COMMUNICATIONS

Refers to the sending,

reception and
processing of
information by
electrical means
 Block Diagram of a Communications System

Information Recipient or
Source Noise Destination

Transmitter Channel Receiver

Information Source
selects symbols (letters, numbers, words,
sounds, etc) from an alphabet (or
ensemble) of possible symbols

Types of Information

radio, telephony, telegraph, broadcasting,

radar, radio, telemetry, and radio aids for
navigation
Transmitter
a collection of electronic components and
circuits designed to convert the
information into a signal suitable for
transmission over a given

Processes Involved

modulation, multiplexing, encoding,

encryption, and pre-emphasis (FM)
Channel
the medium by which the electronic signal
is sent from one place to another

Receiver
another collection of electronic
components and circuits that accept the
transmitted message from the channel and
convert it back into a form understandable
by humans
 Processes Involved

demodulation, demultiplexing, decoding,

decryption, and de-emphasis
(FM)

Noise
any unwanted form of electrical energy,
random and aperiodic in character which
tends to mutilate the desired signal
Basic Requirements

1. Accurate Communication
2. Fast Communication

Types of Signal
1. ANALOG
telephone, radio broadcast or TV
signals
2. DIGITAL
comprises of pulses at discrete
intervals of time
Transmission Paths

1. Line Communication
guided media which include
coaxial cable, twisted pair,
optical fibers and waveguides
2. Radio Communications
unguided media
 Basic Concepts

Frequency Wavelength
▪ number of times a ▪ distance between two points of
particular
similar cycles of a periodic wave
phenomenon
occurs at a given
time Bandwidth
▪ expressed in hertz ▪ portion of the electromagnetic
(1/1 sec) Hz spectrum occupied by a signal
 Nomenclature of Frequency Bands
NAME FREQUENCIES METRIC SUBDIVISION APPLICATIONS

Extremely Low 30 – 300 Hz - Power line transmission

Frequencies (ELF)
Voice Frequencies (VF) 300 Hz – 3 kHz - Audio

Very Low Frequencies 3 – 30 kHz Myriametric waves Government and military comms.,
(VLF) submarine comms.
Low Frequencies (LF) 30 – 300 kHz Kilometric waves Aeronautical and marine navigation
(long waves)
Medium Frequencies (MF) 300 kHz – 3 MHz Hectometric waves (medium AM radio broadcast
waves)
High Frequencies (HF) 3 – 30 MHz Decametric waves Shortwave radio broadcast, amateur
(short waves) radio and CB comms.
Very High Frequencies 30 – 300 MHz Metric waves FM broadcast
(VHF)
Ultra High Frequencies 300 MHz – 3 GHz Decimetric waves UHF TV, land mobile services and
(UHF) cellular telephones, microwave
comms.
Super High Frequencies 3 GHz – 30 GHz Centimetric waves Satellite comms., personal
(SHF) communication systems
Extremely High 30 – 300 GHz Millimetric waves Radar
Frequencies (EHF)
Significant Historical Events in Electronic Communications

DATES EVENTS
1830 American scientist and professor Joseph Henry transmitted the first
practical electrical signal .

1837 Samuel Finley Breeze Morse invented the Telegraph and patented it in 1844.

1843 Alexander Bain invented the facsimile.

1847 James Clerk Maxwell postulated the Electromagnetic Radiation Theory.

1860 Johann Philipp Reis, a German who produces a device called Telephone that
could transmit a musical tone over a wire to a distant point but incapable of
reproducing it.

1864 James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist established the Theory of Radio or
Electromagnetism which held the rapidly oscillating electromagnetic waves
exist and travel at through space with the speed of light.
DATES EVENTS
1875 Thomas Alba Edison invented Quadruplex telegraph, doubling existing line
qualities.
J. M. Emile Baudot invented the first practical Multiplex Telegraph and
another type of telegraphy codes which consisted of pre – arranged 5 - unit
dot pulse.
A. C. Cowper introduced the first Facsimile Machine or writing telegraph
using a stylus.

1876 Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson invented the Telephone
capable of transmitting voice signals (March 10).

1877 Thomas Edison invented the Phonograph.

1878 Francis Blake invented the Microphone Transmitter using platinum point
bearing against a hard carbon surface.

1882 Nikola Tesla outlined the basic principles of radio transmission and
reception.

1887 Heinrich Hertz detected electromagnetic waves with an oscillating circuit

and establishes the existence of radio waves.
DATES EVENTS
1889 Hertz discovered the progressive propagation of electromagnetic action
through space using a spark – gap wave generator, to measure the length
and velocity of electromagnetic waves and their direct relation to light and
heat as their vibration, reflection, refraction and polarization.

18790 Almon Strowger introduced the dial – switching system transmitting the
desired telephone number electrically without the assistance of a human
telephone operator.

1895 Marchese Guglielmo Marconi discovered ground – wave radio signals.

1898 Guglielmo Marconi established the first radio link between England and
France.

1901 Reginald A. Fessenden transmits the world’s first radio broadcast using
continuous waves. Marconi transmits telegraphic radio messages from
Cornwall, England to Newfoundland, first successful transatlantic
transmission of radio signals.

1904 John Ambrose Fleming invented the Vacuum Tube Diode.

DATES EVENTS

1906 Reginald Fessenden invented Amplitude Modulation (AM).

Lee De Forest added a grid to the diode and produced triode.
Ernst F. W. Alexanderson invented the Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver
(TRF) an HF Alternator to producing AC contributing to better voice
broadcasting.

1907 Reginald Fessenden developed the Heterodyne Receiver.

1918 Edwin H. Armstrong invented the Superheterodyne Receiver.

1923 J. L. Baird and C. F. Jenkins demonstrated the transmission of Black and

White Silhouettes in motion. Vladymir Zworykin and Philo Farnsworth
developed television cameras, the Iconoscope and the Image Detector. The
first practical television was invented in 1928.

1931 Edwin Armstrong invented the Frequency Modulation, greatly improving

the quality of the signals.

1937 Alec Reeves invented the Pulse Code Modulation for digital encoding of
PCM signals.
1945 Arthur C. Clarke proposed the use of satellites for long distance radio
transmissions.
DATES EVENTS

1946 AT&T introduced the first mobile telephone system for the public called the
MTS (Mobile Telephone System).
1947 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley introduced the bipolar
junction transistors which started a new trend in radio receiver design;
December 4.
1951 First transcontinental microwave system began operation.

1954 J. R. Pierce showed how satellites could orbit around the earth and effect
transmission with earth stations.
1957 Troposcatter Radio Link was established between Florida and Cuba by using
antennas and high powered transmitters to force microwaves beyond LOS
obstructed by earth’s curvature bulge.
Russia launched Sputnik I, the first active earth satellite, capable of
receiving, amplifying and retransmitting information to earth stations.

1958 Jack Kilby developed the first Monolithic Integrated Circuit Semiconductor
chip with active and passive elements.
1959 Robert Noyce invented the Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSIC).
DATES EVENTS

1962 AT&T launched Telstar I, the first satellite to received and transmit
simultaneously. A year later, Telstar II was launched and used for telephone,
TV fax and data transmission .

1965 COMSAT and INTELSAT launched the first communications satellite code
name Early Bird at approximately 34000 km above sea level.

1967 K. C. Kao and G. A. Bockam of Standard Telecommunications Laboratories in

England proposed the use of cladded fiber cables as new transmission
medium.

1977 First commercial use of optical fiber cables

1983 Cellular telephone networks introduced.

1991 Tim Berners – Lee developed World Wide Web (WWW).

 MODULATION
mixing of low frequency
signals (modulating signal)
with high frequency signals
(carrier signal)
imposition of information on
a given signal
process by which some
characteristic of a high
frequency sine wave is varied
in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the
signal
modification of one signal by
another signal
 Types of Modulation
a. According to carrier used

1. Pulse
1. Continuous Wave
carrier is a train of
carrier is a sinusoid
pulses (discrete)
 Types of Modulation
a. According to the method used

1. Analog
modulated parameter 2. Digital
is made proportional to change the form of a
the modulating signal given signal
 Reasons for Modulation

1. To reduce the antenna lengths

2. To reduce noise / interference

3. For frequency assignments

4. For multiplexing

5. To overcome equipment limitations

Analog Modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation
 2. Angle Modulation

a. Frequency Modulation b. Phase Modulation

 Digital Modulation

1. Pulse Code Modulation

2. Delta Modulation
Consider any sinusoid

ѵ(t)= V sin (ωt + ѳ)

ѵ = instantaneous amplitude
V = peak amplitude
ω = 2Πf; angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
ѳ = phase angle in radians
amplitude

phase
t = 1/f
NOTE
Any type of modulation should be reversible
(get back to the original signal) by process of
demodulation.
 Basic Emission Classification
First Symbol – Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission of unmodulated carrier N

Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude

-> Double – sideband A

-> Single – sideband, full carrier H

-> Single –sideband, reduced or variable level carrier R

-> Single – sideband, suppressed carrier J

-> Independent sideband B

-> Vestigial sideband C

Emission in which the main carrier is angled modulated

-> Frequency Modulation F

-> Phase Modulation G

 First Symbol – Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission in which the main carrier is angled and amplitude D
modulated simultaneously
Emission of pulses
-> Sequence of unmodulated pulses P
-> Sequence of pulses
->> Modulated in amplitude K
->> Modulated in width/duration L
->> Modulated in position/phase M
->> The carrier is angle – modulated during the Q
period of the pulse
->> Combination of the foregoing or is produced V
by other means
Cases not covered above or combination of two or more of the W
following modes: amplitude, angle, angle and phase
Cases otherwise not covered X
 Second Symbol – Nature of the Signals Modulating the
Main Carrier
No modulating signal 0

Digitally keyed carrier 1

Digitally keyed tone 2

Analog 3

Multichannel digital 7

Multichannel analog 8

Combination 9

Cases not otherwise covered X

 Third Symbol – Type of Information to be Transmitted
No information transmitted N

Telegraphy – for aural reception A

Telegraphy – for automatic reception B

Facsimile C

Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand D

Telephony (including sound broadcasting) E

Television (video ) F

Combination of the above W

Cases otherwise not covered X

 Fourth Symbol – Details of Signals
Two – condition code with elements of differing numbers A
and/or durations

Two – condition code with elements of the same number and B

duration without error correction

Two – condition code with elements of the same number and C

duration with error correction

Four – condition code in which each condition represents a D

signal element

Multicondition code in which each condition represents a E

signal element

Multicondition code in which each condition or combination F

of conditions represents a character
 Fourth Symbol – Details of Signals
Sound of broadcasting quality (monophonic) G

Sound of broadcasting quality (stereophonic or quadraphonic) H

Sound of commercial quality J

Sound of commercial quality with the use of frequency K

inversion or band splitting

Sound of commercial quality with separate frequency – L

modulated signals to control the levels of
demodulated signal

Monochrome M

Color N

Combination of the above W

Cases not otherwise covered X

 Fifth Symbol – Nature of Multiplexing
None N

Code – division multiplex C

Frequency – division multiplex F

Time – division multiplex T

Combination of frequency – division multiplex and W

time – division multiplex

Other types of multiplexing X

 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
A system of modulation
in which the amplitude
of the carrier is made
proportional to the
instantaneous Information
amplitude of the or
AM
modulating voltage. modulating modulator Output
signal (νm) (νAM)

Carrier
Carrier voltage is made (νc )
proportional to the
instantaneous
modulating signal
 General Equation of the AM wave

let the carrier voltage be given by

νc(t) = Vc sin ωc t
and the modulating voltage be given by
νm(t) = Vm sin ωm t
then the amplitude resulting from modulation is
A = Vc + νm (t) = Vc + Vm sin ωm t

Since and Vm = Vc ma, then

Therefore A = Vc + Vc ma sin ωm t
A = Vc (1 + ma sin ωm t )

The voltage of the resulting AM wave envelope at any instant is

νAM(t) = A sin ωc t
General Form
νAM(t) = Vc (1 + ma sin ωm t) sin ωc t
Standard Form

νAM(t) = Vc sin 2fc t + cos2 (fc - fm)t + cos2 (fc + fm)t

carrier lower sideband upper sideband

LSB USB
where
Vc = carrier signal peak voltage
ωc = 2Π fc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωm = 2Π fm = modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
ma = modulation index
 Frequency Domain of Standard AM

graph of relative amplitude of

signal against frequency Time Domain of Standard AM

νAM(t) carrier

LSB USB

fc - fm fc fc + fm
Envelope

the curve produced by joining the tips of the

individual RF cycles of the AM waveform

envelope
AM Modulation Index (ma)

Modulation index (modulation factor, modulation

coefficient, degree of modulation, depth of
modulation)

where

; 0 < ma < 1
Percent Modulation (Ma)

modulation index expressed as

a percentage

Ma = ma x 100%
Degrees of Modulation

1. Ma < 100%
undermodulation
no distortion will occur

2. Ma = 100%
modulation
ideal condition for AM
: generates output at
the receiver without
distortion

3. Ma > 100%
overmodulation
causes severe distortion
of the modulated
waveform
Example
A modulated wave has a peak value of 2 volts. The
carrier wave equation for the voltage is 1.2 sin(20t + 15).
Determine whether the signal is overmodulated or not.

Given
Vm = 2 V
Vc = 1.2 V

Solution

ma = 1.67 (overmodulated)
 Power Content of an AM Signal

PT = PC + PUSB + PLSB

PT = P C

NOTE
PUSB = PLSB
where PUSB = PLSB =

PSBT =

NOTE
PC is constant value before and after modulation. PT is the total power
after modulation and is dependent on the modulation index. The
higher the modulation index, the higher the output power.
Example
A transmitter supplies 8 kW to the antenna when
unmodulated. Determine the total power radiated when
modulated to 30%.

Given
Pc = 8 kW
ma = 0.3

Solution

PT = 8.36 kW
Current and Voltage Relationships

where
IC = unmodulated carrier
IT = total or modulated current
VC = unmodulated carrier voltage
VT = total or modulated voltage
ma = modulation index
Example
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only the carrier
is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Find
the percentage modulation.

Given
IC = 8 A
IT = 8.93 A

Solution

ma = 0.701

Ma = 70.1%
Simultaneous Modulation

modulation by several carrier

where
VT = total modulated voltage
IT = total modulated current
maT = effective total modulation index
Example
A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by 2 audio
waves with modulation percentage of 55 and 65,
respectively. What is the total sideband power radiated?

Given
PC = 360 W
Ma1 = 55%
Ma2 = 65%

Solution

PSBT = 153.26 W
 Bandwidth Formula for AM
BW = 2 x fm (single carrier modulation)

BW = 2 x fmhighest (simultaneous modulation)

Effiency

Percentage Power Saving

NOTE
Efficiency and power saving depends on the type of
transmission but the total transmitted power is computed on
the basis of double sideband full carrier.
Example
How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a
100 kHz bandwidth if the highest modulating frequency is
5 kHz?

Given
BW = 100 kHz
fmhighest = 5 kHz

Solution
BW = 2 x fmhighest
BW = 2 x 5 kHz
BW = 10 kHz
10 stations
 Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain
1. A3E – Standard AM (DSBFC)
- Double Sideband Full Carrier
- used for broadcasting

2. A3J – DSBSC
- Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

3. H3E – SSBFC
- Single Sideband Full Carrier
- could be used as a compatible AM
broadcasting system with A3E receivers

4. J3E – SSBSC
- Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
- The carrier is suppressed by at least 45 dB
in the transmitter
 Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain
5. R3E – SSBRC
- Single Sideband Reduced Carrier
- An attenuated carrier is reinserted into the
SSB signal to facilitate receiving tuning and
demodulation.
6. B8E – Independent Sideband Emission
- Two independent sidebands, with a carrier
that is most commonly attenuated or suppressed.
- Used for HF point – to – point radiotelephony
in which more than one channel is required.
7. C3F – Vestigial Sideband
- A system in which a vestige, i.e., a trace, of the
unwanted sideband is transmitted usually with
a full carrier.
- Used for video transmissions in all the world’s
various TV systems to conserve bandwidth.
8. Lincompex (for PCM)
- “Linked Compressor and Expander”
- Basically a system in which all audio
frequencies above 2.7 kHz are filtered out to
allow the presence of a control tone of 2.9 kHz
of 120 Hz.
NOTE
a) Information is present only in the sidebands.
b) During 100% modulation, 2/3 of the total power is
wasted in the carrier. The carrier power
percentage is 33.33% of the transmitted AM.
c) Information on the LSB is the same as the
information on the USB.

Single Sideband Modulation

▪ single sideband suppressed carrier (J3E)

▪ a form of amplitude modulation in which the
carrier has been cancelled out with the balanced
modulator and one of the sidebands has been
removed by using one of the three different
methods.
Example
An AM transmitter is rated 100 W at 100% modulation. How
much is required for the carrier? What is the power required for
the audio signal?

Given
PT = 100 W
Ma = 100%

Solution
PSBT = PT – PC
PSBT = 33.33 W

PC = 66.67 W
1. Filter Method
▪ the simplest system
▪ the unwanted sideband is removed, actually heavily
attenuated by a filter
▪ the filter maybe LC, crystal, ceramic or mechanical,
depending on the carrier frequency and other
requirements

Crystal
oscillator

SSB out to
linear
Sideband amplifier
Buffer Balanced Balanced
suppression
modulator mixer
filter

Filter Crystal
Audio
AF in for other oscillator or
amplifier
sideband synthesizer
 2. Phase – Shift Method
▪ avoids filters and some of their inherent disadvantages
▪ makes use of two balanced modulators and two – phase
shifting networks

Balanced
modulator
M1

AF in Audio SSB out

amplifier to linear
amplifier
Carrier
90° phase Adder
shifter

Carrier
source

AF Balanced
90° phase modulator
shifter M2
 3. “Third” or Weaver Method
▪ developed by Weaver
▪ has the advantages of the phase- shift method, such as its ability
to generate SSB at any frequency and use low audio
frequencies, without the associated disadvantage of an AF
phase shift network required to operate over a large range of
audio frequencies.

Balanced B Low – pass C Balanced

modulator M1 filter modulator M2

2cos ωc t 2cos ωc t
90° phase 90° phase
shifter shifter

sin ωc t 2sin ωc t 2sin ωc t D

A AF carrier RF carrier Adder
AF in generator generator SSB
out

Balanced E Low – pass F Balanced

modulator M3 filter modulator M4
Product Detector

▪ a means of single sideband detection

▪ mixing of high frequency component and an
incoming modulated signal on a multiplier
circuit followed by a low pass filter

Advantages of SSB

1. power saving
2. less bandwidth
3. less noise
4. less fading
Independent Sideband (ISB) Systems

▪ multiplex techniques used for high – density point –

to – point communications

▪ simultaneously convey a totally different

transmission, to the extent that the upper sideband
could be used for telephony while the lower sideband
carries telegraphy. It consist of two SSB channels
added together to form two sidebands around
reduced carrier.
Standard AM Transmitter

Transmitter Requirements

1. frequency accuracy and stability

2. frequency agility
3. special purity
(absence of spurious signals)
4. power output rating
5. efficiency
6. modulation fidelity
 AM Transmitter Functional Block Diagram
Antenna

High – level Low – level

Modulation modulation
Class B
RF Class A Class C Class C
RF linear
crystal RF buffer RF power RF output
power
oscillator amplifier amplifier amplifier
amplifier

AF AF AF Modulator
AF in processing pre – Class B (AF Class B
and amplifier power output
filtering amplifier amplier)
Crystal Oscillator
It provides a stable carrier frequency at
low power.

Buffer Amplifier

A low gain, high input impedance

amplifier that isolates the crystal
oscillator to improve its ability.

Class C RF Power Amplifier (Driver)

Provide enough gain to sufficiently drive

the modulated amplifier.
Class C RF Output Amplifier
Termed as the modulated amplifier or the RF output
amplifier. This is the output stage for high level
systems.

Linear Power Amplifier

Amplifier which provides linear power amplification

of the amplitude – modulated output signal from
the Class C modulated power amplifier (used for low
– level modulation ).
 AF Processing and Filtering
AF is processed / filtered so as to occupy the correct
bandwidth and compressed somewhat to reduce the
ratio of maximum to minimum amplitude.

AF Preamplifier

Boost the AF signal in order to provide enough gain

sufficiently to drive the modulator.

Modulator

Output is mixed with the carrier to generate the AM

signal.
 ADDITIONAL SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A modulated carrier wave has maximum and
minimum amplitudes of 750mV and 250mV.
Calculate the value of percentage modulation.
2. A 10MHz sinusoidal carrier wave of amplitude
10mV is modulated by a 5kHz sinusoidal audio
signal wave of amplitude 6mV. Find (a). the
frequency components of the resultant
modulated wave and their amplitudes, (b).
upper and lower sideband frequencies
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
3. An audio signal given by 15sin2(1,500t) amplitude
modulates a sinusoidal carrier wave 60sin2(100,000t).
Determine(a) modulation index (b) percent of
modulation (c) frequency of modulating signal and
carrier (d) frequency spectrum of the modulated wave.
4. In a broadcasting studio, a 1000kHz carrier is
modulated by an audio signal of frequency range 100-
5000Hz. Find the (a) width or freq. range of sidebands
(b) max and min freq of USB (c) max and min freq of
LSB (d) width of the channel
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
5. The tuned circuit of the oscillator in an AM
transmitter uses a 40H coil and a 1nF capacitor.
If the carrier wave produced by the oscillator is
modulated by an audio freq up to 10kHz,
calculate the freq band occupied by the
sidebands and the channel width.
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
7. The total power content of an AM wave is
2.64kW at a modulation factor of 80%.
Determine the power content of (a) carrier and
(b) each sidebands
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
type of angle modulation
wherein the frequency of the
carrier is varied relative to
the amplitude of modulating
frequency (signal)

General Equation of the FM Wave

νFM (t) = Vc sin (ωc t + mf sin ωm t )

where
Vc = carrier signal peak voltage
ωc = 2Πfc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωm = 2Πfm = modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
mf = modulation index
 Frequency Domain of Standard FM

νFM(t)

fc

fc + nfm
fc - nfm
Time Domain of Standard FM
 Frequency Deviation (δ)

▪ the amount of change in carrier frequency produced

by modulating signal
▪ the maximum frequency deviation occurs at the
maximum amplitude of the modulating signal

δ = fmax - fc
δ = fc - fmin

where δ = fmax + fc
δ
fc = carrier frequency CS
fmax = maximum frequency δ δ = fc - fmin
change of the carrier
fmin = minimum frequency
change of the carrier CS (Carrier Swing)
NOTE
The intelligence amplitude determines the a mount of
carrier frequency deviation. The intelligence frequency
determines the rate of carrier frequency deviation.

δ α Em
δ = k Em

k=
Example
Find the carrier and modulating frequencies , the modulation index
and the maximum deviation of the FM wave represented by the voltage
equation νFM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t). What power will this
FM wave dissipate in a 10Ω resistor?

Given
νFM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t)

Solution
ωc = 6 x 108 ωm = 1250

fc = 95. 49 MHz fc = 198.94 Hz

mf = 5
Solution
δ = mf fm
= (5 x 198.94)
δ = 994.72 Hz

P = 7.2 W
 Carrier Swing

the total variation in

frequency of the carrier

Modulation Index

NOTE
The modulation index determines the number of significant
sidebands in an FM signal. The modulation index for FM is directly
proportional to the modulating voltage and at the same time
inversely proportional to the modulating signal
frequency.
Example
A modulation frequency range from 30 to 15000 Hz is permitted
in an FM system, together with a maximum deviation of 50 kHz.
What will be the minimum and maximum possible values
of modulation index in the system.
Given
fm = 30 – 15000 Hz
δmax = 50 kHz
Solution

mf max = 1666.67 mf min = 3.33

Deviation Ratio

The ratio of the maximum permissible frequency

deviation to the maximum permissible modulating
frequency.

Percentage of Modulation
 Wideband FM vs. Narrowband FM

Descriptions Wideband FM Narrowband FM

Applications FM broadcast and Mobile
entertainment communications
Modulation index 5 – 2500 ≈1
(mf)
Maximum 75 kHz 5 kHz
deviation (δmax)
Modulating 30 Hz – 15 kHz 3 kHz (max)
frequency (fm)
Example
For an FM signal in the 88 – 108 MHz broadcast band with a
frequency deviation of 15 kHz, determine the percent
modulation.

Given
fm = 88 – 108 Mhz
δmax = 15 kHz

Solution

mf = 20%
 Frequency Spectrum of the FM Wave

νFM = J0 (mf) sin ωc t + J1 (mf ) [ sin (ωc + ωm)t – sin (ωc - ωm)t ]

amplitude of sidebands
the carrier with
signal frequencies

NOTE
For a single fm , you can produce an infinite number of
sidebands, in pairs, but most of them would be of negligible
amounts.
Transmitted Power

In FM, PT is constant.

NOTE
In FM, the total transmitted power always remains
constant, but with increased depth of modulation
the required bandwidth is increased.
Bandwidth Formulas for FM

a. Theoretical BW for FM

BW = 2 x fm x no. of highest needed sideband

b. Approximate BW

BW = 2(fm + δ) John Carsons Formula

c. NBFM

BW ≈ 2fm

d. WBFM
BW ≈ 2δ
Example
What is the bandwidth of a narrowband FM signal generated by a
2 kHz audio signal and a 110 MHz FM carrier?

Modulation Index (Mf) Sidebands or

J – coefficients
1 3
2 4
3 6
4 7
5 8

Given
fm = 2 kHz
fc = 110 MHz
Solution
B = 2 x fm x no. of highest needed sideband
B = 2 x 3 kHz x 7

B = 42 kHz

NOTE
negligible negligible

The theoretical bandwidth needed in FM is infinite.

Advantages of FM over AM

1.The amplitude of the FM carrier remains constant.

2. Increase in the S/N ratio (less noise)
3. It is possible to reduce noise still further by
increasing deviation and fitting with
amplitude limiters.
4. Less adjacent channel interference because
there are guard bands between FM stations
provided by the FCC and CCIR.
5. It is possible to operate several independent
transmitters on the same frequency with
considerably less interference.
Disadvantages of FM

1. A much wider channel is required by FM, 7 to 15

times as large as that needed by AM.

2. FM transmitting and receiving equipment

tends to be more complex, particularly for
modulation and demodulation, therefore more
expensive.

3. Since reception is limited to line of sight, the

area of reception for FM is much smaller
than AM.
Capture Effect

The inherent ability of FM to minimize the effect of

undesired signals (noise), also applies to the
reception of a strongest signal or stations and
minimizing other signals operating on the same
frequency.
Block Diagram of an FM Transmitter

Exciter
RF (the means of Power
oscillator providing an FM amplifier
RF signal )

Audio Pre-emphasis
amplifier network
 Pre -emphasis

The boosting of the higher

modulating frequencies at
the transmitter, in
accordance with the
pre –arranged curve to
improve noise immunity at
FM and prevent the higher
frequency component of
the transmitted
intelligence being
degraded.
 De -emphasis

Reducing the
amplitude of the higher
modulating frequencies
at the receiver to the
same amount as it was
before the
pre – emphasis circuit.

NOTE
The pre –emphasis and de – emphasis networks have a time
constant of 75 μs (150 μs for Europe , 25 μs for Dolby) and a cut –
off frequency of 2122 Hz.
NOTE
If two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude and
one of them is pre – emphasized to twice this amplitude, whereas
the other is unaffected, being at a much lower frequency , then the
receiver will naturally have to de –emphasize the first signal by a factor
of 2 to ensure that both signals have the same amplitude in the
output of the receiver.
Forms of Interference in FM

1. Image Frequency
▪ effect of two stations being received
simultaneously

2. Co – channel Interference

▪ true to mobile receivers; when travelling from

one transmitter toward another. This
minimizes by capture effect.

3. Adjacent Channel Interference

▪ created between tuning two adjacent stations
due the imperfection of filter circuits like
channel 2 and 3.
 Stereophonic FM Multiplex System (1961)

modulation system in which two – channel

system with left channel and a right channel
transmitted simultaneously and independently

NOTE
Stereophonic uses 38 kHz subcarrier from a pilot carrier of 19
kHz to produce sum and difference of the two channels. Also, a 67 kHz
subsidiary communications authorization (SCA) is added for optional
transmission in FM broadcasting.
Optional SCA
transmission
sum channel sub – difference channel
(L + R) carrier (L - R)

0 15 19 23 38 53 59.5 67 74.5
audio DSBSC AM FM
 Generation of FM Signals
A. Direct Method

▪ Varying the frequency of the

carrier oscillator directly

1. Reactance Modulator
Reactance of the capacitive or
inductive components of the
tank circuit vary in direct
relationship to the audio signal
which causes the oscillator
frequency to vary thereby
directly producing AM.
▪ The equivalent capacitance depends on the device
transconductance. The capacitance can be originally
adjusted to any value, within reason, by varying the
components R and C

Ceq = gm RC
Since

▪ The expression gmRC has the correct dimensions of

capacitance; R, measured in ohms, and gm measured in
siemens (S).

Therefore
Example
Determine the value of the capacitive reactance obtainable from
a reactance FET whose gm is 12 millisiemens (12 mS). Assume that
the gate – to – source resistance is 1/9 of the reactance of the gate – to –
drain capacitor and that frequency is 5 MHz.

Given n
gm = 12 mS
R = 1/9 Xc Xc = 9R

Solution

Xc eq = 750 Ω
2. Varactor Diode Modulator

Uses a varactor (voltage

variable capacitor) diode
that when reversed biased
exhibits a junction
capacitance that varies
inversely with the amount
of reverse voltage.
B. Indirect Method

▪ Armstrong Method
The modulating signal is modulated using
balanced modulator then fed to a summing
device together with a crystal that is shifted
90°. Wideband FM then obtain by
successive frequency multiplication of the output.
 high fc
and mf
Crystal carrier only
oscillator medium fc low fc high fc
and low mf and mf and mf
FM wave(very low
fc and mf )
Class C
Buffer Combining 1st group of Mixer 2nd group of
power
network multipliers multipliers
amplifiers

sidebands only

90° Phase Balanced Crystal

shifter Modulator oscillator

equalized audio

Audio
carrier at equalizer
90°
Phase Modulation

modulation wherein the phase of the carrier is

made proportional to the instantaneous value of
the modulating signal
General Equation of the PM Wave

ѵPM(t) = Vc sin(ωc t + mp sin ωm t)

where
mp = kpVm
mp = modulation index
kp = proportionality constant

Under identical conditions:

mp = mf but when fm is changed
mp k
mf changed
Example
The equation of an angle modulated wave is
ν(t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 2000t). Calculate the maximum
deviation. Rewrite this equation if the modulating frequency is
halved, but all else remains constant, assuming that the wave is:
a. frequency modulated
b. phase modulated

Given
νPM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 2000t)

Solution

fm = 318.31 Hz δ = 6.37 kHz

Solution
a. frequency modulated

νFM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 40 sin 1000t)

b. phase modulated

νPM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 1000t)

Frequency Modulation vs. Phase Modulation

Comparisons Phase Modulation Frequency Modulation

deviation (δ) δp is proportional to δf is proportional to Vm

Vm, independent on fm

modulation index mp is proportional to mf is proportional to

Vm Vm
and inversely
proportional to fm

when fm is changed mp will remain mf will increase as fm is

constant reduced, vice versa
Demodulation
▪ the process by which the modulating signal is
recovered from the modulated carrier
▪ found in receivers

Functions of a Receiver
1. selects the desired signal
2. amplifies
3. demodulates / detects
4. displays

Standard AM Receivers
1. Tuned Radio Frequency
2. Superheterodyne Receiver
 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

▪ a simple “logical” receiver

▪ simplicity and high sensitivity
▪ aligned at broadcast frequencies 535 – 1640 Hz

Power
amplifier

1st RF 2nd RF AM AF
amplifier amplifier detector amplifier

ganged
RF Amplifier
It amplifies weak signal from the antenna. It has a
variable resistor that controls the RF gain and
sensitivity.

Detector
It provides rectification and detection for
modulated signals.

AF Amplifier
Volume – controlled amplifier that raises the power
level of the audio (AF) signal to a value sufficient to
drive the loudspeaker of the receiver.
NOTE
RF stage provides greater gain, prevention of re –radiation of
the local oscillator, improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signals and
better coupling of antenna with the receiver.

Problems in TRF Receivers

1. instability
2. insufficient adjacent frequency
rejection
3. bandwidth radiations
 AM Superheterodyne Receiver

RF
fo fIF 1st IF 2nd IF AM AF
Mixer
amplifier amplifier amplifier detector amplifier
fsi
fs
Crystal
oscillator
ganged

RF Amplifier
Amplifies the weak RF NOTE
The RF section provides discrimination or
signal received from selectivity against image and intermediate
the antenna. frequency signals, provide an efficient
Selectivity of the coupling between the antenna and the first
receiver depends on stage of the RF amplifier.
this section.
 Local Oscillator
A crystal oscillator whose frequency “beats” with the
incoming signal to produce the correct intermediate
frequency.

Mixer (First Detector)

Combines the incoming RF signal and the signal from the
oscillator, and produces two original frequencies, their
sum and differences, and harmonics. It produces desired
intermediate frequency (IF).

1st IF Amplifier
Tuned to 455 kHz (IF of AM), amplifies it and rejects the
remaining output frequencies
 2nd IF Amplifier
Further amplification and selectivity of the IF signal. Most
of the gain (sensitivity) of the receiver are achieved on
the IF amplifiers.

AM Detector (2nd Detector)

It demodulates the IF signal and recovers or extracts the
original audio signal.

AF Amplifier
It raises the power level of the audio signal; to a value
sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the receiver.
 FM Superheterodyne Receiver

RF amplifier
and
preselector

IF amplifier De-emphasis Audio

Mixer (10.7 MHz) Limiter Detector network amplifier

Local oscillator
 Demodulation

The process of shifting the spectrum back to the

original baseband frequency range and
reconstructing the original form. Also known as
detection.

Sensitivity
Ability to amplify weak signals

Selectivity
Ability to reject unwanted signals(adjacent)
Image Rejection Ratio (α)
▪ Provided by tuned circuits to block fsi
▪ The ratio of the gain at desired frequency (fs)
to the gain of image frequency signal (fsi)

where
Q = quality factor provided by
tuned circuits to block fsi
fs = signal frequency
fo = oscillator frequency
fIF = intermediate frequency
fsi = image frequency signal

NOTE
fsi = fs + 2fIF ; the higher the fIF, the better
fsi = fo + fIF the image rejection
Example
In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having loaded Q of 100
in the antenna coupling circuit. If fIF is 455 kHz. Calculate the
image frequency and its rejection ratio of 1000 kHz.

Given
Q = 100
fIF = 455 kHz
fs = 1000 kHz

Solution
fs = fs + 2fIF
= 1000 kHz + 2(455 kHz)
fsi = 1910 kHz

α = 138.65