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“School of the Future”

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ENGLISH 7-10

Communication Skills: THE SENTENCE

A sentence begins with a capital letter. It ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.
To express a complete thought, a sentence must have a subject and a predicate.
A group of words that does not express a complete thought is a sentence fragment. Two sentences written as
one form a run-on sentence.

Good speech depends upon the ability to correctly produce the following characteristics of a language:
1. The sounds of the language
2. The intonation patterns
3. The rhythm of the language

INTONATION - refers to the rise and fall of your voice when you speak.
Three Basic Tones in English
1. High (3)
2. Normal (2)
3. Low (1)
*The rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation is common in yes-
no questions:
*The rising-falling intonation pattern is the general intonation for short statements and information questions.

a. When the voice moves sharply from one to another at the end of a statement, the change is called a shift.
b. When the rising and falling movement of the voice occurs within a one-syllable word, it is called glide.
STRESS - is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase
or sentence.

Rules in Stressing Words:

1. Most two-syllable words are stressed on the first syllable
ALways DRIver SUREly
2. Intensive and reflexive pronouns receive the stress on the second syllable
mySELF himSELF yourSELF
3. Numbers ending in –teen receive the stress on teen,; those ending in -ty are stressed on the first syllable
thirTEEN THIRty fourTEEN FOURty
4.Words ending in –tion, -sion, -ical and –ity generally have the primary stress on the syllable preceding the
suffix.
examiNAtion compLEXity hisTORical geneROSITY inVERsion ilLUsion
5. When a suffix is added to a word, the new form generally retains the stress on the same syllable as the word
from which it is derived.
HAPpy – HAPpiness ; CLOUDy – CLOUDiness ; asSIGN – asSIGNment
6. Many words show a shift in stress to indicate a noun or a verb use.
NOUN: PREsent , REcord, PERmit VERB: preSENT, reCORD,perMIT
7. Compound nouns generally place the primary stress on the first component and the secondary stress on the
second component.
SUNset THANKSgiving ARMchair BEEFsteak NEWSpaper HOME run
8. Compound verbs generally place the primary stress on the second component.
outDO overFLOW underSTAND overTHROW

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NOUNS
Nouns are names of entities – a person, place, thing or idea.
They have two inflections, the plural (-es) and the possessive (-s).
They may be marked by noun-forming derivational suffixes added to bases or stems, usually belonging to other
parts of speech,

e.g.
- {added to verbs} break + age = breakage ; employ + ee = employee
- {added to adjectives} able + ity = ability ; happy + ness = happiness
- {added to other nouns} literate + cy = literacy ; library + ian = librarian ; friend + ship = friendship
Functions of Nouns
Subject of Verbs Several items have ambiguous stems.
Direct Objects of Verb They administered the test.
Indirect Objects of Verb The lecturer provided the participants handouts.
Predicate Nominative We are students.
Object Complements The students chose him as their representative.
Object of Prepositions They are in our classroom.
Appositive Shakespeare, an English author, wrote Hamlet.
Vocatives / Nouns of Address Anne, how did you find the exam?
Noun Types
1. Common – nouns referring to a kind of person, thing or idea {e.g. boy, pencil, park}
2. Proper – names for unique individuals {e.g. Jake, Mongol, Star City}
PRONOUNS
● Pronouns are words that take the place of one or more nouns. The most frequently used pronouns are
called personal pronouns. They can be identified as:
First Person – refers to the person who is speaking
Second Person – refers to the person spoken to
Third Person – refers to the person spoken about
Cases of Pronouns
1. A subject pronoun is used as subject or predicate nominative.
Examples:
We run this house. (subject)
Who’s there? It is I. (predicate nominative)
2. An object pronoun can be used as a direct object, as an indirect object, or as an object of a preposition.
Examples:
Susan’s family loves her. (direct object)
Her sister gave her a beautiful dress. (indirect object)
Her parents prepared a party for her. (object of a preposition)
3. A possessive pronoun shows ownership or possession.
Examples:
These dogs are his. (possessive pronoun)
His dogs have won prizes at the dog show. (Pronouns used as adjective are sometimes called
possessive adjectives.)
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun adds info to a sentence by referring antecedent that is given earlier in a sentence.
Example: I taught myself how to play the piano.
An intensive pronoun adds emphasis to a noun or pronoun in the same sentence but does not add information
to the sentence.
Example: Jenny herself will work on the project.

PREPOSITIONS
● Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in
We use at to designate specific times.
Example: The train is due at 12:15 p.m.
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 We use on to designate days and dates.
Example: My brother is coming on Monday; We're having a party on the Fourth of July.
We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
Example: She likes to jog in the morning; It's too cold in winter to run outside; He started the job in 1971;
He's going to quit in August.
● Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in
We use at for specific addresses.
Example: Gary Elish lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.
We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.
Example: Her house is on Boretz Road.
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
Example: She lives in Durham; Durham is in Windham County; Windham County is in Connecticut.
● Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place.
Example: They were driving to work together; She's going to the dentist's office this morning.
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of
the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
Example: We're moving toward the light; This is a big step toward the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.
Example: Grandma went upstairs; Grandpa went home; They both went outside.
● Prepositions of Time: for and since
We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
Examples: He's been working here since 1970.
VERBS
● A verb denotes an action or a state of being. Action verbs are dynamic. State of being verbs include the
copula or linking verbs.
Types of Verbs
Intransitive Verbs (does not take an object)
Example: Flowers bloom.
Transitive Verbs (take direct and indirect object)
Example: Flowers need water and sunlight.
Linking / Copula Verbs (where what follows the verb relates back to the subject)
Example: Roses are sweet.
● TENSE is the grammatical marking on verbs that usually indicates time reference relative to either the
time of speaking or the time at which some other situation was in force.
● ASPECT is a general name given to verb forms used to signify certain ways in which an event is
viewed or experienced.
Meanings and Common Uses of Verb Tenses
1. Simple Present: the present in general
a. The simple present tense of verbs is used to express a habitual action.
Vilma wakes up early every morning.
Vilma and Mother pray and thank God for all His blessings.
b. The simple present tense of verbs is used to express a general truth that occurs or happens periodically.
The sun rises in the east.
The sun sets in the west.
c. The simple present tense of verbs is used to express a condition that is not repeated.
Isabel loves classical music.
Thea loves modern art.
Both love folk dances of the Philippines.

2. Simple Past: Stating a definite time in the past

a. To say that an event occurred or that something was the case at a particular time in the past.
The university flew into Jakarta last week to sign a memorandum of agreement with a sister school.
b. To say that a situation existed over a period of time in the past.
He lived in his ancestral home in the countryside during his last years.

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c. To talk about an activity that took place regularly or repeatedly in the past, but which no longer occur
We swam in the river a great deal in my childhood.

3. Simple Future: what might happen or what we intend to happen

a. The simple present tense can be used to express the future. It should be used with a time expression as in:
When do you turn eleven?
I turn eleven this coming August.
b. To be + going to can also be used to express the future:
When are you going to turn eleven?
I’m going to turn eleven in August.
c. Likewise, the present continuous can also be used to express the future. It should be uses with a time
expression as in:
When are you turning eleven?
I’m turning eleven in August.

MODAL VERBS
● The modal verbs include can, must, may, might, will, would, and should. They are used with other verbs
to express ability, obligation, possibility, and so on. Below is a list showing the most useful modals and
their most common meanings:
can to express ability I can speak a little Russian.
can to request permission Can I open the window?
may to express possibility I may be home late.
may to request permission May I sit down, please?
must to express obligation I must go now.
must to express a strong belief She must be over 90 years old.
should to give advice You should stop smoking.
would to request or offer Would you like a cup of tea?
would in if-sentences If I were you, I would say sorry.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT / CONCORD RULES WHICH OFTEN CAUSE ERRORS

BASIC RULE: The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a
plural verb.
NOTE: The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. The next trick is recognizing a singular
or plural verb.
HINT: Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In order to determine which verb is singular
and which one is plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with
them.
Examples: talks, talk
Which one is the singular form?
Which word would you use with him?
We say, "He talks." Therefore, talks is singular. We say, "They talk." Therefore, talk is plural.

1. The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody is always singular and, therefore, require
singular verbs.
Everyone has done his or her homework.
Somebody has left her purse.
Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, and some — are singular or plural depending on what they're referring
to. (Is the thing referred to as countable or not?) Be careful choosing a verb to accompany such pronouns.
Some of the beads are missing.
Some of the water is gone.
On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or plural; it often doesn't
matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless something else in the sentence determines its number.

None of you claims responsibility for this incident?

None of you claim responsibility for this incident?

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 None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the word there precludes the use
of the singular verb.

2. Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome and everybody (listed above, also) certainly feel like
more than one person and, therefore, students are sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are
always singular, though. Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the
cars), thus confusing the verb choice. Each,too, is always singular and requires a singular verb.
Example: Everyone has finished his or her homework.
You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular and nothing will change that.
Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.
Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always singular — Each is responsible.
3. Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The phrase introduced by as
well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as
the word and would do).
The mayor as well as his brothers are going to prison.
The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.
4. The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though they seem to be referring,
in a sense, to two things.
Neither of the two traffic lights is working.
Which shirt do you want for Christmas? Either is fine with me.
In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns are followed by a
prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly true of interrogative constructions: "Have either of
you two clowns read the assignment?" "Are either of you taking this seriously?" Burchfield calls this "a clash
between notional and actual agreement."
5. The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used the subject closer to the verb
determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject comes before or after the verb doesn't matter; the
proximity determines the number.
Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.
Neither my brothers nor my father are going to sell the house.
Are either my brothers or my father responsible?
Is either my father or my brothers responsible?

Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house" sounds peculiar, it is
probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb whenever that is possible.
6. The words there and here are never subjects.
There are two reasons [plural subject] for this.
There is no reason for this.
Here are two apples.
With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the verb but still determines the
number of the verb.
7. Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and anything those words can stand
for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-endings.
Example: He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . . .
8. Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must not confuse the
agreement between the subject and its verb.
Example: The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various
crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally going to jail.
9. Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when they're really singular and
vice-versa. Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs)
unless preceded by the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).
My glasses were on the bed.
My pants were torn.
A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.
10. Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require singular verbs.
The news from the front is bad.
Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
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On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural and require a plural
verb.
My assets were wiped out in the depression.
The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.
11. Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes singular and
sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same is true, of course, when all, any, more, most and some
act as subjects.) Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular
verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb: "More than one student has tried
this."
Some of the voters are still angry.
A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.
Two and two is four.
Four times four divided by two is eight.
12. If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other singular, the verb
should agree with the positive subject.
The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day.
It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
It was the speaker, not his ideas, that provoked the students to riot.

VOICES OF VERBS
is a property of verb which indicates whether the subject is the performer or the receiver of the action.
it can be active or passive
ACTIVE VOICE - used to emphasize the performer or the doer of the action.
Example: The victims ask the government officials for help.
PASSIVE VOICE - use to de- emphasize the performer of the action thereby emphasizing the
receiver or the object of the action.
Example: The government officials are asked by the victims for help.
MOODS OF VERBS
1. Indicative Mood
The indicative mood is used to state facts in sentences or clauses or to ask questions.
Examples:
a. The entire staff was present when the announcement was made.
b. Are you planning to attend the convention in Baguio?
c. When the news report is released, are we expected to make a public statement?
d. Mr. Basierto is an honest man.
e. Why are you here?

2. Imperative Mood
In the imperative mood, the verb (which is in present tense) expresses a command, a directive, a request, or an
appeal. The second person (you) is used in the sentence as the understood subject.
Examples:
a. Drive carefully on your way home.
b. Always place the protective covering over your computer when you leave work.
c. Please lock the door before leaving.
d. Do our work.
e. Be a man.

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3. Subjunctive Mood
Based on the conventions of grammar, the subjunctive mood has the following uses.
3.1 To express wish, hope, or regret
Examples:
a. I wish I were older.
b. Liza hopes I can travel around the world.
c. Had I come earlier, we would have met.
3.2 To express real and unreal conditions
Examples:
a. When I stay at my grandmother’s place, I will surely finish my homework. (real)
b. If you left for the United States, would you leave your television to your sister? (unreal)
3.3 In motions and resolutions
Examples:
a. I move that the nominations be closed.
b. Resolved, that the question be submitted to a committee.
ANTECEDENTS
● Pronouns get their meanings from the words they stand for. These words are called antecedents.
Antecedents usually come before their pronouns.
A personal pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, person and gender.
1. Use singular pronouns with two or more singular antecedents joined by or or nor.
Example: Neither Jim nor Teddy likes his part in the play.

2. Use a plural pronoun with two or more antecedents joined by and.

Example: Carol and Cynthia like their parts in the play.
3. When dealing with a pronoun-antecedent agreement, take care not to shift in either person or gender.
Examples:
Michael is studying French, a language you will need when you go abroad.
Michael is studying French, a language he will need when he goes abroad.
New York is known for its musical activities as well as her other cultural highlights.
New York is known for its musical activities as well as its other cultural highlights.
4. When gender is not specified, use a gender neutral term or rephrase the sentence.
Examples:
A guest thanks his host with a small gift.
A guest thanks the host with a small gift.
5. Use a singular pronoun when the antecedent is a singular indefinite pronoun.
Example: One of the women pledged her support.
6. Use a personal pronoun when the antecedent is a plural indefinite pronoun.
Example: Both of the women pledged their support.
BASIC SENTENCE PATTERN
1. S-IV
Early Filipinos traded with different nations.
The Malays and Indonesians came in sailboats.
2. S-TV-O
Our ancestors possessed engineering skills.
The ancient Filipinos formed communities.
3. S-LV-C
Prince Bantugan was a handsome man.
Prince Bantugan was good.
4. S-TV-IO-OC
The ladies gave Prince Bantugan their love.
5. S-TV-DO-OC
Everyone called Prince Bantugan a good man.
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES: SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX
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1. Simple Sentence also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete
thought.
Examples:
1. Some students like to study in the mornings.
2. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.
3. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.
2. Compound Sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as
follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.)
Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma.
Examples:
1. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.
2. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.
3. Alejandro played football, while Maria went shopping.
3. Complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence
always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when (and many others) or a relative pronoun
such as that, who, or which.
Examples:
1. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
2. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.
3. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.
4. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies
5. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.
4. Complex Sentences / Adjective Clauses sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are
also complex because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause.
1. The woman who called my mom sells cosmetics.
2. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf.
3. The house which Abraham Lincoln was born in is still standing.
4. The town where I grew up is in the United States.
ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
● How to order adjectives in English
In many languages, adjectives denoting attributes usually occur in a specific order. Generally, the adjective order
in English is:
Determiner Quantity/ Quality/ Size Age Shape Color Proper Purpose Noun
Number Opinion Adjective or
Qualifier
A beautiful old Italian sports car
The Three beautiful little gold plates
An heart- red and sofa
shaped white

INFINITIVE
Pattern: to + verb
Important Note: Because an infinitive is not a verb, you cannot add s, es, ed, or ing to the end.
● Infinitives can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
EXAMPLES:
1. To sleep is the only thing Maya wants after her double shift waiting tables at the neighborhood café.
● To sleep functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence.
2. No matter how fascinating the biology dissection is, Lenny turns her head and refuses to look.
● To look functions as a noun because it is the direct object for the verb refuses.
3. Wherever Melissa goes, she always brings a book to read in case conversation lags or she has a long wait.
● To read functions as an adjective because it modifies the book.
4. Richard braved the icy rain to throw the smelly squid eyeball stew into the apartment dumpster.
● To throw functions as an adverb because it explains why Richard braved the inclement weather.

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An infinitive will almost always begin with to. Exceptions do occur, however. An infinitive will lose the
preposition to when it follows certain verbs. These verbs are feel, hear, help, let, make, see, and watch.
Pattern: Special Verb + Direct Object + Infinitive + to
EXAMPLES:
1. As soon as Theodore felt the rain splatter on his hot, dusty skin, he knew that he had a good excuse to return
the lawn mower to the garage.
● Felt = special verb; rain = direct object;splatter = infinitive minus the to
2. When Danny heard the alarm clock buzz, he slapped the snooze button and burrowed under the covers for ten
minutes of sleep.
● Heard = special verb; alarm clock = direct object; buzz = infinitive minus the to.
3. Because Anna had never touched a snake, I removed the cover of the cage and let him pet Squeeze, my seven-
foot python.
● Let = special verb; him = direct object; pet= infinitive minus the to.
INFINITIVES
An infinitive is a verb form that typically begins with the word to. An infinitive phrase includes the infinitive,
plus any modifiers and complements. Infinitives and infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or
adverbs in a sentence.
1. Infinitive as a Subject
● Infinitives can function as subjects, but gerunds and gerund phrases take this role more commonly and
usually sound more normal. Typically, an infinitive at the beginning of a sentence will be part of an
adverbial phrase,
Example: To run seemed dangerous given the conditions.
● To run is the subject of the main verb. This is correct, but “Running seemed dangerous given the
conditions” sounds more natural.
2. Infinitive as a Direct Object
● Infinitives are much more common as direct objects: “I want to…” is one of the most common examples.
Place almost any verb after “to” in that sentence and you have a functional infinitive as a direct object.
However, that is certainly not the only phrase to use this construction:
Example: Jim decided to take the car for a test drive.
● To take is the direct object of the main verb decided.
3. Infinitive as an Adjective
● Infinitive phrases can be used as adjectives to modify a noun. In such a case, the infinitive phrase will
follow the now
Example: I need a book to read on the beach.
● To read on the beach describes the noun “book,” which is the direct object of the main verb need.
4. Infinitive as an Adverb
Example: To sleep, bats hang upside down
● To sleep is the infinitive. It functions as an adverb in the sentence, modifying hang.

Infinitive Phrases Versus Prepositional Phrases

The word appears in infinitive phrases and can also appear in some prepositional phrases. To distinguish between
these two types of phrases, pay attention to the word that directly follows to. If it is a verb, then the phrase is an
infinitive phrase. Prepositional phrases do not contain verbs.
EXAMPLES:
Infinitive Phrase: Thomas wants to take swimming lessons.
Prepositional Phrase: I brought my niece to the theater.
Split Infinitives
A split infinitive is an infinitive that has a word or words appearing between the to and the verb that follows it.
Avoid split infinitives by keeping the to and the verb together. To correct a split infinitive, move words such as
modifiers to a different location in the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
Original: I need to definitely see that movie!
Revised: I definitely need to see that movie!

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GERUND is a verbal that ends in –ing and functions as a noun.
Examples:
1. Reading magazines became the favorite pastime of many Filipino women.
● Reading is a gerund that functions as the subject in the sentence.
2. The educated Filipino woman makes reading a part of her everyday life.
● The gerund reading in the sentence functions as object of the verb
3. Many Filipino women claim that they benefit much from reading.
● The gerund reading in the sentence functions as the object of the preposition
GERUND PHRASE is a phrase consisting of a gerund and its modifiers. It acts as a noun.
● Gerund phrases may also have an object aside from its modifiers.
Examples:
1. Reading during the break time is a leisurely way of spending time.
● (The adverb phrase during break time modifies the gerund reading. The gerund reading is the subject of
the sentence.)
2. Buying clothes for the children at the mall can be a very hectic affair if there is a sale.
● (Clothes is the object of the gerund buying as it answers the question buying what? The other underlined
words are the modifiers in the gerund phrase.)
3. The unannounced reading of the text took everybody by surprise.
● (The article the, the modifier unannounced, and the adjective phrase of the text modify the gerund reading.
The gerund reading functions as the subject of the sentence.)

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