


‫א‬‫א‬
EF

١٧١
  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 

 W،،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
   ‫א‬        ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬         ‫א‬   ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 ?   ?   ? EF ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ? ‫א‬ ‫א‬  
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬     ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬      
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

   ‫؛‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬
 K‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 
 EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬pH ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  

EF‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

١
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬ E١
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٣

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K%100‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K٤
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
K E١
K E٢
K E٣
K E٤
 
 W‫א‬
 E‫א‬‫א‬F108‫א‬

-١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬??
Ksolution‫א‬solvent‫א‬solute‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
K‫א‬‫ א‬K١
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 WEMolarity (M)‫ א‬ J

‫א‬KM‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE١F‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬
58.49 NaCl  ‫א‬
158.04   KMnO4  ‫א‬
194.20 K2CrO4  ‫א‬
40.00 NaOH  ‫א‬
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE١F‫א‬
 WNaOH‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬، ‫א‬16Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬23Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
٤٠Z‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬1Z‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
-٢-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 KNaOH‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬40
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬?‫א‬‫?א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KEL‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬2‫א‬‫א‬
 KL‫א‬2 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 (1)KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK‫א‬‫א‬C‫א‬ZL‫א‬‫א‬
 
K‫א‬ .٢
 ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬

 
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 

 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 W

 
 W١١

 

 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 

 
 
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬١١‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 L٤٠Z١H١٦ H٢٣ Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

 
٤٠Z١X٤٠ X ١ZEF‫א‬W‫א‬
-٤-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬ .٥
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬KL‫א‬EdF‫א‬‫א‬E٪F‫א‬
E
 ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬ELF‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ELF%65‫א‬
L ‫א‬63Z‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬6‫א‬
 KEL‫א‬1.4Z‫א‬
 W‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 L٦٣Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 E‫א‬١٠٠‫א‬٦٥‫א‬‫א‬F٦٥‫א‬‫א‬
 ٦٥Z‫א‬
 L‫א‬1.4Z‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬D‫א‬Z‫א‬ 
-٥-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

‫א‬D‫א‬Z‫א‬
 0.071 Z71.4 ZL1.4D100Z‫א‬
 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 
 
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬
 

 
  
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 

 W‫א‬

-٦-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬1000‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
 ‫א‬
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 

-٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬W 
١E٦F‫א‬‫א‬E١٤{٤F‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
 C1 x V1 = C2 x V2
 W
 K‫א‬‫א‬ZC1
 K‫א‬‫א‬ZC2
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ZV1
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ZV2
14.4 x V1 = 6 x 1000 ml
 
6 x1000
 K416.7ZZ
14.4 V 1 ∴

 

-٨-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬416.7
E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K6
 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 
 W‫ א‬ J 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
   ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬       ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  
 WE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
‫א‬‫א‬EH+‫א‬F‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 W
 WHCl‫א‬
 HCl H+ + Cl-
 ‫א‬36.5Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬HCl‫א‬‫א‬

-٩-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 WH2SO4‫א‬
 H2SO4 2H + SO4-2
+

 
 98 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬49ZZZ H2SO4‫א‬‫א‬
2 2
 
 W‫א‬ •
WNaOH‫א‬ •
 NaOH + H+ H2O + Na+
 ‫א‬40Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
WNa2CO3‫א‬ •
 Na2CO3 + 2H+ 2Na+ + H2CO3
‫א‬‫א‬  
106
 ‫א‬53ZZZ
2 2 ‫א‬‫א‬

 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬
 Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Z‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬x‫א‬Z‫א‬
 

- ١٠ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬C‫א‬‫א‬C‫א‬
= E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
1000
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 10C‫א‬C‫א‬‫א‬
 KZ ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  
 W‫א‬
 C1 x V1 = C2 x V2
 K‫א‬‫א‬E٢
 
‫א‬10-6‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
10-3‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬10-9‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬KE
 WParts Per Million ppm‫א‬‫ א‬ J

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W
 1.0 ppm = 1.0g/1000 000g
1.0gD1000 0.001g
1.0 ppm = 1000 000g ÷ 1000 = 1000g .

1.0 ppm = 1.0mg (H2O)

  1000g
 W‫א‬‫א‬1Z‫א‬
∴ 1.0 ppm = 1.0mg (H2O)
1000ml

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

1.0 ppm = 1.0µg (H2O)

1.0ml
 
 Wppm‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
ug/g mg/kg  L
ug/mL mg/L  L ppm
nL/mL uL/L  L
 W
Na‫א‬1000 p.p.mNaCl‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫؟‬‫א‬35.5‫א‬‫א‬23‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
1.0 ppm = 1.0 mg/L

 1000 ppm = 1000 mg/L = [1gNa/L]

58.4 NaCl 23g Na

 
 
 ?NaCl 1g Na
 
58.4C1
?NaCl = = 2.54 g
23
 K‫א‬‫א‬1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬2.54 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W
X     XZ‫א‬‫א‬
EF‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ppm
1000 ‫א‬C‫א‬‫א‬ 1000  
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

W‫א‬‫א‬ J
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬
   
 
EF‫א‬‫א‬  
100CZ
EF‫א‬‫א‬ %v/v  (%v/v)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
   
   
   
   
 
EF‫א‬‫א‬  
100CZ
EF‫א‬‫א‬ %w/w  (%w/w)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
   
   
   
   
EF‫א‬‫א‬    
CZ
EF‫א‬‫א‬ %w/v  (%w/v)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 100  
   
   
 
 
 

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 E١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E١
KNa2CO3‫א‬ ƒ
KHCl‫א‬ ƒ
K‫א‬ ƒ
W‫א‬0.5‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٢
K‫א‬1 ƒ
K‫א‬100 ƒ
K‫א‬25 ƒ
0.5‫א‬‫א‬ E٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬%65‫א‬250
KL‫א‬1.4Z‫א‬‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬10‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٤
‫؟‬250‫א‬
‫؟‬250‫א‬%5 E٥
 

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١
WNa2CO3‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
 ‫א‬46Z23C2Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬12Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬48Z16C3Z‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬106Z‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬106ZNa2CO3‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫∴א‬
WHCl‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
 ‫א‬1Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬35.5Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬36.5Z‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬36.5ZHCl‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫∴א‬
WHNO3‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
 ‫א‬1Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬14Z‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬48Z16C3Z‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬63Z‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬63ZHNO3‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫∴א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬ E٢
W‫א‬1 ƒ
‫א‬
 KC‫א‬ZL‫א‬
1000
 
 1
 0.0005ZC 0.5Z1‫א‬∴
1000
W‫א‬100 ƒ
‫א‬
KC‫א‬ZL‫א‬
1000
 

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

100
1000 0.5Z100‫א‬∴
 0.05ZC

W‫א‬25 ƒ
‫א‬
 KC‫א‬ZL‫א‬
1000
 
 25
1000 0.5Z25‫א‬∴
 0.0125ZC
W‫א‬‫א‬ E٣

10C‫א‬C‫א‬‫א‬
. = ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 

10C1.14C65
. = ‫א‬
63

 K11.76Z‫א‬‫א‬∴
 
‫א‬250‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
 W‫א‬
 C1 x V1 = C2 x V2
 11.76 x V1 = 0.5 x 250
 V1 = 10.63 ml
 
 K‫א‬25010.63‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫א‬10‫א‬‫א‬ E٤
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 
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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 
250  58.5 10
× × = ‫ﺍﻟﻮﺯﻥ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻮﺏ‬
 1000 1 x 23 1000
‫א‬‫א‬10‫א‬‫א‬‫∴א‬
 K‫א‬0.00635Z‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 250%5‫א‬ E٥
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
EF‫א‬‫א‬
 100CZ%w/v
EF‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬
 
EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 100C
250 Z5∴
 
 ‫א‬12.5ZEF‫א‬‫א‬

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  

EF‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

٢
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬ .١
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٢
K‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٤
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٥
K‫א‬‫א‬ .٦
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٧
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K٪٩٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K٨
 W‫א‬‫א‬
K .١
K‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
K .٣
 K .٤
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬E،،F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬

 

 
 WElectrochemical Cells‫א‬‫א‬
half cell‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

،Cu2+‫א‬‫א‬Kelectrode

‫א‬Cu0‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KCu2+‫א‬

 Kanode‫א‬E‫א‬

 

Ag+Ag‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KKAgo‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E
 ‫א‬F‫א‬Kcathode

 K‫א‬

 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE١F
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  W‫א‬‫א‬
 WGalvanic cell (١)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
 
 WElectrolytic cell (٢)
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬E١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢F‫א‬
 KEF‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬K

 
 KWE٢F
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢FE١F‫א‬
(KCl)‫א‬
(Ej) Liquid Junction ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KPotential

- ٢١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬KKCl-H+‫א‬EF‫א‬
K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬
 W‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬ 
 WNernst Equation‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
  aCu 2+ + 2e ⇒ bCu o

 W
 KE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ZEo
 KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ZE
 8.314 jk-1mol-1‫א‬ZR
 K25 Co‫א‬298 k‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ZT
 K96485 C‫א‬‫א‬ZF
 2.303 log10Z‫א‬‫א‬Zln
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Zn
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Z[Red]
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Z[Ox]
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
W
o 0.0592 [Red] b
E=E - n log
[OX] a
- ٢٢ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
[ ]=1
 W
،‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬  J١
 
Cu 2+ + 2e ↔ Cuo
  Eo = + 0.34 V
 0.1MZCu2+
 W‫א‬
o 0.0592 [Red] b
E=E - n log
[OX] a
  E = 0.34 - ( 0.0592
2 log 1
0.1 ) = + 0.31 V
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ J٢
Cl 2 + 2e → 2Cl -

 Eo = + 1.36 V

 [Cl-] = 10-2M
 
 W‫א‬
o 0.0592 [Red] b
E=E - n log
[OX] a
-2 2
E = + 1.36 - 0.0592 (10 )
2 log 1

E = 1.36 + (2 x 0.0592)
E = + 1.48 V
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
- ٢٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 W
  
  ??‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬S
 anode∴ Zn = - 0.763  
  
??‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬S
 cathode∴ Cu = + 0.34
 
 KE٢F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬
‫א‬Ea‫א‬Ec‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
Ecell = Ec – Ea

- ٢٤ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬WE٢F‫א‬
 
‫اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬ 25 ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻮﻟﺖ ﻋﻨﺪ درﺟﺔ ﺣﺮارة‬Eo
Co
Cl 2 ( g ) + 2e ↔ 2Cl - + 1.359
O 2 ( g ) + 4 H + + 4e ↔ 2 H 2 O + 1.229
Br2 ( aq ) + 2e ↔ 2 Br − + 1.087
Br2 ( l ) + 2e ↔ 2 Br − + 1.065
Ag + + e ↔ Ag (s ) + 0.799
Fe 3+ + e ↔ Fe 2+ + 0.771
I − 3 + 2e ↔ 3I − + 0.536
Cu 2+ + 2e ↔ Cu ( s ) + 0.337
UO 2 2 + 4 H + + 2e ↔ U 4+ + 2 H 2 O + 0.334
Hg 2 Cl 2 ( s ) + 2e ↔ 2 Hg ( l ) + 2Cl − + 0.268
AgCl ( s ) + e ↔ Ag ( s ) + Cl − + 0.222
Ag ( S 2 O3 ) 3− 2 + e ↔ Ag ( s ) + 2 S 2 O 2− 3 + 0.017
2 H + + 2e ↔ H 2 ( g ) 0.000
AgI ( s ) + e ↔ Ag ( s ) + I − - 0.151
PbSO4 ( s ) + 2e ↔ Pb( s ) + SO 2− 4 - 0.350
Cd 2+ + 2e ↔ Cd ( s ) - 0.403
Zn 2+ + 2e ↔ Zn( s ) - 0.763
 
 
 

- ٢٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 E١F‫א‬‫א‬
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
W‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ K١
 
Br2 + 2e 2Br-
 K2 x 10-3 M‫א‬،Eo = 1.087 V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
 
Zn2+ + 2e Zno
 K1.0 x 10-4 M‫א‬Eo =-0.763V 
 
‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬CuAg  K٣
‫؟‬‫א‬،E0Cu = + 0.34E0Ag= + 0.79

‫א؟‬‫א‬‫א‬KClHCl‫א‬ K٤

 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
- ٢٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 E٢F‫א‬‫א‬
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
Zn2+ + 2e Zno
 ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
K‫א‬ K٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
‫א‬‫א‬K
‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬Eo‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
 
 ‫א‬
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

- ٢٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
 
 E١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
[red]
E = Eo − RT log  K١
nF [[ox]
  = 1.087 - 0.0592 log [2 × 10-3] 2
2
= 1.087 – (-0.159) =1. 25 v

  E = - 0.763 - 0.0592 log 1  K٢

2
1 × 10- 4
= - 0.763 – 0.1184
= - 0.8814 V

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
Ecell = Ec - Ea
= 0.69 – 0.24 = + 0.45 V

K‫א‬‫א‬ClKKCl‫א‬ K٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، K٥
K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
  

- ٢٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 E٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
W‫א‬‫א‬ K١
Zn2+ + 2e Zno
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
K‫א‬ K٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬Eo‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
K‫א‬‫א‬
 

- ٢٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬     E ‫א‬  
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬pH
E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬ -١

 Windicator electrodeE‫א‬F‫א‬‫ א‬-٢

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Eind‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬KKKKKK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 Wreference electrode‫א‬‫ א‬-٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Eref‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬L‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫ א‬-٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K(Ej)

- ٣٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 
 
 Eref Ej  Eind 
 
 ‫א‬Zreference electrode potentialZEref W
 ‫א‬Zindicator electrode potentialZEind  
 ‫א‬‫א‬Zliquid junction potentialZEj  
 
 ،‫א‬‫א‬
 
Ecell = Eind – Eref + Ej
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K ‫א‬
 

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  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

‫א‬W
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬potentiometer‫א‬
R‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
F‫א‬‫א‬KEE٣FF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬E
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K‫א‬WE٣F

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  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
‫א‬‫א‬E108F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ion-meter‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(voltage-Follower operational ampilifier)‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 

 

 Ion Selective Electrode‫א‬‫א‬W

 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

‫א‬Kindicator electrodes‫א‬‫א‬K

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 

 WGlass Electrodes ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
‫א‬pH glass electrode
 ‫א‬pH
 ‫א‬‫א‬

٪٢٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 KSiO2‫א‬٪٧٢CaO‫א‬٪٦Na2O‫א‬

 
 
 ‫א‬

 W‫א‬
 ‫א‬ .١

‫א‬‫א‬W LF‫א‬ .٢

 E‫א‬

 E0.1MFHCl ‫א‬ .٣

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

ELW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F .٤

  .٥

‫א‬ .٦

 
 W‫א‬
E
 F‫א‬‫א‬L ‫א‬ -١
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬L‫א‬ -٢
 K ‫א‬
 
- ٣٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE٤F
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE٥F
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
- ٣٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 WpH glass electrode‫א‬pH 

 
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE‫א‬
 
 WpH‫א‬
 
E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ -١
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

-SiONa+ + H+ SiO-H+ + Na+

 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 pH = 9 pH = 7 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
KCl ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬pH = 4 pH = 7
 K‫א‬
 
 W

     ‫א‬        pH •
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬     ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  •
‫א‬  K‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬     ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٣٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬ •
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 K‫א‬

 
 ‫א‬‫א‬W
 
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬L‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

WSilver/Silver Chloride Electrode‫א‬L‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 
Ag AgClEF , KCl ()
 
 W‫א‬
AgCl(S) + e Ag0 + Cl-
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬E٦F‫א‬K25o‫א‬0.199‫א‬‫א‬

- ٣٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

‫א‬

 
AgCl  1 HKCl

 KCl
KCl

  
 K‫א‬L‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE٦F‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 WpH‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬EHF‫א‬‫א‬
 
- E cell u
 pHu=pHsH Ecell s

2.303RT/F
 
‫א‬‫א‬pHsK
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ Ecell s ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬pHuE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Ecell u ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
- ٣٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬pHmV
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١

‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢

‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٣

K‫א‬‫ א‬K٤

‫א‬‫א‬ K٥

K،،‫א‬‫ א‬K٦

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٧

 

- ٣٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١
K‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
‫א‬pH ‫א‬‫א‬ pH
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫ א‬.٤

L ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٥
‫א‬

K‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٦

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٧
SiONa+ + H+ SiOH+ + Na+

 
 
 

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  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 W
 K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬(I)‫א‬
(ohm)‫א‬(R)‫א‬،‫א‬(E)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
E
 I =
R
،ohm-1(G)(1/R) ‫א‬
 Ksiemens, S
 W‫א‬(a)(L)W‫א‬
 
L
 R = P ×
a
 
‫א‬resistivity‫א‬‫א‬P
 WP‫א‬‫א‬
 
a
 P = R ×
L
 Kohm cmP
 
 W K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 K = 1 = L
P Ra
 

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  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
 
‫א‬Kµ S cm-1Sm-1 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W
 Ө = L/a
 
 Ө= K x R
 
‫א‬ EKCl F‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
700،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬700 µ S cm-1‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬3000‫א‬‫א‬3000
PPM ‫א‬ETDSF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 TDS (ppm) = Conductivity (µ S cm-1) x 0.67
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 KE٧F
‫א‬
R1

 G
R3
R2

‫א‬‫א‬
 
 KWE٧F

- ٤٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
‫א‬R3R2‫א‬R1‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
 
R2 ‫ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ ﺧﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﻌﻴﻨﺔ‬
  =
R3 R1
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

‫א‬K‫א‬٪٢‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ K٢٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

1413 µ S/cm‫א‬‫א‬0.01M‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

 K

- ٤٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 
0.0014  ‫א‬0.01M KCl K١
 S cm-1
 K‫א‬‫א‬161.8ohm
 
‫א‬‫א‬ K٢

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٣
 
K‫א‬ K٤
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

  Ө = K x R K١
-1 -1
  0.227 cm Z0.0014 S cm x 161.8 ohm Z‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
K
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٣
K‫א‬٪٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
0.01M‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
 1413 µ S/cm‫א‬‫א‬

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  

EF‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

٣
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬ .١
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٤
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.٥
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K٪90‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K١٠

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K .١
K‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
K .٣
K .٤

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E1F
 W‫א‬
wavelength‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 KE١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬frequency‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬wavenumber
 Kcm-1

- ٤٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
c
 λ =
ν
 W
 (cm)‫א‬‫א‬ : λ  
 Es-1F‫ א‬:ν  
  ( 3x1010cm/sF‫א‬Wc 
−
 WEcm-1F‫א‬Eν F‫א‬‫א‬
− 1 ν
 ν = =
λ c
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
0
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬X-ray‫א‬‫א‬E A = 10 -10 m F
0
  1.0 A = 10 -10 m = 10 -8 cm = 10 -4 µm = 10 -1 nm
‫א‬ ‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  E = hν
‫א‬‫א‬( 6.63x10-34J-sF‫א‬h
 W‫א‬‫א‬
c -
   E = h = hcν
λ
 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
10,000E λ = 10 -7 m F
‫א‬KE λ = 10 -3 F‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E2F‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٤٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

     






‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬
–

 ‫א‬




 






 



 



 X

X- Vacuum Near Mid Far Micro

γ-ray UV Visible
ray UV IR IR IR wave

1Å 100Å 200nm 400nm 800nm 2.5µm 25µm 400µm

 ‫א‬‫א‬E2F
(10 J380nmF ultraviolet region‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬(200-380nm)(10-200nm)
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE380-780nmF
 µm ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E0.78 µm 300 µm F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬2.5-15
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
E
 ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬525nm‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

- ٤٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬the ground state

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  M + hν → M *
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬10-6-10-9 s  
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
(fluorescence)‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

  M * → M + hν
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 Kabsorption spectrum‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 E3F‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 
 ‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬WE3F
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ?E‫א‬F‫א‬‫?א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
(E)‫א‬‫א‬E4F‫א‬
‫א‬ERF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(V)‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 
‫א‬‫א‬WE4F
  
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬EFpeaks‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F
 KE5F
 ‫א‬          
 
 
 
 ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 
 K‫א‬WE5F
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬spectrophotometers‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K A = ε bc ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 NO3− ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬visible
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KKK ClO − 4 ، SO4 2 − ، NO2 − ،
 Kultra-violet
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
E6F‫א‬‫א‬complementary color‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E2F‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(380-800nm)
 EZ‫א‬F
 
 
 
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬WE6F
 
 
EnmF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٦٥٠ J٧٨٠    
 ٥٩٥ J٦٥٠    
 ٥٦٠ J٥٩٥    ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٥٠٠ J٥٦٠    ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٩٠ J٥٠٠  ‫א‬  
 ٤٨٠ J٤٩٠    
 ٤٣٥ J٤٨٠    
 ٣٨٠ J٤٣٥    
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE2F
  
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬E ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W?–?‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W .١
‫א‬‫א‬
 K(7)‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

         
    
 K‫א‬‫א‬W(7)‫א‬
 
I − kb
  T = I = 10 (1)
0

 W
 K‫א‬‫א‬ZIo
 K‫א‬‫א‬ZI
 ‫א‬Zc
 ‫א‬Z k
 K‫א‬ZT
 ‫א‬Zb
 E١F‫א‬
I
  log T = log = − kb (2)
I0

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W
  ‫א‬    ‫א‬     ‫א‬    
 K‫א‬‫א‬
I − k ′c
   (3) T = I = 10
0

I /

  log T = log = −k c (4)

Io
‫א‬‫א‬?
  ?‫א‬،E4FE2F
 ‫א‬
 K ‫א‬‫א‬(T)‫א‬
I
  log T = log = − abc 
Io
  (k , k /
) a
(A)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ (− ) 
 W‫א‬
 
A = - log T = log 1/T = log Io/I = abc
 

 
 
1= ‫א‬‫א‬
 ∴
 
max λ  ‫א‬absorptivity‫א‬a‫א‬
 W
K  ‫א‬E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬c‫א‬،b‫א‬
 
‫א‬a‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 cm-1 mol-1 l ε  molar absorptivity ‫א‬‫א‬
- ٥٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W
I
%T = X 100  
I0
 
  I 0
X % T = 100
I
I 0 100
  = 
I %T
  log I 0 = log100 − log %T 
I

A = 2 − log %T 
 W
 450nm  (%T ) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١
W
  80%  (i )
100%  (ii )

 W‫א‬
  (i ) 
A = 2 − log %T
  A = 2 − log 80 = .0.09
  (ii )
  A = 2 − log100 = zero

- ٥٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

  5.0mg / l ،Ya[ absorptivity‫א‬‫א‬K٢

b = 2 cm‫א‬ 0.4 =‫א‬
 
  A = abc W‫א‬
A
a =
bc
0.4
 =
(2.0cm) × 5.0mg / l
  = 4.0 × 10−2 l mg −1cm−1
 
0.2‫א‬ Co (H2O)62+‫א‬‫א‬K٣
10 l mol-1cm-1‫א‬‫א‬530nm‫א‬‫א‬
 1 cm‫א‬
  JW‫א‬
 W‫א‬ J
A
 c =
εb
W

 
Au=0.05‫א‬?cu?‫א‬K٤
‫א‬،‫א‬525 nm
525 A=0.20 ‫א‬cs=1.0x10-4 M 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ nm

- ٥٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬
Au ε b cu
  A = ε bc
c s

 
Au cu Au
  A =  c u = c s 
s cs As
 
0.5
  Cu = × 1.0x10 - 4 M  = 2 . 5 × 10 −4
M
0.2
 
 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
،source‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E‫א‬F‫א‬،monochromatorE
 ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kdetectors‫א‬‫א‬،cells

 Wsource‫ א‬.١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬D2‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KU.V/Visible

WMonochromatorE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W،λmax‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 WFilter‫א‬(i
‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬٦–٣‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 WPrism and Diffraction Grating‫א‬‫א‬(ii
‫א‬‫א‬(8)‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬380-800 nm ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 



‫א‬

 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W(8)‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 
 

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 WcellE‫א‬F‫א‬ .٣
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 WDetector‫א‬‫ א‬.٤
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 
WBarrier Layer cell‫א‬‫א‬K

 ‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K(9)EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 E-F    
  

 
 
 
        
  
 EHF     
 
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬W(9)‫א‬
 
 KPhotocell (phototube)‫א‬‫א‬K
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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

WPhotomultiplier tube‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



‫א‬‫א‬


  
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W(10)‫א‬
 
 
 
 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬
W Single beam‫א‬‫ א‬.١
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬W(11)‫א‬
 
 
 
 
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬W(11)‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

WDouble beam‫א‬‫ א‬.٢

 
 K‫א‬‫א‬W(12)‫א‬
‫א‬EVF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬E1F‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬KE2F‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K λ max ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 Wλmax‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
λmax   ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫?א‬W
λmax‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬λmax‫א‬
 W‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
C1 A
   = 1   ‫א‬‫א‬ = C1 
Cx Ax
    ‫א‬‫א‬ = Cx 
   ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ = A 1 
    ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ = cx  
 

 WE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬E
F
 K‫א‬‫א‬E٥‫א‬F‫א‬ 
 KE13F‫א‬
 
 
 ‫א‬
 
 
 ‫א‬
 
       
 ‫א‬‫א‬
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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 K‫א‬‫א‬WE13F
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
NMR‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬IR‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬KMS‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬ E١F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
   J
  λmax ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ λ max   J
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J

 W E٢F
:Assay‫א‬
  % purity‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
  ε = 360 ‫א‬ isoni cot onic 
 ‫א‬E 10 −3 F‫א‬

A
  ε = ‫א‬ ε  A = .0355
c
 
0.355
  ε = -3 = 355
10
355
  Assay (% purity ) = x100 = 98.6%
360
 
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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬ E٣F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ ε ‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬ E٤F
‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ≡ L ‫א‬ ≡ M ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ M : L ‫א‬
 KEF
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
Infra – red Spectroscopy

 W‫א‬
E
 ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬ E
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٦٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ mass spectroscopy‫א‬
KN.M.R‫א‬
‫א‬ λ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬ µ m ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K
‫א‬ cm−1 ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
(cm-1F2014‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE3F‫א‬
 
 
١٤٠٠٠–٤٠٠٠ ٤٠٠٠ J٦٥٠ ٦٥٠–٢٠   cm−1 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٠{٧٣–٢{٥  ٢{٥–١٥  ١٥–٥٠٠ µ m ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W(3)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E cm−1 ٤٠٠٠ J٦٥٠F‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 Wstretching vibrations‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K١
 

 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٢
 

 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٢
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K١

 

- ٦٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٢
 

 
 
 
 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٤    W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٣
 
 

 
 
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 
 

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KHCl
 

 
 
 W‫א‬
 KE،،F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .١
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 WE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  H2 , Cl2 , N2 , O2
 WHCl
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
4000 (cm-1) 2500 2000 1800 1650 1550
 650
 C≡C   C=O
O-H C-   C = N C – Cl
‫א‬
H  C≡ N 
   ‫א‬ C – O

X = C=  C - N
 Y C = C C-
N-H (C, O, N. C
 S)
N = O N = O

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W(4)‫א‬
 
E5F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
‫ א‬‫א‬ ‫ﻨﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﺭﺍﺒﻁﺔ‬
cm-1
٢٨٥٠ – ٣٠٠٠ ‫ ﺃﻟﻜﺎﻨﺎﺕ‬C – H
٣٠٠٠ – ٣١٠٠ (‫ﺃﻟﻜﻴﻨﺎﺕ )ﺸﺩ‬
٣٠٥٠ – ٣١٥٠ (‫ﺍﻟﻤﺭﻜﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺭﻭﻤﺎﺘﻴﺔ )ﺸﺩ‬
‫ﺃﻟﻜﺎﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬
٣٣٠٠
٢٨٠٠ – ٢٩٠٠ ‫ﺍﻟﺩﻫﻴﺩ‬
٢٧٠٠ - ٢٨٠٠

‫ ﺃﻟﻜﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬C = C
١٦٠٠ – ١٦٨٠ ‫ﻤﺭﻜﺒﺎﺕ ﺃﺭﻭﻤﺎﺘﻴﺔ‬
- ٧٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

١٤٧٥ ‫ ﻭ‬١٦٠٠
٢١٠٠ – ٢٢٥٠ ‫ ﺃﻟﻜﺎﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬C≡ C
١٧٢٠ – ١٧٤٠ ‫ ﺃﻟﺩﻫﻴﺩ‬C = O
١٧٠٥ – ١٧٢٥ ‫ﻜﻴﺘﻭﻥ‬
١٧٠٠ – ١٧٢٥ ‫ﺃﺤﻤﺎﺽ ﻜﺭﺒﻭﻜﺴﻴﻠﻴﺔ‬
١٧٣٠ – ١٧٥٠ ‫ﺍﺴﺘﺭ‬
١٦٤٠ – ١٦٧٠ ‫ﺃﻤﻴﺩ‬
١٦٧٠ ‫ ﻭ‬١٨١٠ ‫ﺍﻨﻬﻴﺩﺭﻴﺩ‬
‫ﻜﻠﻭﺭﻴﺩ ﺍﻟﺤﻤﺽ‬
١٨٠٠
‫ ﺍﻴﺜﺭﺍﺕ‬، ‫ ﻜﺤﻭﻻﺕ‬C - O
‫א‬،‫א‬
١٠٠٠ - ١٣٠٠ ‫א‬

٣٦٠٠ – ٣٦٥٠ ‫ ﻜﺤﻭﻻﺕ ـ ﻓﻨﻴﻭﻻﺕ ﺤﺭﺓ‬O _ H

٣٢٠٠ – ٣٥٠٠ ‫ﻤﺭﺘﺒﻁ ﺒﺭﺍﺒﻁﺔ ﻫﻴﺩﺭﻭﺠﻴﻨﻴﺔ‬
٢٤٠٠ – ٣٤٠٠ ‫ﺃﺤﻤﺎﺽ ﻜﺭﺒﻭﻜﺴﻴﻠﻴﻪ‬
‫ـﺔ‬
‫ـﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﻨﻭﻴـ‬
‫ـﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻴـ‬ ‫ ﺍﻵﻤﻴﻨـ‬N – H
٣٠٠ - ٣٥٠٠ ‫ﻭﺍﻻﻤﻴﺩﺍﺕ‬
١٠٠٠ – ٣٥٠ ‫ ﺃﻤﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬C – N
١٦٤٠ – ١٦٩٠ ‫ ﺍﻜﺯﻴﻤﺎﺕ ﺇﻤﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬C = N
٢٢٤٠ – ٢٢٦٠ ‫ ﻨﺘﺭﻴﻼﺕ‬C ≡N
١٣٥٠ - ١٥٥٠ ‫ ﻨﺎﻴﺘﺭﻭ‬N = O
١٠٠٠ – ١٤٠٠
٦٠٠ – ٨٠٠ ‫ = ﻓﻠﻭﺭﻴﺩ‬C - x
‫= ﻜﻠﻭﺭﻴﺩ‬
٦٦٧ ‫ﺃﻗل ﻤﻥ‬ ‫= ﺒﺭﻭﻤﻴﺩ ﻭﻴﻭﺩﻴﺩ‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E16F،E15F،E14F‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٧١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE15F

- ٧٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 
 
CH3
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

- ٧٣ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE14F
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 wavenumber cm-1
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE16F
 
 

- ٧٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 E17F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬
    
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬
 
 
 ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W(17)‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KKBr‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 WE‫א‬F‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KK
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

- ٧٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ 
F‫א‬‫א‬E ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
 KW‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 W E
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 
 WK
 W‫א‬K١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬K٢
E
 ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 WKBr‫א‬K٣
E٤٠٠١٠٠FKBrE٢١F‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 
- ٧٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 WE
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Flame Photometer‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W
F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 
MgCl 2 ( s ) → MgCl 2 (g ) → Mg (g ) + Cl (g )

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E18F‫א‬KEF‫א‬
 

- ٧٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 W‫א‬‫א‬

 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬WE18F‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬ •
K‫• א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫• א‬
K‫א‬‫• א‬
KE‫א‬F‫• א‬
 
W‫א‬ K١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫ א‬K٢
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬
- ٧٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٣
‫ א‬E
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 K‫א‬‫א‬ •
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬EF
‫א‬EF‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 WE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
 W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 :FilterEFEi
 W‫א‬Eii
 
 WE‫א‬F‫א‬ K٥
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٧٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬  J
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J
 K‫א‬‫א‬L‫א‬‫א‬ 
W‫א‬  J
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 

- ٨٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W
 
 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K10000K‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬
 KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ o
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ o
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E٤٠‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬o
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬simultaneouslyE‫א‬F‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬
Ksequentially‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ o
‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KE‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
 

- ٨١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 
W
‫א‬‫א‬?AA?‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Atomic Absorption‫א‬‫א‬ 
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KK‫א‬‫א‬
 p.p.b‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬FEF،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬،‫א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬

 ‫ א‬E
         
 
 
 
 
 W‫ א‬E 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬W(19)‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 modulation ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 W‫א‬
 WE٢٠F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫• א‬
KE‫א‬F‫• א‬

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  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬WE٢٠F
 W‫א‬
 ،hollow cathade lamp‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE٢١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

- ٨٤ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE٢١F
 
E٢٢F‫א‬
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K ‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢٢F

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E

 K،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
- ٨٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WMassman furnace (i
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W L‘vov (ii
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫• א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ ‫א‬
 KK‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 K‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬
E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 
- ٨٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
 K
‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   •
 KKKK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
  ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬   
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫• א‬
  ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬    
K
 
 
 E1F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫؟‬‫א‬ K١
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٣
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
 
 
 

- ٨٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 2F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬EXF‫א‬E√F
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬K٢
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٣
 KEF
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٤
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٦
 
 
 
 

- ٨٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 3F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ K١
‫؟‬‫א‬ K٢
‫؟‬٪٥٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٣
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٤
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٦
 
 
 
 4F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬EXF‫א‬E√F
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K٣
 KEF‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
 
 

- ٨٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ٥F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
‫؟‬‫א‬ K٣
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٥
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٦
 
 
 
 ٦F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
W
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٣
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٥
 
 
 
 

- ٩٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 
 E1F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.١
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
‫א‬‫א‬ .٣
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  .٤
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٥
K
 
 
 2F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 KE√F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١
 KEXF‫א‬‫א‬K٢
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٣
 KE√F
 EXF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٤
 KEXF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
 KE√F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٦
 
 
 
- ٩١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ٣F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١
‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 A = 2-log %T =2-log 50 =0.3 K٣
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
K‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F
KH2N2‫א‬HCl‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٦
 
 
 
 E٤F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 KE√F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢
 KE√F‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K٣
 KEXF‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

- ٩٢ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬ ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  
 

 ٥F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
KW‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K

K‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٣
K‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٦
K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 ٦F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬ K٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K
 
- ٩٣ -
  

EF‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٤ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.١
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .٣

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K٪٩٥‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K٦
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K ƒ
K ƒ
K ƒ
K ƒ
K ƒ

 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 

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  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Tswett
 ‫א‬‫א‬١٩٠٦‫א‬ 
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Martin  ‫א‬١٩٤٠‫א‬Kto writecolour
 ١٩٥٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬stationary phase‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬mobile phase
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬  
 
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
     
 
 

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  

 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  
 ‫א‬
 J   J  J    J 
 
- ٩٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 
W–‫א‬ ƒ
Gas Liquid Chromatography (G.L.C)‫א‬–‫א‬‫א‬ o
W–‫א‬ ƒ
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ o
H.P.L.CK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ o
K‫א‬‫א‬ o
W–‫א‬ ƒ
Gas Solid Chromatography (G.S.C)‫א‬–‫א‬‫א‬ o
W–‫א‬ ƒ
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ o
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ o
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ o
 
 WE–F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE١٤F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 


y ،z ، x
x
y

z

‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE١٤F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
- ٩٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E FE
 x F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EzF
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬Vander Waals Forces
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 WE–F‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬K ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
 K‫א‬‫א‬
KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٢
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٣
 
 
 

- ٩٧ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ 
 KE٣F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ١
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٢
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ٣
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ٤
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ٥
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٦
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٧
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬E٣F
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫ƒ א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ

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  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 
 
 Plane Chromatography‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 W
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 WK‫א‬
 WPaper Chromatography ‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WThin lyer Chromatography(TLC) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬
F‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬Retardation factor‫א‬Rf
 KQualitative analysis
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Rf =
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 Paper Chromatography‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬E ٢F‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
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  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 WThin Layer Chromatography‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫ƒ א‬
K‫ƒ א‬
K‫א‬ ƒ
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W،
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ƒ א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
K‫א‬‫א‬
 Rf‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 
 
- ١٠٠ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 Gas Chromatography (GC)‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬

١٩٥٥‫א‬‫א‬١٩٥٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Gas Solid –‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
 KChromatography (G.S.C)
–‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
 KGas Liquid Chromatography (G.L.C)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬–‫א‬  J١
 K–‫א‬
‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
 K50-350 oC‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K  J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J
K1000  J
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J K‫א‬‫א‬  J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J
 W
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١ 
‫א‬FK ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬E

- ١٠١ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬septum‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬FK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE٢٣F‫א‬KE‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬         ‫א‬ 
 

 
 
‫א‬
 
   
‫ א‬ 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬   
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE٢٣F‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kpeak
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WE٢٤F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Kcarrier gasEF‫א‬‫• א‬
Kinjection port‫א‬ •
KEcapillary columnpacked columnF‫א‬ •
K‫א‬Detector •

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  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 
 
 


 ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
EF
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢٤F‫א‬
 
 WCarrier GasE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬  J
K   J
K  J
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WSample Injection Port‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬E
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
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  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 WThe Column‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 WPacked Column‫א‬‫• א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ٣–٢‫א‬٣–١‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
WCapillary Column‫א‬‫• א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WDetectorE‫א‬F‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫ א‬ J
K‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬ J
K‫א‬KKKKK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Flame 
 ‫א‬ Thermal Conductivity Detector(TCD)
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KElectron Capture Detector (ECD)‫א‬‫א‬Ionisation Detector (FID)
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K 
KE٢٥F‫א‬‫א‬Retention Time (RT)
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
RT
 
 ‫א‬E٢٥F
 
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  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ RT
‫א‬K(GC/MS interface)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE‫א‬F‫א‬Ei
  

 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢٦F
 
   ‫א‬‫א‬E٢٦F‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬Eii
 
 KE٢٧F‫א‬
 EF
 
h    
W1/2
 
A = W½ * h
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬x‫א‬Z‫א‬
- ١٠٥ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Eiii
∴E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K(ii)(i)‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬K١
‫א‬‫א‬٥‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 
 WInternal addition ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢
x‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
  K
 y‫א‬
E٢٨F ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K
 x
y       
 
 
 
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE٢٨F 
 
 K KE٢٨F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬y‫א‬‫א‬
x‫א‬EAxLAy Fy‫א‬x‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

- ١٠٦ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 

 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬200 oC‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
K‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
 
 E١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١
 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢
 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬RT‫א‬‫א‬K٣
 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٤
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٥
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٦

- ١٠٧ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 
 
 E٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١
 KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢
 KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٣
 KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٤
 KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKRfK٥
 KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK‫א‬‫א‬K٦
 KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٧
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
 KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

- ١٠٨ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 E١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EFK١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬‫א‬‫א‬EF
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EFK٢
 KRf‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EF
 K‫א‬‫א‬ K٣
 W‫א‬K٤
K‫א‬‫א‬ ƒ
K ƒ
K ƒ
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٥
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٦
 

- ١٠٩ -
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬  EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 
 
 E٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٢
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٣
 K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٤
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬RfK٥
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٦
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K٨
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

- ١١٠ -
  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬
 
1) Gary D. Christian, Analytical Chemistry, fifth edition, John Willy & sons,
Inc, 1986.
 
2) G.W. Ewing, Instrumental methods of Chemical Analysis, Fourth edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
 
3) A.I. Vogel, Textbook of Quantitative chemical Analysis, fifth edition,
Longman, London 1975.
 
4) J.S. Fritz & G.H. Schenk, Quantitative Chemistry, Fourth edition, Allyn
Bacon, Boston, 1979.
 
5) D.A. Skoog & D.M. West, Principles of Instrumental Methods of
Analysis, sixth edition, Holf Rinehart & Wiston, New York, 1991.

6) Stock & Rice chromatographic methods, third edition, by John Willy &
Sons, Inc 1994
 
،K‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬KK‫א‬ E٧
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
K١٩٨٦،‫א‬
  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ١ ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٢  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٢  ‫א‬
 ٩  ‫א‬
 ١١  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ١١  Parts Per Million PPM‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٤  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٥  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٨ ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٩  ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٩  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٢٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٢١  ‫א‬
 ٢٣  ‫א‬
 ٢٥  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٢٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٢٩  ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٢٩  
 ٣٢  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٣٢  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٣٦  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٣٧  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٣٧  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٣٨  ‫א‬‫א‬
  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ٣٩  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٠  ‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٠  
 ٤١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٣  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٣  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٤ ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٥  ‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٥  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٦  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٩  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٤٩  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٥٢ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 ٥٣ ?–?‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٥٨  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٦١  ‫א‬
 ٦٢  ‫א‬‫א‬
٦٣ W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٦٥ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٦٥  ‫א‬
 ٦٦  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٧٤  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٧٥  ‫א‬
  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ٧٦  ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٧٦  Flame Photometer‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W
 ٧٦  ‫א‬
 ٧٧  W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٧٩  ‫א‬
 ٨٠ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W
 ٨٠  ‫א‬
 ٨٠  ‫א‬
 ٨١  ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٨١  ‫א‬
 ٨٢ ‫א‬
 ٨٥  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٨٦  ‫א‬
 ٨٧  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ٩٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٩٣ ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٩٤  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٩٤  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٩٦  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٩٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٩٨  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٩٨  Paper Chromatography‫א‬‫א‬
 ٩٩ Thin Layer ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Chromatography
 ٩٩  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ١٧١  ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 EF‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ١٠٠  ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠٣  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠٤  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠٥  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠٦  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠٩ ‫א‬‫א‬
 

 