
• The released electrons will flow through the copper strip.
external circuit from magnesium to copper • Copper acts as the positive terminal of the
which acts as the positive terminal of the chemical cell.
chemical cell.
• The flow of electrons from V

the negative terminal to the Flow of Voltmeter Flow of
positive terminal through electrons electrons
the external circuit will – +
produce electrical energy. Magnesium Copper
• Conversion of energy which
occurs in the chemical cell
is from chemical energy to
Copper(II) sulphate
electrical energy.
solution, CuSO4
Figure 6.16 Chemical reactions in a chemical cell with different metal electrodes
6.2.1 193
Activity 6.2
21st Century Skills
To build a simple chemical cell • TPS
Materials
Sandpaper, two magnesium ribbons, two copper strips and 1.0 mol dm–3 sodium chloride
solution, NaCl
Apparatus
Measuring cylinder, beaker, connecting wires with crocodile clips and voltmeter
Instructions
1. Clean two magnesium ribbons and
Voltmeter
two copper strips with sandpaper.
2. Measure and pour 150 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 V
sodium chloride solution, NaCl into a clean
beaker using a measuring cylinder. Switch
3. Immerse a magnesium ribbon and a copper
– +
strip into the sodium chloride solution, NaCl,
in the beaker. Magnesium Copper
4. Connect the magnesium ribbon, copper ribbon strip
strip and voltmeter with connecting
wires (Figure 6.17).
5. Turn on the switch. Observe and record the
voltmeter reading.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 by replacing the Sodium chloride
magnesium ribbon and copper strip with solution, NaCl
a pair of magnesium ribbons and a pair of
copper strips. Figure 6.17 Simple chemical cell
Result
Pair of metals Voltmeter reading (V)

Magnesium – copper
Magnesium – magnesium
Copper – copper
Application of Chemical Cell Concept in Generating Electrical

Energy from a Variety of Sources
Can fruits or other parts of a plant and seawater be used to generate electrical energy?
Let us carry out Activity 6.3 to generate ideas on how the concept of chemical cell can
be applied to generate electrical energy from a variety of sources.
194 6.2.1 6.2.2
Activity 6.3
21st Century Skills
To generate electrical energy from fruits or other plant parts and seawater • TPS, STEM
• STEM project-
based activity
Instructions
1. Carry out this activity in groups to generate ideas on how the concept of
chemical cell can be applied to generate electrical energy from a variety of sources.
Study the following statement:
The generation of electrical energy can be obtained from a variety of sources.

For example, a simple chemical cell is a device which can convert chemical energy
into electrical energy.
2. Plan and carry out a project based on the STEM approach. Build a simple chemical cell
which can convert chemical energy into electrical energy from various sources such as fruits
or other plant parts and seawater.
3. Gather and discuss information or ways to construct a simple chemical cell from fruits or
other plant parts and seawater from the following websites:
Related websites
(a) Electrical energy produced from fruits
http://buku-teks.com/sc5195a
(b) Electrical energy produced from vegetables

4. Present your simple chemical cell design to the class.

1. What is a simple chemical cell?
2. Draw and label a simple chemical cell.
3. How does the position of an ion in the electrochemical series determine the
positive terminal and the negative terminal in a simple chemical cell?
6.2.2 195
Summary
S y
196
Electrochemistry
Study in the field of chemistry on the relationship between chemical and electrical phenomena
Electrolytic cell Chemical cell
Anode, cathode, anion, cation, electrolyte and electrical source Electrolyte and two different types of metals
Electrical energy to chemical energy Chemical energy to electrical energy
Electrolysis Chemical changes that occur in cell
at
Products of electrolysis Applications in industries

Metal rod, electrolyte
affected by factors
Position of ions in the Extraction of metal, purification

electrochemical series, of metal, electroplating of metal,
concentration of electrolyte treatment of wastewater through
and types of electrode electrocoagulation
Self-Reflection
Se
elf-Reflectio
on
6.1 Electrolytic Cell 6.2 Chemical Cell
Understand electrolysis. Explain the energy change in a
Carry out experiments to study simple chemical cell.
electrolysis of ionic compounds in Generate ideas on the application
various conditions. of the chemical cell concept in
Carry out experiments to study generating electricity from a variety
the factors affecting the products of sources.
in electrolysis.
Communicate about the application
of electrolysis in industries.
Summative Practice
Pracctice 6 Quiz
http://buku-
sc5197
1. Figure 1 shows an apparatus set-up to study the electrolysis
of an aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4 using
different electrodes as shown in electrolytic cell P and
electrolytic cell Q.
+ – + –
Carbon Copper
Aqueous
copper(II) sulphate
solution, CuSO4
Electrolytic cell P Electrolytic cell Q
Figure 1
(a) State the meaning of electrolysis.

(b) State all the ions present in the aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution.
(c) Name the ions discharged at the anode and cathode for the following
electrolytic cells:
(i) electrolytic cell P (ii) electrolytic cell Q
at anode: at anode:
at cathode: at cathode:
(d) Name one example of the application of electrolysis in industries which applies
the electrolysis concept of electrolytic cell Q.
197
2. Figure 2 shows an apparatus set-up to study the electrolysis of aqueous
sodium nitrate solution, NaNO3, using carbon electrodes labelled P and Q.
Aqueous sodium
Electrode P nitrate solution, NaNO3
Electrode Q
+ –
Ammeter A
+ –
Battery
Figure 2
(a) (i) State all the cations present in the electrolyte.

(ii) State all the anions present in the electrolyte.
(b) Which electrode acts as the anode?
(c) Name the ion chosen to be discharged at:
(i) electrode P:
(ii) electrode Q:
(d) Explain your answer in 2(c)(ii) based on the selection of ion to be
discharged.
3. Rohani found a rusted iron nail. Using your knowledge of electrolysis, describe a
simple way to prevent the rusting of the iron nail.
Enrichment Practice
Pra
actiice
4. You are given three potatoes, three iron nails, three copper rods, light bulb and
connecting wires with crocodile clips. Using these materials, design a simple
chemical cell with the following features:
(a) simple chemical cell that can light up a light bulb with maximum brightness.
(b) simple chemical cell that can last the longest when lighting up a light bulb.
198
HEME
Energy and
3 The Swedish 1-m Solar
Telescope in La Palma, Spain
has a convex lens as the
objective lens with a diameter of
approximately 1.10 m. Why do
astronomers need to observe
outer space through the
Sustainability telescope all the time, that is,
24 hours a day?
of Life
The drone is a scientific

invention that is becoming
increasingly popular.
Name one physics
principle applied in the
flight of a drone.
Click@Web
Biggest telescope in
the world
Look through a
‘live’ telescope
199
CHAPTER
7 LIGHT AND
OPTICS
Name the types of lenses used

to correct long-sightedness
and short-sightedness.
State one advantage of liquid

lens compared to glass lens.
Besides thickness, name

one factor which affects
the focal length of lens.
Let’s study
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200
Science Bulletin
Nowadays, the use of lenses in optical instruments is
expanding. For example, the telephone which was originally an
audio communication device has been developed into a
smartphone which can function as an audio-visual
communication device using a camera to take photographs
and videos.
Handphone without Smartphone with

camera five cameras
Camera quality is normally related to the type or

quality of lens attached to the camera. This is because
the image in the camera is formed by the lens. Besides
transparent glass and plastic, any transparent material
including water can be used to make lenses. The concept
of liquid lens is shown in the photograph below.
Concept of liquid lens
Keywords
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201
7.1 Formation of Images by Lenses
Convex Lens and Concave Lens

A lens is a transparent medium such as glass which has one or two curved surfaces.
Lenses are divided into two types, convex lens and concave lens as shown in
Figure 7.1.
Biconvex Planoconvex Convex meniscus
Convex lens
Biconcave Planoconcave Concave meniscus
Concave lens
Figure 7.1 Convex lens and concave lens
Figure 7.2 shows the path of light rays before and after passing through a
convex lens and a concave lens. What happens to the light rays after passing through
these lenses?
Figure 7.2 Refraction of light rays after passing through a convex lens and a concave lens
Based on Figure 7.2, light rays converge after passing through a convex lens while
light rays diverge after passing through a concave lens. Therefore, a convex lens is known
as a converging lens while a concave lens is known as a diverging lens.
202 7.1.1
Chapter 7 Light and Optics
For convex lenses, the focal point, F is a point where light rays parallel to the
principal axis converge after passing through the convex lens (Figure 7.3(a)).
Convex lens Concave lens
Focal point, Focal point

Principal axis F F Principal axis
Focal length, f Focal length, f
(a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens
Figure 7.3 Focal point and focal length for convex lens and concave lens
When light rays which diverge after passing through a concave lens are extrapolated
backwards, the light rays will intersect at a point. This point is the focal point, F for
the concave lens (Figure 7.3(b)).
Let us carry out Activity 7.1 to study some properties of convex lenses and concave
lenses using an Optical Ray Kit.
Activity 7.1
21st Century Skills
Use the Optical Ray Kit to: • TPS
(a) show the convex lens as a converging lens and the concave lens as a
diverging lens
(b) determine the focal points of convex lenses and concave lenses
Materials
White paper (sized 86 cm × 86 cm)
Apparatus
Optical Ray Kit containing ray box, cylindrical biconvex lens, cylindrical biconcave lens,
triple slit plate, ruler and pencil
Note: This activity is best suited to be carried out in the dark.
7.1.1 203
Instructions
Triple slit Cylindrical

Ray box plate biconvex lens
Path of parallel rays
White paper
Figure 7.4
1. Prepare the apparatus set-up shown in Figure 7.4.
2. Trace the shape of the convex lens onto a piece of white Video
paper using a pencil. Mark the centre point of the convex Eduweb TV:
lens, that is the optical centre, O on the tracing of the Physics – lenses
convex lens. http://buku-teks.
3. Direct three parallel light rays from the ray box in the com/sc5204
direction of the convex lens. Observe the path of light (Medium: bahasa
rays before and after passing through the convex lens. Melayu)
4. Make two marks, one near to the lens and another far
from the lens, on each path of the light rays before and
after passing through the convex lens. Remove the convex lens from the white paper.
5. Draw a straight line using a pencil and ruler to connect the two marks on each path of the
light rays before and after passing through the convex lens (Figure 7.3(a)).
6. Mark the point of intersection of the three light rays as the focal point, F for the
convex lens.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 5 by replacing the convex lens with a concave lens.
8. Extrapolate the light rays which diverge after passing through the concave lens backwards
until a point of intersection (Figure 7.3(b)).
9. Mark the point of intersection of the three light rays as the focal point, F for the
concave lens.
Questions
1. Why is it more suitable for this activity to be carried out in the dark?
2. What happens to light rays after passing through the following lenses?
(a) Convex lens
(b) Concave lens
3. Describe the observations made in this activity that show the following properties of lenses:
(a) convex lens as a converging lens
(b) concave lens as a diverging lens
204 7.1.1
Determining the Focal Length of a Convex Lens

Before carrying out Activity 7.2, let us understand optical terms (Table 7.1).
Axis of lens
Object
O F 2F
Principal axis
2F F
Image
f f
u v
(a) Convex lens

Axis of lens
Object
Image
Principal axis O
2F F F 2F
f f
u
(b) Concave lens
Figure 7.5 Convex lens and concave lens
Table 7.1 Optical terms and their explanations

Optical term Explanation
Optical centre, O Point at the centre of the lens. Light rays which pass through the
optical centre do not refract.
Principal axis A straight line which passes through the optical centre of a lens and the
focal point, F.
Axis of lens Straight line which passes through the optical centre and is perpendicular
to the principal axis.
Focal point, F • For convex lens, the focal point, F is a point on the principal axis,
(refer to where light rays parallel to the principal axis converge after passing
Figure 7.3) through the lens.
• For concave lens, the focal point, F is a point on the principal axis,
where light rays parallel to the principal axis appear to diverge from it
after passing through the lens.
Focal length, ƒ The distance between the focal point, F and the optical centre.
Object distance, u The distance between the object and the optical centre.
Image distance, ν The distance between the image and the optical centre.
7.1.2 205
Let us carry out Activity 7.2 to determine the Parallel
focal length of a convex lens using a distant light rays o F
object by applying the concept that light rays from a O
from a distant object are parallel (Figure 7.6). distant
object
f
Figure 7.6
Activity 7.2
21st Century Skills
To determine the focal length of a convex lens using a distant object • TPS
Materials
Convex lens, lens holder, white screen and metre rule
Instructions
1. Prepare the apparatus set-up as shown Laboratory window
in Figure 7.7.
2. Position the convex lens towards a Convex lens White screen
distant object seen through an open
window.
Lens holder
3. Adjust the position of the white screen
until a sharp image of the distant
object is formed on the screen. Figure 7.7
4. Measure and record the distance
between the centre of the convex lens and the screen, that is the focal length, f of the
convex lens using a metre rule.
Questions
1. Why are laboratory objects not used to determine the focal length of a convex lens in
this activity?
2. State the characteristics of the image formed on the white screen.
3. If the convex lens in this activity is replaced with a concave lens, can the focal length of the
concave lens be estimated? Explain your answer.
Ray Diagrams to Determine the Characteristics of Images

Formed by Convex Lenses and Concave Lenses
Besides carrying out activities using appropriate apparatus
such as in Activity 7.2, the position and characteristics of Video
images formed by convex lenses and concave lenses can be
Steps to draw
determined using ray diagrams.
ray diagrams
Study and understand Table 7.2 which explains the http://buku-teks.
method of drawing ray diagrams by drawing two principal com/sc5206
light rays to determine the characteristics of the images (Medium: bahasa
formed by convex lenses and concave lenses. Melayu)
206 7.1.2 7.1.3

Table 7.2 Method for drawing ray diagrams

Convex lens
1 A light ray parallel to the principal axis refracts and passes through the focal point, F.
Object 1
1
F F
2 A light ray heading towards the optical centre continues in a straight line through the
optical centre without refracting.
Object 1
1
2 F
F Real image
2
Concave lens
1 A light ray parallel to the principal axis refracts and appears to come from the
focal point, F.
1
Object 1
F F
2 A light ray heading towards the optical centre continues in a straight line through the
optical centre without refracting.
1
Object 1
2
F Virtual F
image 2
7.1.3 207
Tables 7.3 and 7.4 show the positions of object, ray diagrams, positions of image and
characteristics of images for convex lens and concave lens, respectively.
Table 7.3 Ray diagrams to determine the characteristics of images formed by a convex lens
Position of Position of Characteristics

Ray diagram
object image of image
Object is Image is • Real

further than between F • Inverted
2F Object F 2F
and 2F • Diminished
2F F Image
Object is Image is at • Real

at 2F 2F • Inverted
Object F 2F • Same size as
2F F Image object
Object is Image is • Real

between F further • Inverted
and 2F Object F 2F than 2F • Magnified
2F F
Image
Object is Image is at • Virtual

at F infinity • Upright
Object F 2F • Magnified
2F F
Object is Image • Virtual

between F distance • Upright
and optical is further • Magnified
Image
centre than F
Object
(Used as a F F
magnifying
glass)
208 7.1.3
Table 7.4 Ray diagrams to determine the characteristics of images formed by a concave lens
Position of Position of Characteristics

Ray diagram
object image of image
Object is Between • Virtual

further optical • Upright
than 2F Object centre and • Diminished
focal point
2F F Image F 2F
Object is Between • Virtual

between F optical • Upright
and optical Object centre and • Diminished
centre focal point
2F F Image F 2F
Note: The characteristics of images formed by concave lenses for any object distance are:
• virtual
• upright BRAIN
• diminished TEASER
• positioned between the object and the concave lens
Reinforcement practice
http://buku-teks.com/sc5207

1. Name the type of lens found in the human eye.
2. Figure 1 shows two types of lenses.
Lens X Lens Y
Figure 1
(a) Name the following types of lenses:

(i) Lens X (ii) Lens Y
(b) (i) Which lens functions as a diverging lens?
(ii) Which lens functions as a converging lens?
(c) Mark the focal point of lenses X and Y with the letter F.
3. How is the convex lens used as a magnifying glass?
7.1.3 209
7.2 Optical Instruments
The function of optical instruments is normally related to the type of image, whether
real or virtual, and the size of image formed by the lens. The ray diagrams in Tables 7.3
and 7.4 show that the image size
formed by a lens depends
on the position of the object
from the centre of the lens.
Magnifying glass Microscope Astronomical telescope
Photograph 7.1 Optical instruments
Photograph 7.1 shows three optical instruments. Describe the characteristics of the final
image formed by these three optical instruments.
Scan
Formation of the Final Image by a Microscope Page
Study the two ray diagrams in Figure 7.8.
(a) Object is between F and 2F (b) Object is between F and the optical centre, O
Objective lens Eyepiece
Object F 2F F
2F F O O F
Object
Image Image
Image position: Image is further than 2F Image position: Image is further than F
Image characteristics: • Real Image characteristics: • Virtual
• Inverted • Upright
• Magnified • Magnified
Figure 7.8 Ray diagrams for the images formed by the objective lens and eyepiece of a microscope
210 7.2.1
Based on your understanding of the two ray diagrams in Figure 7.8, the formation of
the final image by a microscope is shown in Figure 7.9.
Construction lines
First
Object image,
Fo Fe Io Fe
2Fo
Fo
Virtual
final
image,
I
Figure 7.9 Ray diagram showing the formation of the final image in a microscope
Determining the Magnifying Power of a Microscope

Magnifying power of microscope
= Magnifying power of objective lens × Magnifying power of eyepiece
Example
Photograph 7.2 shows a microscope containing an Science
eyepiece with a magnifying
g y gp power of 4 times and an Identify the
objective lens
ns with a objective lens
magnifying power and eyepiece of
of 40 times. a microscope
http://buku-teks.
com/sc5211
Photograph 7.2
Calculate the magnifying power of the microscope.

Solution
Magnifying power of microscope
= Magnifying power of objective lens × Magnifying power of eyepiece
= 40 × 4
= 160 times
7.2.1 211
Formation of the Final Image by a Telescope
Study the two ray diagrams in Figure 7.10.
(a) Object at infinity (b) Object at F

Eyepiece
Objective lens
F F 2F F F 2F
Image Object
Image position: Image at F Image position: Image at infinity

Image characteristics: • Real Image characteristics: • Virtual
• Inverted • Upright
• Diminished • Magnified
Figure 7.10 Ray diagrams for the images formed by the objective lens and eyepiece of
a telescope
Based on your understanding of the two ray diagrams in Figure 7.10, the formation of
the final image by a telescope is shown in Figure 7.11.
fo fe
Parallel incident
rays from a Fo
distant object
Fe
Fo First image, Io Fe

Virtual final image
at infinity, I
Figure 7.11 Ray diagram showing the formation of the final image in a telescope
In normal adjustment, the distance between the objective lens and eyepiece = ƒo + ƒe
where ƒo = focal length of objective lens,
ƒe = focal length of eyepiece
so that the image can be viewed more comfortably.
212 7.2.1
Activity 7.3
21st Century Skills
To build a simple telescope model • ICS, ISS, STEM
• Innovative activity
Materials
Hollow paper cylinder and cellophane tape
Apparatus
Convex lens with focal length, ƒo ≥ 10 cm, convex lens with focal length, ƒe ≤ 2 cm, ruler, scissors
or knife and pencil
Instructions
1. Carry out the activity in groups.
2. Gather information from the Internet, print media and other electronic media about
the following:
(a) type, size and function of lenses used in a telescope
(b) selection criteria for the objective lens and eyepiece of a telescope which can produce
the clearest and brightest image
(c) ray diagram to show the formation of image in a simple telescope
3. Discuss the information needed to complete the K-W-L Strategic Data Form as a guide to
design and build your simple telescope. You can download and print the form from the
website given below.
Download K-W-L
Strategic Data Form K-W-L Strategic Data Form
http://buku-teks.com/ What students already know, wish to know and will know (K-W-L chart)
sc5213
Already know Wish to know Will know
(K – Know) (W – Wonder) (L – Learn)
4. Sketch the design of the simple telescope.

5. Build your model according to the sketch made.
6. Comment on the effectiveness of the design and improve on the design produced.
7. Present your group’s telescope design and model.
Questions
1. Why is the cylinder for the model telescope constructed from materials that are opaque and
not transparent or translucent?
2. What is the distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece so that the final image
can be seen more comfortably?
3. What is the name of the condition mentioned in question 2?
7.2.2 213
Application of Lenses in Optical Instruments
Digital single-lens reflex High-resolution closed-circuit Spy camera in
(DSLR) camera with two television (CCTV) safety device
different lenses
Photograph 7.3 Examples of optical instruments using lenses
Technological advancements in the field of optics have enabled lenses used in

optical instruments such as smartphones and closed-circuit television (CCTV) to be
only several millimetres thick. Optical studies have succeeded in building flat lenses
with a thickness of several microns only (1 micron = 0.001 mm). What are the effects
of a flat lens on the size and thickness of smartphones?
The focal length of the lens in the DSLR camera affects the field of vision.
The shorter the focal length of the lens, the wider the field of vision as shown in
Photograph 7.4.
Camera image formed using a lens of Camera image formed using a lens of
focal length 70 mm from a distance focal length 24 mm from a distance
of 15 m of 15 m
Photograph 7.4 Images formed using different focal lengths

214 7.2.3
Activity 7.4
21st Century Skills
To study the contributions of science and technology towards the invention • ICS, ISS, TPS
of optical instruments that can help or overcome the limitations of human • Discussion
sight
Instructions
1. Carry out the activity in groups.
following:
(a) use of lenses in daily instruments such as cameras, smartphones, LCD projectors,
spectacles, magnifying glasses and CCTV
(b) the thickness and focal length of the camera lens of smartphones
4. Present the outcome of your group discussion in the form of a multimedia presentation.
Science
Photograph 7.5 shows a water lens placed under
the sunlight.
Video
A water lens can function as
a magnifying glass
Photograph 7.5 Water lens

1. State the characteristics of the image formed by a magnifying glass.
2. Telescope X consists of an objective lens with a focal length of 30 cm and an
eyepiece with a focal length of 5 cm.
What is the separation distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece when
telescope X is in normal adjustment?
7.2.3 215
Summary
S y
216
Light and Optics
Image formation Optical instruments
by
Convex lens Concave lens Microscope Telescope Camera, smartphone,

LCD projector,
or or spectacles, magnifying
glass, CCTV
Characteristics of the Characteristics of the
Converging lens Diverging lens
final image: final image:
• virtual • virtual to overcome
• magnified • magnified
• inverted • inverted Limitations of
human sight
Ray diagrams
Magnifying power of microscope In normal adjustment,

the distance between
= Magnifying power × Magnifying power
of objective lens of eyepiece the objective lens and
the eyepiece
= ƒo + ƒe
Self-Reflection
Se
elf-Reflectio
on
7.1 Formation of Images by Lenses 7.2 Optical Instruments
Describe convex lens as a converging Describe the formation of the final
lens and concave lens as a image by telescopes and microscopes.
diverging lens. Design and build a simple telescope.
Determine the focal length of a Communicate about the application
convex lens using a distant object. of lenses in optical instruments.
Determine the characteristics of images
formed by convex and concave lenses
using ray diagrams.
Summative Practice
Pracctice 7 Quiz
http://buku-
sc5217
1. Draw ray diagrams which describe the following
characteristics of lenses:
(a) convex lens as a converging lens
(b) concave lens as a diverging lens
217
2. Figure 1 shows an object placed in front of a convex lens at a distance less than the
focal length, ƒ.
Object
F F
Figure 1
(a) Draw a ray diagram in Figure 1 to determine the image formed by the
convex lens.
(b) State the characteristics of the image formed by the convex lens in Figure 1.
3. (a) Why do smartphones have several cameras?

(b) A student carried out an experiment to form a virtual image using a
convex lens. Explain how the student formed the virtual image based on the
apparatus set-up in Figure 2.
P 2F Q F R F 2F
Figure 2
(i) Write the problem statement.
(ii) State the position of the object (at P, Q or R).
(iii) Using an arrow (↑) as the object, draw a ray diagram to show the
formation and position of the image. Complete Figure 2 to obtain
your answer.
(iv) State two other characteristics of the image formed in 3(b)(iii).
218
Enrichment Practice
4. Optics is a scientific field that studies the properties of light, interactions between
light and substances such as glass, human sight and instruments which use or
detect light. Study and understand the contents of the poster in Figure 3.
Convexx lens Concave

ave lens
This convex lens makes my eye This concave lens makes my

appear bigger. Do you know eye appear smaller. Do you
the reason why? know the reason why?
How does a lens make an object appear bigger or smaller?
Convex lens Concave lens
Diminished
image of fly
Magnified image of fly
A fly seen through a convex lens will A fly seen through a concave lens will
appear larger than its actual size. appear smaller than its actual size.
Lenses can be combined to make special optical instruments.
Figure 3
How effective is this poster in explaining the concept of image formation by lenses
and optical instruments in the study of optics?
219
CHAPTER
8 FORCE AND
PRESSURE
Do solids obey Pascal’s principle?
Explain the problems that will arise in an aeroplane if its

hydraulic system is damaged.
Let’s study
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220
Science Bulletin
Have you ever heard a loud hissing sound made by a heavy vehicle such as a tour bus or
oil tanker when the vehicle stops? What is the system that operates in the heavy vehicle
and produces this loud hissing sound?
Light motor vehicles such

as cars normally use hydraulic brakes.
Heavy motor vehicles such as buses
and lorries use air brakes that produce a
larger frictional force to stop the motion
of the vehicle. Nevertheless, both
hydraulic brakes and air brakes
use a system which applies
Pascal’s principle.
Keywords
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r )ZESBVMJDTZTUFN
r )ZESBVMJDKBDLTZTUFN
r )ZESBVMJDCSBLFTZTUFN
r %JTDCSBLF
r %SVNCSBLF
r %FOUBMDIBJS
r 7FOUVSJUVCF
r 7FOUVSJFGGFDU
r #FSOPVMMJTQSJODJQMF
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221
8.1 Pressure in Fluids
Concept of Pressure in Fluids in an Enclosed System

Have you ever seen the device in Photograph 8.1? What is this device? This device
operates based on the effect of pressure in hydraulicc fluid in an enclosed system. An
enclosed system is a physical system where matterr cannot enter or leave the system.
Name the fluid in this device.
Based on Figure 8.1(a), water from the
bottommost hole shoots out the furthest
compared to water from the upper holes due to
the pressure in the water.
If force is applied to the water surface
by compressing the closed plastic bottle,
water from each hole will shoot further at
an equal additional distance as shown
in Figure 8.1(b). Photograph 8.1
x x+d
y y+d
z z+d
(a) No additional pressure (b) Additional pressure is
is exerted on the water exerted on the water
Figure 8.1 Uniform transmission of pressure in water in a closed plastic bottle
Pascal’s principle states that the transmission of pressure exerted on a fluid (liquid
or gas) in an enclosed system is uniform throughout the fluid and in all directions.
Activity 8.1
21st Century Skills
• TPS
To explain Pascal’s principle using Pascal’s equipment • Inquiry-based activity
Apparatus
Round-bottom flask with fine pores and piston, and large beaker
222 8.1.1
Chapter 8 Force and Pressure
Instructions
Piston
2. Prepare the apparatus set-up (Figure 8.2).
3. Pull the piston up until water fills the flask. Flask with
4. Remove the flask from the beaker and push the fine pores
piston into the flask. Water
5. Observe and sketch the direction of water shooting
Beaker
out from the fine pores of the flask.
Questions Figure 8.2

1. How does water shoot out from the
fine pores of the flask in all directions? Direction of push for piston
2. Sketch the pattern of water shooting out from Water
the fine pores of the flask in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3
Pascal’s principle is commonly applied in daily life such as in the operation of the
hydraulic system.
Operating Principle of Hydraulic System

The basic principle in a hydraulic system is the transmission of pressure in all directions
based on Pascal’s principle.
The hydraulic system is used to do heavy work such as producing a large output
force to lift heavy loads.
Study and understand the following example which shows the operation of the
hydraulic system. The hydraulic system is made up of two cylindrical pistons of
different surface areas. The fluid commonly used is water or oil (Figure 8.4). Water or
oil is used because they do not have a fixed shape and cannot be compressed.
Load
10 N
Input force Large output

applied on force is
Area of Area of
the small = 2 cm2 = 100 cm2 produced at
piston piston piston the large
produces piston
pressure
Uniform transmission of pressure throughout the fluid
Figure 8.4 Operation of hydraulic system

8.1.1 223
According to Pascal’s principle, the pressure exerted by the small piston is the same as
the pressure produced at the large piston.
Pressure at small piston = Pressure at large piston

Input force Output force
Area of small piston = Area of large piston
10 N Output force
=
2 cm2 100 cm2
10 N × 100 cm2
Output force =
2 cm2
= 500 N
Application of Pascal’s Principle in Daily Life

The hydraulic system is used to carry out
heavy work using a small force. Three
examples where Pascal’s principle is applied
in daily life are the hydraulic jack, hydraulic
brake and dental chair.
Hydraulic Jack System

Hydraulic jack is usually used to lift
heavy loads such as cars in workshops.
Try operating a hydraulic jack. Figure 8.5
shows the structure of a hydraulic
jack system. Photograph 8.2 Hydraulic jack
Small piston Load
Air hole Large piston

Liquid reservoir
Release valve
Lever
Liquid
Valve Valve
Figure 8.5 Hydraulic jack system
In the hydraulic jack system, the lever is moved Video

downwards and upwards repeatedly to push the loaded
Operation of
large piston upwards with the release valve closed. When
hydraulic jack
the release valve is opened, the loaded large piston will http://buku-teks.
drop back to its original position as shown in com/sc5225a
Figures 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8.
224 8.1.1 8.1.2
Operation of hydraulic jack system:

(a) Increasing the height of a loaded large piston
The lever is moved downwards with the release valve closed, valve A closes and valve B opens
(The lever is moved downwards and upwards a few times to lift the load to a desired height)
Pivot
Air hole Load
Liquid reservoir Large piston rises
Lever is moved Release valve
downwards is closed
Small piston Liquid transmits its
exerts pressure pressure to the loaded
on the liquid large piston and
pushes it upwards
Valve A closes Valve B opens
Figure 8.6 Large piston is raised Scan

Page
(b) Maintaining the height or position of the large piston
The lever is moved upwards with the release valve closed, valve A opens and valve B closes
➋ Liquid from reservoir flows below the
small piston through the open valve A Load
➍ Position of large piston
Air hole is maintained
➊ Lever is moved Liquid reservoir Release valve ➌ A constant liquid
upwards is closed pressure is exerted
on the large piston
to maintain its
position
Valve A opens Valve B closes
Figure 8.7 Position of large piston is maintained
(c) Lowering the large piston back to its original position
The release valve is opened, valve A opens and valve B closes

Large piston goes down to its
Air hole original position
➌ The liquid flows back
Liquid
into the liquid reservoir
reservoir
through the release
valve
➋ Loaded large piston
➊ Release valve is opened exerts pressure on the
liquid beneath it
Valve A opens Valve B closes
Figure 8.8 Large piston returns to its original position
8.1.2 225
The Hydraulic Brake System
The hydraulic brake system is commonly used to slow down or stop Scan
wheeled vehicles such as moving cars. The operation of a hydraulic Page
brake system is shown in Figure 8.9.
Reservoir of brake oil
Disc brake Drum brake

Brake pedal
Pivot
Brake pad ➊
Brake shoe
Master cylinder Pivot Brake lining
➍
Brake drum
➍ ➋ Spring
➌
Steel plate ➌ Metal pipe
Main piston ➋ Brake cylinder
mounted to Brake
front wheel cylinder
Disc brake at front wheel Drum brake at back wheel

➊ The brake pedal is pressed to push in the master cylinder piston to exert pressure on the brake oil.
➋ This pressure is transmitted uniformly by the brake oil through the metal pipes to the brake cylinders of the front and back wheels.
➌ This pressure pushes the piston in the brake cylinder ➌ This pressure pushes the piston in the brake cylinder
which presses the brake pad onto the steel plate in the which presses the brake shoe onto the brake lining on the
disc brake. drum brake.
➍ The frictional force between the brake pad and the steel ➍ The frictional force between the brake lining and the
plate slows down or stops the rotation of the front brake drum slows down or stops the rotation of the back
wheels. wheels.
Figure 8.9 The hydraulic brake system and its operation
Dental Chair
The operation of the dental chair is related to the hydraulic
raulic
system. Observe the dental chair in Photograph 8.3.
Then, study and understand the application of Pascal’ss
principle in the dental chair as shown in the following video
or other sources of information.
Video
Is hydraulic system used in a dental chair?
Application of Pascal’s principle in a

dental chair
http://buku-teks.com/sc5226c
Photograph 8.3
Dental chair
226 8.1.2
Relationship between Fluid Velocity and Pressure

Study and understand the relationship between fluid velocity and pressure
(Figures 8.10 and 8.11).
Figure 8.10 shows that the fluid pressure at P1 , P2 and P3 is the same because the
fluid is not flowing.
P1 P2 P3
Figure 8.10 Fluid pressure is the same in a fluid that

is not flowing
A Venturi tube is a non-uniform tube with a narrower centre (Figure 8.11). In

Figure 8.11, when the fluid starts to flow, the velocity of the fluid at P2 is higher
than the velocity of the fluid at P1 and P3. The narrower the part of the Venturi tube,
the lower the pressure in the fluid. This is known as the Venturi effect.
P1 P2 P3
Figure 8.11 The Venturi effect and Bernoulli’s principle
When the fluid flows through the narrow part,

its velocity increases and the pressure in that region
Video
decreases. This is known as Bernoulli’s principle. Venturi effect
and Bernoulli’s
principle
http://buku-teks.
com/sc5227
8.1.3 227
Activity 8.2
21st Century Skills
To explain Bernoulli’s principle by using a Venturi tube • TPS
Materials
Tap water
Apparatus
Venturi tube, rubber tube and clip
Instructions
2. Prepare the apparatus set-up as shown in Figure 8.12.
3. Close the clip. Turn on the tap and allow tubes
X Y Z
X, Y and Z to be filled with water.
4. Observe and compare the height of the water
level in tubes X, Y and Z.
5. Sketch your observations in figure (a).
6. Open the clip and the tap so that water Clip
From
flows into the sink continuously through the
the tap
glass tube. P Q R To the sink
7. Repeat step 4. Sketch your observations in
figure (b). Figure 8.12
Observations
X Y Z X Y Z
P Q R P Q R
(a) (b)
Questions
1. State the relationship between fluid velocity and pressure based on your observations of
figures (a) and (b).
2. Name the effect of the change in pressure of the fluid which flows through the narrower part
of the Venturi tube.
3. What is the principle shown in the observation in figure (b)?
Application of Bernoulli’s Principle in Daily Life

Bernoulli’s principle states that a fluid moving at a higher velocity produces a lower
pressure in that region.
228 8.1.3 8.1.4

Aerofoil-shaped wings of an aeroplane Bunsen burner
High velocity airflow,

low air pressure
Angle of attack Air with low velocity Flow of gas and air mixture
but high pressure
will be sucked in
Low velocity High velocity
airflow, high air gas, with low
Lift pressure pressure
The resulting lift on the wing of an aeroplane Gas

comes from:
• aerofoil shape
• angle of attack
Helicopter Drone
High velocity airflow, low air pressure High velocity airflow, low air pressure
Low velocity Lift

airflow, Low velocity
high air Lift airflow,
pressure high air
Lift Lift pressure
Safety lines near railway tracks at a railway station
High velocity airflow, low air pressure
Force
Low velocity airflow,
high air pressure
Safety lines near

railway tracks
In the space between a moving train and a person standing near the safety lines, the velocity of the airflow
is high and the air pressure is low.
As such, there is a strong possibility for a person who stands beyond the safety lines to be pushed by force
towards the moving train. Thus, avoid standing beyond the safety lines.
Figure 8.13 Bernoulli’s principle in daily life

8.1.4 229
Activity 8.3
21st Century Skills
To study the application of Bernoulli’s principle in daily life • ICS, ISS, TPS
Instructions
application of Bernoulli’s principle in various sports such as sailing and windsurfing.
4. Present the outcome of your group discussion in the form of a report.
Activity 8.4
21st Century Skills
To design a tool using the principle of pressure in fluids • TPS, ICS, STEM
• Project-based
Instructions activity

2. Design a tool such as a crane to lift heavy loads by using the hydraulic system.
3. Present the design of your tool. Discuss how the hydraulic system functions in the design of
your tool.
Figure 8.14 An example of a tool design

1. State Pascal’s principle.
2. State the basic principle of the hydraulic system.
3. Give three examples of the application of Pascal’s principle in daily life.
4. State Bernoulli’s principle.
230 8.1.4 8.1.5

Su
Summary
S ry
y
Pressure in Fluids
Pascal’s principle Bernoulli’s principle
The transmission of pressure A fluid which moves at a higher

exerted on a fluid (liquid or velocity produces a lower
gas) in an enclosed system is pressure in that region
uniform throughout the fluid and
in all directions
• Aerofoil-shaped wings of aeroplanes

• Helicopters
• Hydraulic jack • Drones
Chapter 8
• Hydraulic brake • Bunsen burners

• Dental chair • Safety lines near tracks at railway stations
231
Force and Pressure
Self-Reflection
Se
elf-Reflectio
on
8.1 Pressure in Fluids
Explain the concept of pressure in fluids in an enclosed system.
Communicate about the application of Pascal’s principle in daily life.
Explain the relationship between fluid velocity and pressure.
Communicate about the application of Bernoulli’s principle in daily life.
Design a tool using the principle of pressure in fluids.
Quiz
Summative Practice
Pracctice 8 http://buku-
teks.com/
sc5232a
Answer the following questions:
1. Figure 1 shows two vehicles moving P0

with the same velocity and producing
two different pressures, P0 and P1.
(a) Which pressure is lower?
P1
(b) Explain your answer in P1
question 1(a).
(c) Why is the situation of the two
vehicles shown in Figure 1
P0
dangerous?
Figure 1
Enrichment Practice
2. A dental chair as shown in Figure 2 is an application
of Pascal’s principle which plays an important role in
helping dentists during the dental treatment of their
patients. Dental chairs must be easily adjustable for the
comfort of both patients and dentists.
• Build a creative model of a dental chair by applying
Pascal’s principle.
• Describe the creative features of your model.
• Discuss in your group on how the model can be
modified into an automated massage chair.
• Present your ideas to your class.
Source of reference:
Figure 2
Video on building a model of a dental
chair
232
HEME
Earth and Space
4
Exploration
What is the method used to send reusable launch

vehicles into the orbit of the International Space Station
(ISS)? Is it by direct transfer or through Hohmann
transfer orbit?
233
CHAPTER
9 SPACE
TECHNOLOGY
What are the types of orbits of Malaysian satellites which

orbit Earth?
Dato’ Dr. Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor Al Masrie bin Sheikh Mustapha

is the first Malaysian astronaut to carry out scientific research at
the International Space Station (ISS). How many days was he at
the ISS?
What is the final type of orbit taken by launch vehicles which

carry astronauts, supplies and satellite equipment to reach
the ISS?
Let’s study
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234
Science Bulletin
Malaysia is among the first Asian countries to launch a
5G demonstration project
Is 5G network currently used in telecommunications in

Malaysia? 5G network, together with Global Satellite Network
technologies, has clearly and widely benefited all parties all
over the world.
The Global Satellite Network enables the worldwide
transfer of information from one country to another while 5G
network is able to decipher the type of data required by local
users. 5G network is also able to switch to lower level power
when not in use and switch back to higher level power for
purposes such as high-definition video streaming.
Advancements in telecommunication technology widens
the use of satellites in daily life. Name the satellite owned
by Malaysia which can be used in the demonstration of 5G
in this region. Source:
(Medium: bahasa Melayu)
Keywords
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235
9.1 Satellite
A satellite is an object which

Geosynchronous
orbits planets or stars. For High Earth Orbit (HEO)
Orbit (GSO)
example, the Moon is a natural Orbital height equal to or
Orbital height of
exceeding 35 780 km
satellite which orbits Earth. HEO 35 786 km and
Besides natural satellites, there orbital plane at an
are many man-made satellites inclined angle to
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
the equatorial
which orbit Earth. Orbital height of
plane
180 – 2 000 km
GS
Types of Satellite Orbits
O
The orbits of satellites which
circle Earth are grouped into O
ME
five types according to
orbital height (altitude) LEO
(Figure 9.1).
GE O
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

Orbital height of 2 000 – 35 780 km Orbital height of 35 786 km and the
equatorial plane as its orbital plane
Figure 9.1 Types of satellite orbits
Activity 9.1
21st Century Skills
To gather information and explain the types of satellite orbits • ICS
• Discussion
Instructions
2. Gather information from the Internet, print media and other electronic media about the
types of satellite orbits, namely LEO, MEO, HEO, GSO and GEO.
Examples of reference websites are as follows:
Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO) Catalogue of types of
and Geostationary Orbit (GEO) satellite orbits
http://buku-teks.com/sc5236a http://buku-teks.com/sc5236b
3. Discuss the information that you gathered.

4. Present the outcome of your group discussion to the class.
236 9.1.1
Chapter 9 Space Technology
Orbital Shapes
There are two orbital shapes, perfectly
circular and elliptical (Figure 9.2). GEO is
an example of a perfectly circular orbit while
MEO and HEO are examples of elliptical
orbits. LEO and GSO are perfectly Perfectly circular Elliptical
circular or elliptical. Figure 9.2 Orbital shapes
Apogee and Perigee of a Satellite in an Elliptical Orbit

For satellites which make elliptical orbits, there are two specific positions in the orbits,
which are apogee and perigee (Figure 9.3).
Earth
Perigee Apogee
Figure 9.3 Apogee and perigee of a satellite in an elliptical orbit
The apogee of a satellite in an elliptical orbit is the position of the satellite

which is furthest from the planets or stars encircled by the satellite. How about the
perigee of a satellite in an elliptical orbit?
Relationship between Orbital Height and Satellite Velocity

The types of satellite orbits, orbital heights and satellite speeds are shown in Figure 9.4.
HEO MEO LEO

Altitude: Altitude: Altitude: 705 km
35 780 km 20 200 km Speed:
Speed: Speed: Earth
27 500 km/h
11 100 km/h 13 900 km/h
Figure 9.4 Examples of types of satellites, orbital heights and satellite speeds
The higher the orbital height of a satellite, the lower the satellite speed for it to remain
in orbit. This is because the gravitational force on a satellite decreases when the orbital
height of the satellite increases.
9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 237

What will happen to a satellite moving in a fixed orbit Thinking Skills
if its speed reduces too much? How about if its speed
increases too much? Visit the following
Let us carry out Activity 9.2 to identify the website to collect
information
relationship between orbital height and satellite speed.
about the height
or altitude of
satellite orbits
for satellite’s GPS purposes.
Activity 9.2
21st Century Skills
To draw a conclusion on the relationship between orbital height and satellite speed • TPS, ICS
• Inquiry-based

types or systems of satellites, orbital
heights and satellite speeds. Example:
3. Tabulate the information and data gathered Type of Orbital Satellite
on orbital heights and satellite speeds. Satellite
satellite orbit height (km) speed
4. Analyse the data gathered and draw a
conclusion on the relationship between a GEO
satellite’s orbital height and its speed. MEO
5. Present your group’s conclusion to ISS LEO
the class.
Launch and Placement of Satellite into Orbit

Let us carry out Activity 9.3 to understand how a satellite is launched and placed into
orbit directly or through Hohmann transfer orbit.
Activity 9.3
21st Century Skills
To explain how a satellite is placed into orbit • ICS
• Inquiry-based
2. Gather information from watching the following video clip to explain how satellites are
placed into orbit directly or through Hohmann transfer orbit.
Watch the following video clip:
http://buku-teks.com/sc5238b Click@Web
Start time 5:00/10:05 Launch and
End time 9:14/10:05 placement of
3. Discuss your observations after watching the video. satellite into orbit
http://buku-teks.
4. Present the way satellites are placed into orbit as
com/sc5238c
observed from the video to the class.
238 9.1.3 9.1.4

Methods of Sending Launch Vehicles into Orbit Scan

Page
Launch vehicles, which
are made up of one
Burning at
or more rockets, are apogee ② Hohmann
used to send satellites transfer
(Large
Rocket (Small orbit) orbit
or spacecrafts into Orbit) ① Earth
trajectory ③
outer space. Figure 9.5 R' R
shows two ways to place Earth
satellites into orbits
Burning at
using launch vehicles. perigee
(a) Directly into orbit (b) Hohmann transfer orbit

Figure 9.5 Ways to send launch vehicles into orbit
Launch vehicles are divided

into two types:
(a) expendable launch vehicle
(ELV)
(b) reusable launch vehicle
(RLV)
ELV RLV
Photograph 9.1 Launching of ELV and RLV by NASA
Let us carry out Activity 9.4 to look for information about the differences between ELV
and RLV.
Activity 9.4
21st Century Skills
To differentiate ELV from RLV • TPS, ICS
Instructions
differences between expendable launch vehicle (ELV) and reusable launch vehicle (RLV).
3. Present the differences between ELV and RLV using a multimedia presentation to the class.
9.1.4 239
Function of the International
Space Station
The International Space Station (ISS)
is the result of efforts from five space
agencies namely NASA (America),
Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan),
ESA (Europe) and CSA (Canada).
Dato’ Dr. Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor
Al Masrie bin Sheikh Mustapha is
the first Malaysian to reach the ISS.
Let us carry out Activity 9.5 to
understand the functions and lives Photograph 9.2 The International
of astronauts on the ISS. Space Station (ISS)
Click@Web
What is the International Space
Station (ISS)?
Activity 9.5
21st Century Skills
To understand the functions of the ISS and the lives of astronauts on • ICS
the ISS • Inquiry-based activity
Instructions
2. Gather information from watching the following videos about space stations such as the ISS,
its functions and the lives of astronauts on this space station.
Examples of reference websites are as follows:
Functions of the ISS Lives of astronauts on the ISS
http://buku-teks.com/sc5240b http://buku-teks.com/sc5240c
Zero gravity or microgravity

http://buku-teks.com/sc5240d
3. Discuss the information that you gathered.

240 9.1.5
Zero gravity is the condition when no

significant gravitational force effect is felt. For
example, the condition in indoor skydiving
(Photograph 9.3). Participants of indoor skydiving
will float in air and feel a condition of zero
gravity. This condition occurs because the thrust
produced by a very strong flow of air upwards on
the participants is equal in value to their weight
but in the opposite direction. As such, no
significant gravitational force is felt.
Photograph 9.3 Zero gravity in

Methods for Tracking Space Stations indoor skydiving
The frequency of the ISS orbiting Earth in a day can be calculated by using its orbital
height and speed.
Activity 9.6
21st Century Skills
To calculate the frequency of the ISS orbiting Earth in a day • ICS, TPS
Instructions
2. Use the data of orbital height and speed of the ISS in Activity 9.2 as well as radius of Earth
(6.37 ⫻ 106 m) to calculate the frequency of the ISS orbiting Earth in a day.
Length of orbit
Period of orbit, T =
Speed of satellite
2π × (Orbital height + Radius of Earth)
=
Speed of satellite
86 400 s (1 day)
Frequency of the ISS orbiting Earth in a day =
Period of orbit, T
3. Present the outcome of your group calculations to the class.
Tracking the Position of Space Stations Using

Smartphone Applications
Observe and identify the position of the ISS and the
observer in the photograph from the smartphone
screenshot (Figure 9.6).
Figure 9.6 Screenshot on smartphone My

which shows the location of the observer, location
the ISS and its orbit
9.1.5 9.1.6 241

Impact of Rapid Development in Space Technology
Among the impacts of rapid
development in space technology are:
(a) Increased waste in space
(space junk)
Waste in space or space junk
are non-functioning satellites,
used parts of ELV, satellite
debris from collisions between
satellites, exhausted rockets
and other waste.
According to observations
made by parties monitoring
space junk from NASA, 95% of
thousands of man-made objects
in low Earth orbit are waste in
space. The more space junk there
is, the higher the risk of collision
of satellites with space junk. Figure 9.7 Space junk at geosynchronous
This explains why the weather orbit, GSO (Each dot represents a satellite
satellite, GOES, normally or space junk)
changes its orbit several times to
avoid collision with space junk.
(b) Increase in research and development activities
Advancement and development in space technology have increased activities in
research and development in various fields such as human health, response towards
climate change and disasters, new innovative technology, global education and
development in space economy.
Activity 9.7
21st Century Skills
To gather information related to the impact of rapid development • ICS
in space technology • Discussion
Instructions
2. Gather information from the Internet, print media and other electronic media on the impact
of rapid development in space technology such as:
(a) increase in space junk
(b) increase in research and development activities in various fields in the life and health
of humans
3. Discuss the information that you have gathered.
242 9.1.7

1. State five types of satellite orbits.
2. (a) Draw a diagram to show the apogee and perigee of a satellite in an
elliptical orbit.
(b) Explain the apogee and perigee of a satellite in an elliptical orbit.
3. What is the relationship between orbital height and satellite velocity?
4. What is Hohmann transfer orbit?
5. Why are astronauts at the ISS in a floating condition?
6. Give your views on the impact of increase in space junk.
9.2 Global Positioning System (GPS)
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system which gives information on

location and time to its users in all weather conditions.
Space segment
Figure 9.8 Illustration of a GPS User segment

satellite network (Image © NOAA)
Control
segment
How GPS Functions
GPS is made up of three segments,
the control segment, space segment
and user segment. Figure 9.9 How GPS functions
9.2.1 243
Control Segment Space segment
The control segment is made up of a master
control station, alternative master control
station, command and control antennas as
well as monitor stations. Signals received by
the monitor stations from the GPS satellite are
sent to the master control station which will
Monitor
generate navigation messages on Earth stations
(Figure 9.10). The information sent from
the antenna on Earth to the GPS satellite
Control segment
includes the GPS satellite position, time Master control
correction factor for the GPS satellite clock, station
atmospheric data and almanac.
Figure 9.10 Control segment and
space segment in GPS
Space Segment
GPS is made up of a satellite network. GPS
satellites orbit Earth at an orbital height of onous
y n chr
20 000 km. The orbit of a GPS satellite is -s it
mi rb
usually known as a semi-synchronous Earth Se rth o
E a
orbit (Figure 9.11) with an orbital period of
about 12 hours. Figure 9.11 GPS satellite orbit
At least 4 GPS satellites can be seen at an
angle of 15° or more from the horizontal axis
GPS satellites
at any time from all locations on Earth
(Figure 9.12). The information sent from
the GPS satellite to the GPS receiving device
includes the position of the GPS satellite and
the time the signal is sent.
Figure 9.12 Positions of GPS

satellites and GPS user
User Segment
A GPS user is anyone who uses a GPS 5°26'25"N 100°18'32"E
receiving device such as a smartphone. The Georgetown, Pulau Pinang
location of a place can be written in two
formats as follows:
Figure 9.13 GPS coordinates in
(a) Degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS)
DMS format
(b) Decimal degree (DD)
244 9.2.1
GPS coordinates can be written in two formats, namely DMS and DD.
Example
GPS coordinate:
(a) National Planetarium, Kuala Lumpur
DMS format coordinates : 3°08'22.04"N (Latitude) 101°41'22.53"E (Longitude)
DD format coordinates : 3.139456 101.689593
Positive value represents latitude Positive value represents

in the northern hemisphere longitude to the east of
Greenwich Meridian
(b) Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro

DMS format coordinates : 22°58'14.60"S (Latitude) 43°10'56.51"W (Longitude)
DD format coordinates : – 22.970722 – 43.182365
Negative value represents latitude in Negative value represents

the southern hemisphere longitude to the west of
Greenwich Meridian
The directions ‘East’ and

‘West’ on the GPS coordinates Science
in DMS format are based on the Calculator for the two GPS
Greenwich Meridian. coordinate formats
Activity 9.8
21st Century Skills
To navigate from one location to another within the school using GPS • Inquiry-based activity
coordinates
Instructions
1. Carry out this activity in groups in an open area in school such as the school field.
2. Mark five locations with a minimum distance of 10 m between each location in the open area
of the school.
Location: 1 2 3 4 5
• x • • • •
x ≥ 10 m
3. Use a GPS receiving device such as a smartphone to determine the GPS coordinates at
each location.
9.2.2
9.1.1 245
4. Observe and record the coordinates for the five locations in the following formats:
(a) Degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS)
(b) Decimal degree (DD)
Result
Location x (m) GPS coordinates in DMS GPS coordinates in DD

1
2
3
4
5
Questions
1. Why is this activity carried out in an open space and not in class?
2. What is the main purpose of using GPS coordinates?
3. Name two examples of navigation applications which use the GPS coordinate system
in daily life.
Uses of GPS
GPS is used for
navigational purposes
in various types of
transport such as land,
sea, air and space
transport. Examples
of applications of
navigation which use GPS
coordinates are Google
Maps and Waze.
Photograph
ph
p h9
9.4
4SScreenshots
Scre
Sc reen
re enshots
hots of
of Google
Go
oogglle Maps
oogl Map
aps
p
and Waze
246 9.2.2
Click@Web
Navigational applications Find Pizza (Video)
(Animation) http://buku-teks.com/sc5247b
Activity 9.9
21st Century Skills
To study the Global Positioning System (GPS) • TPS, ICS
Instructions
2. Gather information from various sources on the meaning of GPS, how GPS functions and the
uses of GPS.
3. Discuss the information that you have gathered.
4. Present the outcome of your group discussion to the class using a multimedia presentation.
Photograph 9.5 Car GPS tracker

1. What is the meaning of Global Positioning System (GPS)?
2. How does GPS function?
3. What are the uses of GPS?
4. What are the benefits of notifications of road accidents in navigational applications
to road users?
9.2.2 247
Summary
S y
248
which develops Increase in space junk,
Space Technology increase in research
rapidly causing
and development
activities
Type of orbits Satellite GPS
• Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Is launched and placed into • GPS coordinates
• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) orbit directly or through • Degrees, minutes and
• High Earth Orbit (HEO) Hohmann transfer orbit seconds (DMS)
• Geostationary Orbit (GEO) • Decimal degree (DD)
• Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO)
The higher the satellite orbit, • Expendable launch vehicle (ELV) Navigation applications such
the lower the satellite velocity • Reusable launch vehicle (RLV) as Google Maps and Waze
Self-Reflection
Se
elf-Reflectio
on
9.1 Satellite Communicate about the methods for
Explain the types of satellite orbits. tracking space stations.
Explain with diagrams the apogee Elaborate the impact of rapid
and perigee of a satellite in an development in space technology.
elliptical orbit.
Relate the height of an orbit with the 9.2 Global Positioning System (GPS)
velocity of a satellite. Explain Global Positioning
Explain how a satellite is launched System (GPS).
and placed into orbit. Apply the GPS coordinate system for
Explain the function of a space navigational purposes.
station.
Summative Practice
Pracctice 9 Quiz
http://buku-
sc5249
1. Figure 1 shows an example of the orbit for satellite X
which has an orbital period of 12 hours.
Satellite X
Figure 1
(a) Based on Figure 1, name the type of satellite X.

(b) Give one example of application of satellite X.
2. (a) State three features of a GPS satellite.

(b) Give one example of a device which contains a GPS receiver.
(c) Name one use of GPS in daily life.
(d) Give two examples of navigational application which use GPS satellite.
249
3. Figure 2 shows different types of satellite orbits labelled A, B, C and D.
C
B
D
Figure 2
(a) Label the types of orbits in Figure 2 with the following abbreviations.
GEO HEO LEO MEO
(b) Based on Figure 2, name the type of orbit for GPS satellites.
Enrichment Practice
4. The clock in a GPS satellite needs to be adjusted from time to time.
What is the importance of accurate time information from GPS satellites in our
daily activities?
250
Answers
Only selected
elected answers are provided here
CHAPTER 1 Microorganisms CHAPTER 3 Sustainability of the

Summative Practice 1 Environment
1. (a) The higher the concentration of the Summative Practice 3
antibiotic, the larger the area of the clear 1. (a) River water is the most polluted water
region. sample compared to tap water, distilled
(b) (i) Type of bacteria, surrounding water and pond water.
temperature (b) (i) Volume of water
(ii) Concentration of antibiotic (ii) Type of water sample
(c) Antibiotics can kill bacteria. (c) River water
2. (a) (d) The higher the level of water pollution,
Have cell Have no cell the shorter the time taken for the
wall and cell wall and cell methylene blue solution to decolourise.
membrane membrane 2. (a) Paper bag
(b) Paper takes a much shorter time to
P, Q, R, T S disintegrate.
(c) Microplastic is a plastic piece measuring
(b) Virus less than 5 mm in length.
(c) (i) Yeast (d) Plastic bottle, plastic bag, plastic
(ii) Microorganism P is a useful container, man-made textile,
microorganism because it is used paint (any two)
to make food such as bread.
Microorganism P is not a pathogen
because it does not cause disease. CHAPTER 4 Rate of Reaction
Summative Practice 4
1. (a) Process where one or more reactants are
converted into one or more products.
(b) Yes.
CHAPTER 2 Nutrition and Food Pressure affects the reaction for reactants
Technology in the gaseous state.
Summative Practice 2 2. (a) (i) Size of marble chips/calcium
1. (a) Consumption of whale meat can warm carbonate
the body compared to other food. (ii) Volume of gas collected
(b) (i) Aim of experiment (iii) Concentration of hydrochloric acid,
To measure and compare the calorific volume of hydrochloric acid and mass
values of fat, carbohydrate of marble chips
and protein (b) The smaller the size of marble chips/
(ii) Identification of variables calcium carbonate, the higher the rate
• Manipulated variable: Type of of reaction.
food sample
• Responding variable: Rise in
temperature CHAPTER 5 Carbon Compounds
• Constant variable: Mass of water Summative Practice 5
in calorimeter 1. (a) Fermentation
(iii) List of materials and apparatus (b) Organic carbon compound
• Materials: Fat, carbohydrate and (c) Limewater turns cloudy
protein samples weighing 1 g each, (d) Carbon dioxide is released in the reaction
distilled water and cotton wool between sugar and yeast.
• Apparatus: Retort stand, boiling 2. (a) Atherosclerosis
tube, thermometer, shield, (b) Cholesterol
plasticine and needle (c) Saturated fats
251
(d) 1. Reduce the intake of fatty food 2. (a)
2. Eat unsaturated fats which can reduce
the level of cholesterol in blood
(any suitable answer)
CHAPTER 6 Electrochemistry
F
1. (a) Electrolysis is the process of decomposition Virtual F Object
image
of a compound in the molten or aqueous
state into its constituent elements when
electric current flows through it.
(b) Virtual, upright, magnified
(b) Copper(II) ion, Cu2+, hydrogen ion, H+,
3. (a) To produce images of different sizes using
sulphate ion, SO42–, hydroxide ion, OH–
camera lenses of different focal lengths
(c) (i) At anode: Hydroxide ion
At cathode: Copper(II) ion
(ii) At anode: No ion is discharged
At cathode: Copper(II) ion CHAPTER 8 Force and Pressure
(d) Purification of metal Summative Practice 8
2. (a) (i) Sodium ion, Na+, hydrogen ion, H+ 1. (a) P1
(ii) Nitrate ion, NO3–, hydroxide ion, OH– (b) When air flows through the narrow space
(b) Electrode P between the two cars, the velocity of air
(c) (i) Hydroxide ion flow increases and the pressure, P1 in
(ii) Hydrogen ion the narrow space reduces. According to
(d) Sodium ions and hydrogen ions move Bernoulli’s principle, when a fluid such
to the cathode. The hydrogen ion is as air passes through a narrow space, the
selected to be discharged because it is velocity of the fluid flow increases and
less electropositive compared to the pressure in the space decreases.
sodium ion. (c) Pressure P0 which is higher compared to
P1 will cause both vehicles to be pushed
towards each other until they collide.
CHAPTER 7 Light and Optics
Summative Practice 7 CHAPTER 9 Space Technology
1. (a)
Convex lens
1. (a) GPS satellite
(b) For navigational purposes
Focal point,
F 2. (a) • GPS satellite is a communication
satellite
• Orbital height for a GPS satellite
is 20 000 km
Focal length, f • Orbital period for a GPS satellite is
12 hours
(b) (b) Smartphone
Concave lens (c) Navigational purposes
(any suitable answer)
(d) Google Maps, Waze
Focal point, F
Complete answers
for teachers
http://buku-teks.
Focal length, f com/sc5252
252
Laboratory Rules and
Safety Measures
In this Form 5 Science KSSM textbook, there are some experiments that need to be carried out
in the laboratory. Therefore, all students must comply with the rules and safety measures in the
laboratory to avoid accidents.
Before entering the laboratory

1. Do not enter the laboratory without the teacher’s permission.
2. Do not bring bags or other items into the laboratory without the teacher’s permission.
In the laboratory
1. Open all windows and doors.
2. Do not run or play.
3. Do not eat or drink.
4. Do not carry out any experiment or procedure without the teacher’s permission.
5. Follow all procedures in the experiment with the teacher’s guidance.
6. Take safety measures such as reading all instructions and warning symbols on the labels of
reagent bottles before using the chemicals.
7. Take fire safety measures such as keeping yourself, books, clothes, hair and other flammable
things away from fire.
Emergencies
1. Know the location of and how to use the fire extinguisher and the first aid kit.
2. If any chemical substance gets into your eyes, wash it off immediately with plenty of running
water.
3. If any chemical substance spills onto your skin or clothes, wash it off immediately with
plenty of water.
4. If any chemical substance is accidentally swallowed, spit it out immediately and rinse your
mouth with plenty of water. Inform the teacher of the accident immediately for medical
treatment.
5. If your clothes are on fire, do not panic, roll your body on the floor or wrap your body with
a fire blanket to extinguish the fire.
6. Report all accidents to the teacher immediately.
Before leaving the laboratory

1. Turn off or switch off all water, gas and electrical supplies.
2. Clean and tidy all apparatus used.
3. Return all apparatus and chemical substances to their original location.
4. Dispose all experimental waste according to their category.
5. Wash your hands.
253
Glossary
Anion – A negative ion. Electrolytic cell – A cell made up of electrical
Antibiotic – Substance produced by fungi or source, electrodes and electrolyte.
bacteria that kills or retards the growth of other Expendable launch vehicle (ELV) – Launch
fungi or bacteria. vehicle that can be used only once.
Antifungal – Substance used to treat infectious Fat – Organic carbon compound which contains
diseases caused by fungi. carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Antiseptic – Chemical substance applied on Focal length, f – The distance between the focal
human skin to prevent pathogenic infections. point, F and the optical centre, O of a lens.
Antiviral – Substance used to treat infectious Global Positioning System (GPS)
diseases caused by viruses. – A navigation system which gives information
Apogee – Position of satellite furthest on location and time to its users in all weather
away from the planets or stars encircled by conditions.
the satellite. Hydraulic system – System applied to carry
Bernoulli’s principle – A fluid moving at a higher out heavy work using a small force.
velocity produces a lower pressure in that region. Hydrocarbons – Organic carbon
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) compounds made up of only carbon and
– The amount of dissolved oxygen needed hydrogen elements.
by microorganisms to disintegrate organic Macronutrient – Nutrient needed by plants
substances in a water source. in large quantities.
Biological control – A method which Malnutrition – A condition caused by an
applies interaction between organisms such as imbalanced diet.
prey-predator and parasitism to control crop Micronutrient – Nutrient needed by plants
pests in a habitat. in small quantities.
Calorific value of food – Amount of energy Microplastic – Plastic piece of less than 5 mm
that can be released from the complete oxidation in length.
or combustion of 1 g of food.
Normal flora – Microorganisms found in
Carbon footprint – Total amount of carbon organisms which do not cause disease.
dioxide released into the air from human activities.
Organic carbon compounds – Carbon
Carbon handprint – Activities to reduce compounds which originate from living things.
carbon footprint
Pascal’s principle – Transmission of pressure
Carbon sinks – Natural places for the elimination in a fluid in an enclosed system is uniform
of carbon dioxide from the air. throughout the fluid and in all directions.
Cation – A positive ion. Perigee – Position of satellite closest to the
Chemical cell – A cell made up of two different planets or stars encircled by the satellite.
types of metals and an electrolyte. Reusable launch vehicle (RLV) – Launch
Disinfectant – Chemical substance used vehicle that can be reused.
on non-living things to kill pathogens. Upcycle – Recycling to produce new products
Eco enzyme – Natural product obtained from of higher value than the original product.
the fermentation of agricultural waste. Venturi effect – The effect or change
Electrochemistry – Chemical study of in the pressure of the fluid that flows through
the relationship between electrical and the narrower part of the Venturi tube.
chemical phenomena.
254
References
Allum, J. and Talbot, C. (2014). Physics. London, England: Hodder Education Group.
Campbell, N. A., Cain, M. L., Minorsky, P. V., Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A. and Wasserman, S. A.
(2018). Biology: A Global Approach. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited.
Claybourne, A. (2004). Introduction to Genes and DNA. London, England: Usborne
Publishing Limited.
Cutnell, J. D. (1998). Physics. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Giancoli, D. C. (1998). Physics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Limited.
Griffith, W. T. and Brosing, J. (2012). The Physics of Everyday Phenomena. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill International.
Grosvenor, M. B. and Smolin, L. A. (2000). Nutrition: From Science to Life. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Hardwood, R. (2015). Chemistry Coursebook. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Hill, G. and Holman, J. (2001). Chemistry in Context. Cheltenham, England: Nelson Thornes.
Johnson, K. (2011). New Physics for You. Cheltenham, England: Nelson Thornes.
Jones, M. and Jones, G. (2014). Biology Coursebook. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
McMurry, J. E. and Fay, R. C. (2001). Chemistry. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Limited.
Parkin, T., Simpkins J., McCarthy, J. and Reffin, J. (1996). Biology Student’s Book. Harlow,
England: Longman.
Solomon, E., Berg, L. R., and Martin, D. W. (2005). Biology. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole-
Thomson Learning.
Stone, R. H. and Cozens, A. B. (1981). New Biology for Tropical Schools. 3rd Edition.
Harlow, England: Longman.
Tho. L. H. (1990). Fakta Penting Fizik Moden SPM. Selangor, Malaysia: Penerbit Fajar Bakti.
Tho. L. H. (1991). Fizik Tingkatan 4 KBSM. Selangor, Malaysia: Didika Sdn. Bhd.
Tho. L. H. (1996). Pure Physics Modern Certificate Guide. Newton, Singapore: Oxford
University Press.
Tho. L. H. (2006). Science Form 5. Selangor, Malaysia: Asia Galaxy Sdn. Bhd.
Tho. L. H. (2008). Science Expression, Volume 1. Hougang, Singapore: Panpac Education Pte. Ltd.
Tho. L. H. (2009). Science Expression, Volume 2. Hougang, Singapore: Panpac Education Pte. Ltd.
Timberlake, K. C. (2006). Chemistry. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited.
William, G. (2011). New Biology for You. Cheltenham, England: Nelson Thornes.
Williams, J. and Workman, C. (2012). Biology. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited.
Walker, J. S. (2004). Physics. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited.

255
Index
Alcohol 33, 35, 150 – 151, Electrochemistry 178 Negative Emission
153 –156 Electrode 178 – 180, Technologies 106
Alkane 148 –149 183 – 184, 189 – 190 Nitrifying bacteria 28,
Alkene 148 –149 Electrolyte 178 – 180, 62 – 63
Anion 178 –180 186 – 187 Nitrogen cycle 62 – 65
Antibiotic 28, 36 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Antifungal 40, 41 Focal length 203 – 206 62 – 63
Antiseptic 33, 35, 41, 155 Food Regulations 1985 Normal adjustment 212
Antiviral 40, 41 84 – 85 Normal flora 4 – 5
Apogee 237
Aseptic 33, 36, 41 Geostationary Orbit (GEO) Organic carbon compounds
Average rate of reaction 236 142
119 – 120 Geosynchronous Orbit
Axis of lens 205 (GSO) 236 Palm kernel oil 160, 162
Global Positioning System Palm oil 160, 162, 163,
Bernoulli’s principle (GPS) 243 – 247 165 – 167
227, 229 Pascal’s principle 222 – 224
Haber Process 135 – 136
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Perigee 237
Health foods 83 – 84
(BOD) 102 Pinggan Sihat Malaysia 49
Health supplement 47,
Biological control 74 Principal axis 203, 205
83 – 84
Product 116, 118
Hydraulic brake system 226
Calorific value 50 – 51
Hydraulic jack system
Carbon cycle 142 – 144 Quality breeds 66 – 67
224 – 225
Carbon footprint 92 – 95
Carbon handprint Inorganic carbon compounds Ray diagrams 206 – 212
94 – 95, 99 142
Cation 178 – 180 Instantaneous rate of reaction Saturated fats 158
Classification of 121 Saturated hydrocarbons 148
microorganisms 5 Simple chemical cell
Concave lens 202 – 203, Lactobacillus sp. bacterial 192 – 194
205 – 209 serum 31 Soap 16, 34, 167 – 169
Contact Process 135 – 136 Launch vehicle 239
Convex lens 202 – 212 Life cycle 92, 94, 96 Unsaturated fats 158
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Denitrification 62 – 64 Macronutrient 57 – 58 148
Dental chair 226 Magnification power of
Disinfectant 33, 35 microscope 211 Venturi effect 227
Malnutrition 48, 53 – 54 Venturi tube 227 – 228
Eco currency 106 Micronutrient 57 – 58
Eco enzyme 29 – 30 Microplastics 98 – 99 Zero gravity 241
Effective microorganism Microscope 2, 4, 6, 10, 12,
103 – 104 14, 106, 201, 210 – 211
256
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HEME

Malaysia is the largest producer and exporter of latex gloves

Deﬁne rate of reaction.

State ﬁve factors that affect rate of reaction.

Give three examples of applications of the

Fast Reactions and Slow Reactions in Daily Life

Lead(II) nitrate + Potassium iodide Lead(II) iodide + Potassium nitrate

During a reaction, reactant changes into product. As such, the quantity of

Quantity of reactant Quantity of product

Figure 4.1 Graphs of changes in quantities of reactant and product

'BTUSFBDUJPO 4JNJMBSJUJFT 4MPXSFBDUJPO

5BLFTBTIPSUFSUJNFUPDPNQMFUF 3FBDUJPOUJNF 5BLFTBMPOHFSUJNFUPDPNQMFUF

Photographs 4.1 and 4.2 show

Photograph 4.1 Photograph 4.2

Change in the quantity of reactant or product

Among the changes in quantity of reactant or product

Determining the Rate of Reaction

Figure 4.4 Quantity of magnesium tape, a reactant,

118 4.1.2 4.1.3

The rate of reaction of a reaction can be measured as:

Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)

(b) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)

25.0 Total volume of hydrogen gas

25.0 Total volume of

(d) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)

25.0 Total volume of

(e) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)

2. Rate of reaction at a particular point of time or instantaneous rate of reaction

In an experiment, excess zinc granules reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid

Conical ﬂask Retort stand

Zinc granules Basin

Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)

0 40 80 120 160 200 240 Time (s)

For this reaction,

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 240 Time (s)

Rate of reaction at the 60th second

(b) Volume of hydrogen gas (cm3)

0 40 80 120 160 200 240 Time (s)

Rate of reaction at the 120th second

Formative Practice 4.1

4.2 Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction

Factors affecting rate of reaction

Temperature of reactants Concentration of reactants Size of solid reactants

Presence of catalyst Pressure (reactions involving

Figure 4.9 Factors affecting the rate of reaction

1. When the temperature of reactants increases, the rate of reaction increases.

Variables: (a) manipulated : Temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution

9. Repeat steps 1 to 8 by replacing the sodium thiosulphate solution at room temperature

Time taken until ‘X’ is

Variables: (a) manipulated : Concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution

Conical ﬂask Conical ﬂask

White paper White paper

Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14

Time taken until ‘X’ is no longer

Variables: (a) manipulated : Size of marble

Delivery tube Burette Retort

Size of marble Time taken to collect 30.00 cm3 of gas (s)

Large pieces of marble chips

Small pieces of marble chips

Hypothesis: Presence of catalyst increases the rate of reaction.

Variables: (a) manipulated : Presence of catalyst

Dilute hydrochloric acid