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May 14, 2015

Bullying: What We Know Based On 40

Years of Research
APA journal examines science aimed at understanding causes, prevention
WASHINGTON — A special issue of American Psychologist® provides a comprehensive review
of over 40 years of research on bullying among school age youth, documenting the current
understanding of the complexity of the issue and suggesting directions for future research.
“The lore of bullies has long permeated literature and popular culture. Yet bullying as a distinct
form of interpersonal aggression was not systematically studied until the 1970s. Attention to the
topic has since grown exponentially,” said Shelley Hymel, PhD, professor of human
development, learning and culture at the University of British Columbia, a scholarly lead on the
special issue along with Susan M. Swearer, PhD, professor of school psychology at the
University of Nebraska-Lincoln. “Inspired by the 2011 U.S. White House Conference on
Bullying Prevention, this collection of articles documents current understanding of school
bullying.”
The special issue consists of an introductory overview (PDF, 90KB) by Hymel and Swearer, co-
directors of the Bullying Research Network, and five articles on various research areas of
bullying including the long-term effects of bullying into adulthood, reasons children bully others,
the effects of anti-bullying laws and ways of translating research into anti-bullying practice.
Articles in the issue:
Long-Term Adult Outcomes of Peer Victimization in Childhood and Adolescence: Pathways to
Adjustment and Maladjustment (PDF, 122KB) by Patricia McDougall, PhD, University of
Saskatchewan, and Tracy Vaillancourt, PhD, University of Ottawa.
The experience of being bullied is painful and difficult. Its negative impact — on academic
functioning, physical and mental health, social relationships and self-perceptions — can endure
across the school years. But not every victimized child develops into a maladjusted adult. In this
article, the authors provide an overview of the negative outcomes experienced by victims
through childhood and adolescence and sometimes into adulthood. They then analyze findings
from prospective studies to identify factors that lead to different outcomes in different people,
including in their biology, timing, support systems and self-perception.
Patricia McDougall can be contacted by email or by phone at (306) 966-6203.

A Relational Framework for Understanding Bullying: Developmental Antecedents and

Outcomes (PDF, 151KB) by Philip Rodkin, PhD, and Dorothy Espelage, PhD, University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and Laura Hanish, PhD, Arizona State University.
How do you distinguish bullying from aggression in general? In this review, the authors describe
bullying from a relationship perspective. In order for bullying to be distinguished from other
forms of aggression, a relationship must exist between the bully and the victim, there must be an
imbalance of power between the two and it must take place over a period of time. “Bullying is
perpetrated within a relationship, albeit a coercive, unequal, asymmetric relationship
characterized by aggression,” wrote the authors. Within that perspective, the image of bullies as
socially incompetent youth who rely on physical coercion to resolve conflicts is nothing more
than a stereotype. While this type of “bully-victim” does exist and is primarily male, the authors
describe another type of bully who is more socially integrated and has surprisingly high levels of
popularity among his or her peers. As for the gender of victims, bullying is just as likely to occur
between boys and girls as it is to occur in same-gender groups.  
Dorothy Espelage can be contacted by email or by phone at (217) 333-9139.

Translating Research to Practice in Bullying Prevention (PDF, 157KB) by Catherine Bradshaw,

PhD, University of Virginia.
This paper reviews the research and related science to develop a set of recommendations for
effective bullying prevention programs. From mixed findings on existing programs, the author
identifies core elements of promising prevention approaches (e.g., close playground supervision,
family involvement, and consistent classroom management strategies) and recommends a three-
tiered public health approach that can attend to students at all risk levels. However, the author
notes, prevention efforts must be sustained and integrated to effect change. 
Catherine Bradshaw can be contacted by email or by phone at (434) 924-8121.

Law and Policy on the Concept of Bullying at School (PDF, 126KB) by Dewey Cornell, PhD,
University of Virginia, and Susan Limber, PhD, Clemson University.
Since the shooting at Columbine High School in 1999, all states but one have passed anti-
bullying laws, and multiple court decisions have made schools more accountable for peer
victimization. Unfortunately, current legal and policy approaches, which are strongly rooted in
laws regarding harassment and discrimination, do not provide adequate protection for all bullied
students. In this article, the authors provide a review of the legal framework underpinning many
anti-bullying laws and make recommendations on best practices for legislation and school
policies to effectively address the problem of bullying.
Dewey Cornell can be contacted by email or by phone at (434) 924-0793.

Understanding the Psychology of Bullying: Moving Toward a Social-Ecological Diathesis-Stress

Modelby Susan Swearer, PhD, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, and Shelley Hymel, PhD,
University of British Columbia.
Children’s involvement in bullying varies across roles and over time. A student may be
victimized by classmates but bully a sibling at home. Bullying is a complex form of interpersonal
aggression that can be both a one-on-one process and a group phenomenon. It negatively affects
not only the victim, but the bully and witnesses as well. In this paper, the authors suggest an
integrated model for examining bullying and victimization that recognizes the complex and
dynamic nature of bullying across multiple settings over time.
Susan Swearer can be contacted by email or by phone at (402) 472-1741. 
Shelley Hymel can be contacted by email or by phone at (604) 822-6022.

Copies of articles are also available from APA Public Affairs, (202) 336-5700.
The American Psychological Association, in Washington, D.C., is the largest scientific and
professional organization representing psychology in the United States. APA's membership
includes more than 122,500 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students.
Through its divisions in 54 subfields of psychology and affiliations with 60 state, territorial and
Canadian provincial associations, APA works to advance the creation, communication and
application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives.
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