Research in our Daily Life 1: Building the Qualitative Research Design

The learner:
1. chooses appropriate qualitative research design ( CS_RS11-IVa-c-1);
2. describes sampling procedure and sample ( CS_RS11-IVa-c-2).

Ethnography is the direct description of a group, culture or community. The meaning of

the word ethnography can be ambiguous; it is an overall term for a number of approaches.
Sometimes researchers use it as synonymous with qualitative research in general, while at other
times its meaning is more specific. In this chapter, we adopt the original meaning of the term, as a
method within the social anthropological tradition. The research methods are as follows:

 Immerse themselves in the culture or subculture they study and try to see the world from a
cultural member‘s point of view. Data are collected during fieldwork through participant
observation and interviews with the key informants as well as through documents. Researchers
observe the rules and rituals in the culture and try to understand the meaning and interpretation
that informants give them.

 They compare these with their own ethnic view and explore the differences between the two.

 Field notes are written throughout the fieldwork about events and behavior in the setting.

 Ethnographers describe, analyze, and interpret the culture and the local, ethnic perspective of its
members while making their own ethnic interpretations.

 The main evaluative criterion is the way in which the study presents the culture as experienced by
its members.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research

Advantages Disadvantages
It is dependent on the researcher’s observations
It is more comprehensive and holistic.
and interpretations.
It gives a deeper and richer understanding of the
Observer bias is difficult to move.
participants’ behavior in a natural setting.
It is suited in studying group behavior over time. Close supervision is needed.
The researcher tend to be “up close and personal”
It is time-consuming.
with his or her participants.

Grounded Theory (GT) is an approach that generates and modifies a theory. This research
design has become a global phenomenon‘. It is an approach to collecting and analyzing data. The
finished product is also called a GT—it is a development of theory directly based and grounded in
the data collected by the researcher.

Data usually are collected through non-standardized interviews and participant

observation but also by access to other data sources.

Narrative Inquiry includes stories that reflect on people‘s experience and the meaning
that this experience has for them. Narrative research is a useful way of gaining access to feelings,
thoughts and experience in order to analyze them.

Phenomenology is a 20th century school of philosophy rooted in philosophy and

psychology which focuses on the subjective experience of the individual and seeks to understand
the essence or structure of a phenomenon from the perspective of those who have experienced it.

Case Study is a bounded system, a single entity, a unit around which there are boundaries.
It has definite quality (time, space and/or components comprising the case). It has ―no particular
method for data collection or data analysis. A case study uses an interpretative research. It is
chosen precisely because researchers are interested in insight, and discover rather than the
testing of a hypothesis. Yin defines a case study as an empirical enquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.

Historical Research – a systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain,

and understand past events (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2010).
 Advantages Disadvantages
Threats to its validity are quite impossible to
It enables investigation of specific historical
control since an event under study has already
events.
taken place.
Availability of and access to documents, artifacts,
It can study evidence from the past.
and other relevant materials are limited.
It can use a wider range of evidence. Sampling cannot be ensured.
Bias is probable while collecting and analyzing
It provides richer and more reliable sources of
data because data would be based on
information about historical events.
eyewitnesses’ accounts.

Sampling Procedures in Qualitative Research

Probability Sampling - is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are chosen
using a method based on the theory of probability.
For instance, a population of 1000 members, each of these members will have 1/1000 chances of being
selected to be a part of a sample. It gets rid of bias in the population and gives a fair chance to all
members to be included in the sample.

a. Simple Random Sampling – method of collecting data where every single member of a
population is chosen randomly, merely by chance and each individual has the exact same
probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.

b. Cluster Sampling – a method where the researchers divide the entire population into
sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample
on the basis of defining demographic parameters such as age, location, sex etc.

c. Systematic Sampling - a method where members of a sample are chosen at regular

intervals of a population. It requires selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size
that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined interval
and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.

d. Stratified Random Sampling - a method where the population can be divided into
smaller groups, that don’t overlap but represent the entire population together. While sampling,
these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.

Non-probability Sampling - is reliant on a researcher’s ability to select members at random. This

sampling method is not a fixed or pre-defined selection process which makes it difficult for all elements
of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.

a. Purposeful/Purposive Sampling -is the most common sampling strategy. In this type
of sampling, participants are selected or sought based on pre-selected criteria based on the
research question. For example, the study may be attempting to collect data from lymphoma
patients in a particular city or county. The sample size may be predetermined or based on
theoretical saturation, which is the point at which the newly collected data no longer provides
additional insights.

b. Quota Sampling - is a sampling technique whereby participant quotas are preset prior
to sampling. Typically, the researcher is attempting to gather data from a certain number of
participants that meet certain characteristics that may include things such as age, sex, class,
marital status, HIV status, etc. For example, a cigarette company wants to find out what age group
prefers what brand of cigarettes in a particular city. He/she applies quotas on the age groups of
21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51+. From this information, the researcher gauges the smoking trend
among the population of the city.

c. Snowball Sampling - is also known as chain referral sampling. In this method, the
participants refer the researcher to others who may be able to potentially contribute or
participate in the study. This method often helps researchers find and recruit participants that
may otherwise be hard to reach.
Research in our Daily Life 1: Planning the Data Collection Strategy
The learner:
1. plans data collection and analysis procedures (CS_RS11-IVa-c-3)

Observation
May take place in natural settings and involve the researcher taking lengthy and descriptive notes
of what is happening.

FOUR TYPES OF OBSERVATION

1. Participant Observation – involves an intensive interaction between the researcher and the subject
of the participants of the study. Participants can either be overt or covert.
  Overt Participant Observation – the identity and purpose of the researcher are known to the
group being studied.
  Covert Participant Observation – the participants of the study are unaware of the researcher’s
identity.

2. Nonparticipant Observation – the researcher does not participate in the activities of the group being
observed. Instead, he or she studies the group from a distance.

3. Naturalistic Observation – involves observing the subjects under study in their natural environment.
This is usually performed when you have to study your subjects in their own community or environment
rather than in a laboratory or a controlled setting.

4. Simulations – the researcher simulates or recreates a situation, environment or system, and observes
the subjects under study in the said simulated environment. The researcher may ask the participants to
portray a role individually or in a group.

To facilitate the data collection process through observation, you may do the following:
1. Take photographs and collect available artifacts.
2. Record video.
3. Gather documents such as annual reports or minutes of meetings.
4. Write a summary of your observation.

Interview
Interviews and observations are usually done together when conducting a research study. An
interview is done to validate the information recorded in an observation. You may directly obtain the
data from eyewitness or express in their chosen fields.

FOUR TYPES OF INTERVIEW

1. Structured Interview – the researcher has a specific set of questions designed to elicit responses
from the participants.

2. Semi-structured Interview – the researcher prepares open-ended questions to which the

participants are free to respond in any way they see fit.

3. Informal Interview – to determine how the participants act during certain situations. This is
conducted without a specific sequence of questions or form of questioning.

4. Retrospective Interview – to recall or reconstruct something that happened in the past. This is
usually employed when conducting a historical research study in which the researcher may ask
the interviewee who is considered an eyewitness to an event in order to recall past events
relevant to the study.

SIX TYPES OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Background Questions – routine questions relevant to the background of the participants. These
questions are asked for the purpose of obtaining personal information about an interviewee such
as his or her educational background, age, previous work, and the like.
 2. Knowledge Questions – participants’ actual knowledge about the research topic. In this case, the
interviewee could be a known expert in the field and the question raised are for the purpose of
obtaining information directly from the perspective of an expert.

3. Experience Questions – focused on what the participant is doing at the present moment, what he
or she has been doing, or what he or she did in the past. These questions are asked primarily to
situate an interviewee’s experience in the context of the objectives of your study.

4. Opinion Questions – to elicit what a participant thinks about certain topics or issues. This aims to
gain insights into his or her values, beliefs, and attitudes about a subject.

5. Feeling Questions – require responses emanating from the emotions of the participants that may
have arisen based on their experience.

6. Sensory Questions – focus on what the respondent has seen, tasted, heard, touched, or smelled.

Reminders during the Interview (Fraenkel and Wallen 2010)

  Respect the culture of the group being studied.

  Respect the individual being interviewed.
  Act naturally and confidently.
  Develop rapport with the participant.
  Ask the same question in different ways.
  Ask the interviewees politely to repeat their answers whenever their responses seem vague.
  Do not monopolize the conversation.
  Avoid leading questions.
  Do not ask dichotomous questions or questions which are answerable by yes or no.
  Ask questions one at a time.
  Allow your interviewees to speak their minds in order to obtain as much information as possible.

o Informed Consent – a document signed by the participant signifying his or her free will to participate
in the study.

In this data-gathering stage, it is only ethical that your interviewee be informed of the following:

  Objective or purpose of your research

  Duration of the interview or focus group discussion
  That said interview is voluntary and that any time, the interview can be stopped once the interviewee
decides to withdraw.
  That any information that will arise from the interview will be kept confidential
  The name and contact details of the researchers
  The benefits that the interviewee may get out of the interview as well as its potential risks
  The name and contact details of the person whom the interviewee can reach regarding his or her rights
as a participant in the study.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

Involves interviewing a small group of people to obtain data on a certain topic. In a focus group
discussion, you ask several groups of people what they think or feel about a certain topic or issue.

Data Analysis

According to Yin (1994:102) ―data analysis consists of examining, categorizing, tabulating, or

otherwise recombining the evidence to address the initial prepositions of a study. There are a variety of
approaches to this process of analysis and interpretation. Some of the most commonly used approaches
include:

  Content Analysis - used to analyze and interpret verbal data, or behavioral data. Content can be
analyzed descriptively or interpretatively.

  Narrative Analysis - used to analyze text that may come from a variety of sources including
transcripts from interviews, diaries, field notes, surveys, and other written forms. Narrative analysis
often involves reformulating stories presented by people in a different context and based on their
different experiences.
   Discourse Analysis - a method of analyzing naturally-occurring en interactions and written text
and is concerned with the social context in which the communication occurred. It focuses on how
language is used in everyday life and looks at how people express themselves.
  Grounded Theory - also called analytic induction. This is a method that attempts to develop causal
explanations of a phenomenon from one or more cases being studied. Explanations are altered as
additional cases are studied until the researcher arrives at a statement that fits all cases.

  Conversation Analysis - examines the use of language by people as a type of action or

skilled accomplishment. A key concept in this analysis is the principle of people taking turns in
conversation. Meanings are usually shaped in the context of the exchange itself.

Planning the Actual Gathering of Data

Planning the actual gathering process ensures a most efficient and organized collection of data.
This involves preparing a schedule of activities. For this purpose, a Ghantt chart may be used. A Ghantt
chart is a plan of activities indicating the duration of your research.

Example:
Research in our Daily Life 1: Writing the Research Methodology
The learner:
1. presents written research methodology (CS_RS11-IVa-c-4 5);
2. utilizes materials and techniques to produce creative work (CS_RS11-IVa-c-5).

The following are the components that make up a research proposal:

  Research Design – describe the specific research approach you will use in your study. The
research design depends on the purpose of the study and the set of specific questions that need
answers by the end of your study. The research design also provides a discussion as to you overall
strategy as well as the rationale or the significance of pursuing a research study.

  Research Locale – describe the setting or location of your study.

  Sample or the Respondents – provides a description of the respondents or participants of the

study. The description may include the demographic profile of the respondents such as their age,
educational background, occupation, and other information that may be relevant in understanding
their behaviors, feelings, actions, or experiences. You may also provide a set of criteria governing the
most appropriate samples and sampling techniques.

  Research Instrument – outlines and describes the instruments you will use in the study such as
interview questions, interview protocols, observation guides, survey forms, focus group discussion
questions, and the like.

  Data Collection Procedure – describe the specific steps you will take in order to collect the
necessary data for your study.

  Data Analysis Procedure – describe how you will manage, analyze, and interpret the data that you
will gather.

o Transcription – the process of putting spoken words in written form.

o Translation – the process of converting the spoken words or writings of the interviewee into another
language before putting those in written form.

Data analysis would entail the following steps:

1. organizing your data;
2. creating summaries, categories, and themes;
3. coding the data and then offering possible explanations or meanings; 4. looking for alternativeN
explanations or meaning;
5. writing the report for presentation purposes.

The Main Components of a Research Proposal

Chapter 1: The Problem and Its Setting. This chapter presents the background of the study, statement
of the main research problem, research objectives, significance of the study, scope and delimitation, and
definition of significant terms used in the study.
Chapter 2: Review of the Related Literature. This chapter discusses relevant literature and materials.
Chapter 3: Methods. This chapter presents the study’s qualitative research approach, sampling methods,
and research strategies for collecting and analyzing data.

Oral Presentation of the Proposal

After writing the research proposal, you can now orally present your research proposal to a panel
of experts. The panel is usually composed of three to five members who are experts in the discipline you
are studying.
The following guidelines are recommended before you present your research proposal:
1. Always consult your research adviser.
2. Study your proposal carefully.
3. Prepare a PowerPoint presentation of your proposal in bullet form.
4. Usually, the allotted time for the presentation is 10-15 minutes.
5. Follow the dress code.
Research in our Daily Life 1: Finding Answers Through Data Collection
The learner:
The learner collects data through observation and interviews. ( CS_RS11-IVd-f-1)

How to be a Keen Observer

Honesty and sincere compliments often uplift one’s spirit. These usually require keen observation,
in the same way that a qualitative research study utilizes observation to generate reliable data.

Observation entails the systematic noting and recording events, behaviors, and artifacts in a social
setting chosen for study. This helps ensure accurate, complete, and honest descriptions.

Field Notes – the detailed notes of a researcher while noting down observation in the field. This is a
written account of what the researcher has seen, experienced, felt, or thought while observing the
participants.

 Descriptive Field Notes – describe the actual setting of the study and the accounts of actual
events.

 Reflective Field Notes – refer to the researcher’s thoughts on what he/she observed during the
observation period.

It must be emphasized that observations made should not be merely about what you have
witnessed. Rather, these should be made to understand the very context of a specific phenomenon,
culture, or group of people such that all possible perspectives are derived and established. Observation
may cover the following: 1. Environment or physical setting, 2. Participants, 3. Activities and interactions
of participants with regard to the environment, 4. Discussion or small talk, 5. Your own behavior as a
researcher (Meriam and Tisdell, 2016).

Field Notes
Bernard (1994), as cited by Fraenkel and Wallen (2010), suggested that field notes are
distinguished from the other types of research writing, namely: field jottings, field diaries, and field logs.

 Field Jottings – quick notes on something that the researcher would like to recall later.
 Field Dairy – personal account of the researcher’s thoughts, feelings, or opinions of the people
with whom he/she encountered in the course of the researchers.
 Field Log – schedule of the researcher’s daily activities while conducting interviews or
observations in the actual field.

The log contains:

1. A description of the setting, participants or various activities that can be observed;
2. Remarks from the participants, whether good or bad; 3. Your comments as a researcher.

Challenges when Using the Observation Method

Observer Effect – the presence of the observer/researcher may tend to influence the behavior or action
of the participants.
Observer Bias – possibility that certain characteristics, ideas, or inclinations of the researchers may
affect what he/ she observes.

Elements of Effective Interview

Interview – conversation between two or more people wherein an interviewer asks questions to
gather specific information from the interviewee.

Doing Structured Interview

 Questions are already predetermined.
 Questions typically asked are those related to the interviewee’s demographic profile.
Conduct of Semi-structured Interview
 The questions are mostly open-ended questions.
 The flow of discussion is dependent on the responses of the respondents.
Administering an Informal Interview
 They resemble casual conversations as they do not involve any specific sequence of questions or
any particular form of questioning.
  The aim is to find out what the participants think about a certain issue and to obtain the
information or data based on an individual’s perspective.
 More flexible and self-explanatory

Handling a Retrospective Interview

The researcher tries to make the subject or participant recall something that happened in the past
and then reconstruct this from his/her memory.

Whatever the type of interviewing method a researcher chooses, he/she is expected to do the following:

  Respect the culture of the group being studied.

  Respect the individual being interviewed.
  Be natural.
  Develop appropriate a good rapport with the participant of the study.
  Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer or statement when there is some doubt about the
completeness of an answer.
  Avoid leading questions.

In addition, according to Denzin and Lincoln (2011) you can also be guided by the following to conduct an
effective interview:

  You have to be consistent with your wordings and the order or sequence in which the questions are
raised.
  Stay focused on the person being interviewed.
  Refrain from giving your ideas and opinions so as to avoid any biases in your data and to have good
control over time, duration, and structure of the interview.

Steering a Focus Group Discussion

 A focus group discussion is a discussion between a small group of people moderated by skilled
facilitator whose work is to generate different ideas and opinions on certain issues.

 It is an opportunity to gain insights about certain topics from a group of participants.

Some Factors that Need to be Considered in Selecting the Participant in the FGD

  Age – Usually, members of an FGD are in the same age bracket.

  Gender – The researchers has to determine if male and female participants will be included
in the group.
  Rank – usually, the participants in a group are in the same rank of authority.

An important component of the group discussion is the set of questions to be asked by the
facilitator. There can be 8-10 questions, depending on the depth of the discussion or the duration within
which the FGD shall be administered. The question must be brief, direct to the point, focused, open-
ended, and non-threatening.

Three Types of Focus Group Questions

1. Engagement Questions – introduce the participant to the topic.

2. Exploration Questions – get the insight of the participants in the research study.
3. Exit Questions – given to ensure that all the topics were covered and nothing was missed in the
discussion.