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Dual nature and radiation

E = 𝐻+ 𝜈
𝐹
E = 𝜑 + KEmax 𝑃=
𝐴
 Nature of Light

Newton’s Corpuscular Theory (1637) Light is a particle

Huygens’ Theory (1678) Light is a wave

Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Wave Theory (1861) Light is a wave

Light is a particle Max Planck’s Quantum Theory of Light (1900)

Light has a dual nature De Broglie Hypothesis (1924)

 Newton’s Corpuscular Theory

• Light is made up of tiny elastic particles

called ‘corpuscles’.

• These particles travel with the

velocity of light.

• Light shows particle nature.

Corpuscles
 Huygens’ Theory

• Huygens theory supported the wave nature

of light.

• This theory proves the wave nature of

Source light with the help of law of reflection
and law of refraction.
 Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Wave Theory

𝑦
𝜆
𝐸𝑜
𝐵
• Maxwell asserted that light is an
electromagnetic wave and shows
𝐵𝑜 𝑋 wave nature.
𝑍
𝐸
 Max Planck’s Quantum Theory of Light

• Light is made up of packets of energy

Photons called photons found in the form of
chunks of energy.

• Energy of a photon,

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

ℎ → Planck’s constant (6.62 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠)

𝑓 → Frequency of source

• Energy is quantized (ℎ𝜈, 2ℎ𝜈, 3ℎ𝜈, 4ℎ𝜈 … . )

 De Broglie Hypothesis

• Proved the dual nature of light (wave nature and particle

nature).

• Light consists of particles associated with definite amount of

𝑐 energy and momentum.
𝜆
• These particles were later named as photons.

• Momentum of a photon,
𝜆
ℎ
Wave 𝑝= 𝜆 → Wavelength of light
𝜆

• Energy of a photon,

ℎ𝑐
𝐸= 𝑐 → Speed of light
𝜆
 One Electron-Volt (𝟏 𝒆𝑽)

One electron volt (1 𝑒𝑉) is defined as the amount of energy acquired by an

electron when it is accelerated under a potential difference of one volt.

𝐾. 𝐸 = 0 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑒 × 1
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑒 × 1 𝑃. 𝐸 = 0

𝑒− 𝐸 𝐸 𝑒− 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽

1𝑉 0𝑉 1𝑉 0𝑉
 Energy of Photon in 𝒆𝑽

• Energy of a photon (in 𝑒𝑉)

ℎ𝑐 6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝐸= = 𝐽
𝜆 𝜆(𝑚)

6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝐸= 𝐽
𝜆 Å × 10−10

6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝐸= 𝑒𝑉
𝜆 Å × 10−10 × 1.6 × 10−19

12400 1240
Photons 𝐸= 𝑒𝑉 𝐸= 𝑒𝑉
𝜆 Å 𝜆 𝑛𝑚
 Intensity, Total Energy and No. of Photons

Intensity of light 𝐼 : The energy crossing per unit area per unit time perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.

• Power,

𝑓, λ, 𝐼 𝑃 =𝐼⋅𝐴

• Total energy received in time 𝑡,

𝐴 𝐸 =𝐼⋅𝐴⋅𝑡

Radiation falling perpendicularly

• No. of photons falling per sec,

𝐼𝐴𝜆
𝑛=
ℎ𝑐
Properties of Photons

• There is no concept of conservation of number of

photon for isolated system.

• Energy and momentum of a photon is always

conserved.
• All the photons of a particular frequency or
wavelength posses the same energy irrespective of
the intensity of the radiation.

• The increase in the intensity of the radiation

(keeping wavelength of the radiation to be
constant) imply an increase in the number of
photons crossing the given area per second.
A beam of light having wavelength 4000 Å falls normally on a surface having area of
2 𝑚2 . If the number of photons falling per second on the surface is 1020 , find the
intensity of the light beam.

Solution:
12400
Energy of one photon, 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉 = 3.1 𝑒𝑉
4000 4000 Å

Energy received in 1 𝑠 = 1020 × 3.1 𝑒𝑉

= 1020 × 3.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
= 3.1 × 16 𝐽

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑠 3.1 × 16 2 𝑚2

Intensity, 𝐼 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2

𝐼 = 24.8 𝑊/𝑚2
 A beam of light having wavelength 6000 Å and intensity 42 𝑊/𝑚2 falls on a surface of
6 𝑚2 area at an angle of 30° with the surface. Find the number of photons falling per
second on the surface.

Given: 𝜆 = 6000Å, 𝐼 = 42 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐴 = 6 𝑚2 , 𝜃 = 30°

To find: No. of photons falling per sec (𝑛)

6000 Å, 42 𝑊/𝑚2 6 cos 30°

Solution:
Projection of area ⊥ to the = 6 cos 30°
direction of propagation 30°
ℎ𝑐
Intensity of light, 𝐼=𝑛
𝜆𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝐼𝜆𝐴 cos 𝜃
⇒𝑛=
ℎ𝑐
6 𝑚2

42 × 6000 × 10−10 × 6 cos 30°

⇒𝑛=
6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝑛 = 6.587 × 1020
 Calculate the number of photons emitted per second by a 10 𝑊 sodium vapour lamp.
Assume that 60% of the consumed energy is converted into light. (Wavelength of
sodium light = 590 𝑛𝑚.)

Solution:
Energy of one photon,

1240 1240
𝐸= 𝑒𝑉 = 𝑒𝑉 = 2.1 𝑒𝑉
𝜆 𝑛𝑚 590

𝐸 = 2.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽

Light energy emitted per second,

𝐸 = 0.6 × 10 = 6 𝑊
⇒ 𝑛 × 2.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 6

𝑛 = 1.77 × 1019
If a beam of light having wavelength 𝜆 and intensity 𝐼 falls normally on an area 𝐴 of a
clean surface, then find out the number of photons falling per unit time on the
surface.

Solution:
ℎ𝑐
Energy of one photon, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 =
𝜆 λ, 𝐼

Energy per unit time = Power = 𝐼 ⋅ 𝐴

Number of photons falling per unit time,

𝐴
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐼⋅𝐴
𝑛= = Radiation falling perpendicularly
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑐
𝜆

𝐼𝐴𝜆
𝑛=
ℎ𝑐
 Free Electrons

• In metals, the electrons in the outer shells of the

atoms are loosely bound.

• They are quite free to move easily within the metal

surface but can not leave the metal surface. Such
loosely bound electrons are called free electrons.

• The minimum amount of energy required to

remove an electron from the metal surface is called
work function 𝜙 .

• The work function depends on the nature of the

metal surface.
 Thermionic Emission

Electrons
Emission
Electrons

• By suitably heating, sufficient thermal

energy can be imparted to the free
electrons to enable them to come out
of the metal.

Metal Piece
Heat
 Field Emission

Strong
Electrons Electric
Field

• By applying a very strong electric field

(of the order of (108 𝑉/𝑚) to a metal,
electrons can be pulled out of the metal.

Metal
Photoelectric Emission

• When light of suitable frequency

illuminates a metal surface, free electrons
are emitted from the metal surface.

• These photo(light) generated electrons

are called photoelectrons.
 Hallwachs’ Observation

• When uncharged zinc • If the negatively • If the plate is positively

plate is irradiated by charged zinc plate is charged, it becomes
ultraviolet light, it exposed to more positive upon UV
becomes positively ultraviolet light, the rays irradiation and the
charged and leaves leaves will close as leaves will open further.
will open. the charges leaked
away quickly.

• When ultraviolet light is incident
on the negative plate 𝐶, an
electric current flows in the
circuit that is indicated by the
deflection in the galvanometer.
Lenard’s Observation
• If the positive plate is
irradiated by the ultraviolet
light, no current is observed
in the circuit.
Conclusion:
• When ultraviolet light falls on the
negative plate, electrons are ejected
from it which are attracted by the
positive plate 𝐴.
• On reaching the positive plate through
the evacuated bulb, the circuit is
completed and the current flows in it.
• Thus, the UV light falling on the
negative plate causes the electron
emission from the surface of the plate.
 Photoelectric Effect

Ejection of electrons from material due to bombarding of photons on

it is known as photoelectric effect.

• The ejection of electrons from material depends on a

- - certain property of the material, and the wavelength
(or, frequency) of the incident light.

• The ejection of the electron from the material is an

instantaneous process.
 The time taken by a photoelectron to come out after the photon strikes is
approximately

JEE 2006

A 10−1 𝑠 B 10−20 𝑠

C 10−10 𝑠 D 10−16 𝑠
 Photoelectric Effect

• Above a particular wavelength or below a particular frequency, no photocurrent is produced even at very high
intensity of light.

𝐶: Emitter 𝐴: Collector
Intensity

𝐼, 𝑓, 𝜆
0 100 % • Energy of Photon
UV IR

400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
𝐶 𝐴
Electrons
𝜇𝐴 Microammeter ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
𝜆
𝑉(Variable Source)

• The required frequency or wavelength for ejection of electron depends on material.

• Below a particular wavelength, photocurrent is produced even at lower intensity.

Photon of frequency 𝑓 has a momentum associated with it. If 𝑐 is the velocity of light,
the momentum is

• The energy of photon, JEE 2007

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 … … … 1

𝑓, 𝑐 Also,
- - 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐 … … … 2
Where, 𝑝 is momentum

• From 1 and 2, we get,

ℎ𝑓
𝑃=
𝑐
 Threshold Wavelength and Frequency

• The value of wavelength 𝜆0 above which no photocurrent is produced is known as

threshold wavelength.

• The value of frequency 𝑓0 below which no photocurrent is produced is known as

threshold frequency.

ℎ𝑐
• Minimum energy of photon to eject electron is: 𝐸=
𝜆0
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓0
 Photoelectric emission occurs only when the incident light has more than a certain
minimum

A Power B Wavelength

C Frequency D Intensity
 Photoelectric Effect

• If 𝜆 > 𝜆0 and 𝑓 < 𝑓0 , then emission of electrons will not happen, whatever be the
intensity.
• If 𝜆 < 𝜆0 and 𝑓 > 𝑓0 , in this case with increase in intensity, number of electrons
ejected also increases.

Intensity

0 100 %
𝐼, 𝑓, 𝜆 UV IR

400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚
𝐶 𝐴
Electrons
𝜇𝐴 Microammeter

𝑉(Variable Source)
 Work Function (𝝓)

The minimum amount of energy required to bring out the electrons from the surface of a
material is known as work function of that material.

𝑓 > 𝑓0 , 𝜆 < 𝜆0
• It is constant for a particular metal surface,
but it is different for different materials.

ℎ𝑐 12400
𝜙= = ℎ𝑓0 = 𝑒𝑉
𝜆0 𝜆0 (Å)
The work function of a substance is 4 𝑒𝑉. The longest wavelength of light can cause
photoelectron emission from this substance is approximately:

JEE 2004
• Given: 𝜙 = 4 𝑒𝑉

• Solution: Let 𝜆𝑚 = Longest wavelength of light

ℎ𝑐
=𝜙
𝜆𝑚

ℎ𝑐
⇒ 𝜆𝑚 = ⇒ 𝜆𝑚 = 310 𝑛𝑚
𝜙
 Assumptions Verified by Photoelectric Experiment

• One photon can only give energy to one electron

and a particular electron can take energy from a
single photon.
𝐸

• After absorption of photons, electrons can undergo

multiple collisions within the material and lose their
energy.

• An electron can only come out of the metal surface

when its energy left after multiple collisions inside
the metal is greater than the work function .
 Einstein’s Relation

ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓0 + 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

• 𝑓 is the frequency of source emitting light.

• 𝑓0 is the minimum frequency required to eject

electron from material.

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓0

• We know that the energy of one ejected electron can

also be written as:

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
= + 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜆 𝜆𝑜
 According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, the graph of the kinetic energy of the
emitted photoelectrons from a metal versus the frequency of the incident radiation
is a straight line whose slope:

JEE 2004
• According to Einstein’s theory, 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓0

• Comparing Einstein’s equation with, 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

We get slope of straight line as ℎ, which is a constant.

Hence, the slope is same for all metals and independent of the
intensity of radiation.
 In photoelectric effect experiment the threshold wavelength of light is 380 𝑛𝑚. If the
wavelength of incident light is 260 𝑛𝑚, the maximum kinetic energy of emitted
electron will be [Given 𝐸 𝑒𝑉 = 1237/𝜆(in 𝑛𝑚)]

JEE 2013
• Given: 𝜆0 = 380 𝑛𝑚, 𝜆𝑖 = 260 𝑛𝑚

• Solution: 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝑓𝑖 − 𝑓0 )

𝑐 𝑐 1 1
⇒ 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =ℎ − ⇒ 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑐 −
𝜆𝑖 𝜆0 𝜆𝑖 𝜆0

1 1
⇒ 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1237 −
𝜆𝑖 𝜆0

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.5 𝑒𝑉
 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

Case1: When the potential between the

collector plate and emitter plate is
zero:

• Only a few electrons out of all the ejected

𝐶 𝐴 electrons could reach the collector plate.

0
• This is because, in absence of electric field
V between the emitter and the collector
0
plate, there is no force applied on the
A electrons that can help electrons to reach
the collector plate.
𝑉=0
 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

𝐶 𝐴 𝐶 𝐴
𝐹𝑒 𝐸 𝐹𝑒 𝐸

𝑉 𝑉
𝜇𝐴 𝜇𝐴

𝑉 𝑉

• When the collector plate is at higher • When the emitter plate is at higher
potential, electric field accelerates the potential, electric field decelerates the
electrons. electrons.
 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

Case2: When the collector plate potential

is increased:

• With increase in positive potential, the no.

of electrons reaching the collector plate
𝐶 𝐴 also increases. Therefore the current also
increases.

0
• At a certain potential, all the ejected
V electrons will reach the collector plate
0

A and with further increase in potential

there is no change in the no. of electrons
reaching the collector plate.
𝑉
 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

Case2: When the collector plate potential

is increased:

• With further increase in potential, the

current will also remain constant. This
𝐶 𝐴 maximum current is called saturation
current 𝐼𝑆 .

V Saturation current:
0

A When all the ejected photoelectrons reach

collector plate, the current reaches
maximum value which is called saturation
𝑉 current.
 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

Case3: When the emitter plate potential

is increased:

• With increase in the magnitude of

potential on negative side, fewer and
𝐶 fewer electrons reach the collector plate
𝐴
and hence the current decreases.

0
• At a certain potential, the current
V
becomes zero which means not a single
0 electron will reach the collector plate.
𝜇A

𝑉𝑆 • This negative potential at which current

becomes zero is called stopping potential
(𝑉𝑆 ).
 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

Applying conservation of mechanical

energy between 𝐶 and 𝐴
𝐶 𝐴
𝑉𝑆 0
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑈𝐶 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝐶 = 𝑈𝐴 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝐴
𝐾. 𝐸 = 0
𝑈 = −𝑒𝑉𝑆 𝑈=0
0 −𝑒𝑉𝑆 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0 + 0
V
0

𝜇A
𝑒𝑉𝑆 = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑉𝑆
 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

• Number of electrons emitting per • No. of photoelectrons emitted ∝ Intensity

second depends on the intensity of
light.

• At a given frequency of incident radiation,

the stopping potential is independent of its
• 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 depends on the energy of each
intensity.
photon.
Light of wavelength 𝜆 = 400 𝑛𝑚 is incident on a metal surface of work function
𝜙 = 1.6 𝑒𝑉. Find the magnitude of stopping potential.

Given: 𝜆 = 400 𝑛𝑚, 𝜙 = 1.6 𝑒𝑉

To find: Stopping potential (𝑉𝑆 )

ℎ𝑐
Solution: 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝜙
𝜆
1240 𝑒𝑉
⇒ 𝑒𝑉𝑠 = −𝜙
𝜆 (𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑚)

1240
⇒ 𝑒𝑉𝑠 = 𝑒𝑉 − 1.6 𝑒𝑉
400

⇒ 𝑒𝑉𝑠 = 3.1 𝑒𝑉 − 1.6 𝑒𝑉 = 1.5 𝑒𝑉

𝑉𝑠 = 1.5 𝑉
 Effect Frequency on Stopping Potential

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙

𝑒𝑉𝑠 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙

ℎ 𝜙
Potential, 𝑉𝑆

𝑉𝑠 = 𝑓−
Material 𝐴 𝑒 𝑒
Stopping

Material 𝐵 • Stopping potential varies linearly with the

frequency for a given photosensitive material.

ℎ 𝜙
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑓−
𝑒 𝑒
𝑓𝑜 𝑓0′ Frequency, 𝑓
𝜙𝐴 Comparing with 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
− 𝑓 > 𝑓𝑜
𝑒
ℎ
𝜙𝐵 𝑓 > 𝑓′𝑜 • Slope of graph =
𝑒
−
𝑒 • Slope is constant for all materials
𝜙
• y-intercept =−
𝑒
 Observations of Photoelectric Effect

ℎ𝑓 = 𝜙 + 𝑒𝑉𝑠

Photocurrent
• Stopping potential depends on frequency
𝐼3 > 𝐼2 > 𝐼1 and wavelength of the incident light. It also
depends on work function of the surface.
𝐼3 • Stopping potential does not depend on
𝐼2 intensity of light.
𝐼1
• Saturation current ∝ intensity of light
Stopping
potential
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 − 𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
−𝑣𝑒 −𝑉𝑆 𝑂 Collector plate +𝑣𝑒 = const.
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓 > 𝑓0
Potential
 Observations of Photoelectric Effect

Saturation
Parameter 𝑽𝒔
Current

𝜙 = constant ; 𝐼 = constant 𝑓↑ ↑ ↓

𝜙 = constant ; 𝑓 = constant 𝐼↑ Constant ↑

𝐼 = constant ; 𝑓= constant 𝜙↓ ↑ Constant

 The Intensity Problem

Wave Theory Particle Theory

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙

The maximum kinetic energy of a

photoelectron doesn’t depend on the
intensity of the incident light.

Photoelectrons will get

The photoelectric effect should occur
ejected only when incident
for any frequency of the light, provided
light frequency is more than
that the light is intense enough to
the threshold value for any
eject the photoelectrons.
intensity.

Light energy is uniformly

distributed among the electrons.
Whole of the energy associated
The electron will take some time
with a photon is absorbed by a
to accumulate enough energy to
free electron. Hence emission is
escape from the metal surface.
instantaneous.
Hence there should be a time lag.
 Radiation Pressure

Radiation pressure : The pressure experienced by the surface exposed to

the radiation.

• The magnitude of radiation pressure

is so minute that it has no effect on
our normal life.

𝐴
 Radiation Pressure

Incident Energy

Absorption Reflection Transmission

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝑎= 𝑟= 𝑡=
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑎 = Absorptive power of 𝑟 = Reflective power of 𝑡 = Transmitted power

the material the material of the material

𝑎+𝑟+𝑡 =1
 Which of the following options is/are correct regarding the average pressure?
Given that 𝐹⊥ → perpendicular force, 𝐴⊥ →perpendicular area.

𝐹⊥ൗ
A 𝐹ൗ
𝐴 B 𝐴

𝐹ൗ 𝐹⊥
C 𝐴⊥ D ൗ𝐴
⊥
 Average Force

Average Force:

Δ𝑃
𝐹Ԧ𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
Δ𝑡

For a continuous process,

𝐹Ԧ𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = Δ𝑃 in 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐴
Average Pressure:
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ⊥ 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
 Radiation Pressure: Complete Absorption

𝐼𝐴𝜆
Total no. of photons incident per sec = 𝐼, 𝜆
ℎ𝑐

ℎ
Change in momentum of each photon, ∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆

𝐼𝐴𝜆 ℎ 𝐼𝐴
Total Change in momentum per sec = × =
ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐 𝐴

Radiation falling perpendicularly

𝐼𝐴
Average force on the surface =
𝑐

𝐼𝐴
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
Radiation pressure, 𝑃 = ⊥
= 𝑐
𝐴 𝐴

𝐼
𝑃=
𝑐
 Radiation Pressure: Complete Reflection
ℎ𝑐
Energy of each photon =
𝜆
𝐼𝐴𝜆
Total no. of photons incident per sec = 𝐼, 𝜆
ℎ𝑐
ℎ
Initial momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆

ℎ
Final momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑓 = −
𝜆
𝐴

Magnitude of Change in momentum of each photon, Radiation falling perpendicularly

2ℎ
∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆
𝐼𝐴𝜆 2ℎ 2𝐼𝐴
Total Change in momentum per sec = × =
ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐
2𝐼𝐴
Net force acting on the surface =
𝑐
2𝐼𝐴 2𝐼
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃=
Radiation pressure, 𝑃= ⊥
= 𝑐 𝑐
𝐴 𝐴
Light with an intensity of 18 𝑊/𝑐𝑚2 falls on a non-reflecting surface at normal
incidence. If the surface has an area of 20 𝑐𝑚2 , find the average force exerted on the
surface during a 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 time span.

Given: 𝐼 = 18 𝑊/𝑐𝑚2 , 𝐴 = 20 𝑐𝑚2

To find: Average force 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔

Solution: 18 𝑊/𝑐𝑚2

For complete absorption:

Δ𝑝 𝐼𝐴
Total change in momentum per sec, =
Δ𝑡 𝑐 20 𝑐𝑚2
Average force exerted on the surface,

Δ𝑝 𝐼𝐴 18 × 20
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = Radiation falling perpendicularly
Δ𝑡 𝑐 3 × 108

𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 1.2 × 10−6 𝑁

 Radiation Pressure: Partial Reflection

Partial reflection (0 < 𝑟 < 1) (0 < a < 1)

⇒𝑎+𝑟 =1 (Neglecting transmission) 𝐼, 𝜆

𝐼𝐴𝜆
No. of photons incident per unit time, 𝑁=
ℎ𝑐

𝐼𝐴𝜆
No. of photons reflected per unit time, 𝑁𝑅 = 𝑁 × 𝑟 = 𝑟
ℎ𝑐
𝐴
𝐼𝐴𝜆
No. of photons absorbed per unit time, 𝐴
𝑁 = 𝑁 × 𝑎 = (1 − 𝑟)
ℎ𝑐
Radiation falling perpendicularly
2ℎ
Change in momentum of Each photon when it is reflected =
𝜆
2ℎ 𝐼𝐴𝜆 2ℎ 2𝐼𝐴
Force on plate due to reflected photons 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑁𝑅 ×
= 𝑟× = 𝑟
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐
Change in momentum of Each photon when it is absorbed = ℎ/𝜆 Radiation pressure
ℎ 𝐼𝐴𝜆 ℎ 𝐼𝐴
Force on plate due to absorbed photons 𝐹𝐴 = 𝑁𝐴 × = (1 − 𝑟) × = (1 − 𝑟) 𝐹 𝐼
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐 𝑃= = (1 + 𝑟)
2𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴 𝐴 𝑐
Total force on the plate 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐴 = 𝑟+ 1−𝑟 = 1+𝑟
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
 Light of uniform intensity impinges perpendicularly on a totally reflecting
surface. If the area of the surface is halved, the radiation force on it will
become

A Double B Half

C Four times D One fourth

 Radiation Pressure: Oblique Incidence

Complete absorption (𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = 0)
𝐼, 𝜆
The energy incident per unit time on the surface area 𝐴 will be,
𝐸
= 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝑡 𝜃
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
No. of photons incident per unit time, 𝑁 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐴
𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆
= Oblique incidence
ℎ𝑐

Initial momentum of Each photon, 𝑝𝑖 = ℎ/𝜆

Final momentum of Each photon, 𝑝𝑓 = 0

ℎ
Change in momentum of Each photon, ∆𝑝 =
𝜆

Total change in momentum per unit time, ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 1𝑠

ℎ 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆 ℎ 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
=𝑁× = × =
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐
 Radiation Pressure: Oblique Incidence

Complete absorption (𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = 0)
𝐼, 𝜆
𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝐹 sin 𝜃
Average force on the plate, 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑐
𝜃
𝐹
𝐹 cos 𝜃
The component of average force perpendicular to surface is,
𝐴
𝐼𝐴 cos2 𝜃
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 cos 𝜃 =
⊥ 𝑐
Oblique incidence

Hence, Radiation pressure:

𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐼
⊥
𝑃= = cos2 𝜃
𝐴 𝑐
 Radiation Pressure: Oblique Incidence

Complete reflection (𝑟 = 1, 𝑎 = 0)
𝐼, 𝜆

The energy incident per unit time on the surface area 𝐴

will be,
𝐸 𝜃
= 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝑡
𝐴
No. of photons incident per unit time,
Oblique incidence
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑁 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛

𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆
=
ℎ𝑐
 Radiation Pressure: Oblique Incidence

Complete reflection (𝑟 = 1, 𝑎 = 0)
𝐼, 𝜆
Initial momentum of Each photon, 𝑝𝑖 = ℎ/𝜆
ℎ
ℎ 𝑝𝑓 =
Final momentum of Each photon, 𝑝𝑓 = ℎ/𝜆
−𝑝𝑖 = 𝜆
𝜆 𝜃 𝜃
2ℎ
Change in momentum of Each photon, ∆𝑝 = cos 𝜃
𝜆 𝐴

Total change in momentum per unit time, ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 1𝑠 Oblique incidence

𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆 2ℎ 2𝐼𝐴
∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 1𝑠 = 𝑁 × ∆𝑝 = × cos 𝜃 = cos2 𝜃
ℎ𝑐 𝜆 𝑐
Average force on the plate, 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 1𝑠
2𝐼𝐴 Radiation pressure:
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = cos2 𝜃
𝑐
2𝐼
Since the radiation is falling on the surface perpendicularly, the average pressure will be, 𝑃= cos2 𝜃
𝑐
 Radiation Pressure: Partial Reflection

Partial reflection (0 < 𝑟 < 1) (0 < a < 1)

𝐼, 𝜆

⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑟 = 1 (Neglecting transmission)

𝜃
The energy incident per unit time on the surface area 𝐴
will be,
𝐸 𝐴
= 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝑡
Oblique incidence
No. of photons incident per unit time,

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑁 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛

𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆
=
ℎ𝑐
 Radiation Pressure: Partial Reflection

Partial reflection (0 < 𝑟 < 1) (0 < a < 1) (𝑎 + 𝑟 = 1)

𝐼, 𝜆

No. of photons reflected per unit time,

𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆 𝜃
𝑁𝑅 = 𝑁 × 𝑟 = 𝑟
ℎ𝑐

No. of photons absorbed per unit time, 𝐴

𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁 × 𝑎 (1 − 𝑟) Oblique incidence
ℎ𝑐

2ℎ
Change in momentum of Each photon when it is = cos 𝜃
reflected 𝜆

2ℎ 2𝐼𝐴 cos 2 𝜃
Force on plate due to reflected photons 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑁𝑅 × cos 𝜃 = 𝑟
𝜆 𝑐
 Radiation Pressure: Partial Reflection

Partial reflection (0 < 𝑟 < 1) (0 < a < 1) (𝑎 + 𝑟 = 1)

𝐼, 𝜆

ℎ
Change in momentum of Each photon when it is =
absorbed 𝜆 𝜃

Force on plate due to absorbed photons 𝐴

ℎ 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝐹𝐴 = 𝑁𝐴 × = (1 − 𝑟) Oblique incidence
𝜆 𝑐

𝐼𝐴 cos 2 𝜃
Net normal force on the plate 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐴 cos 𝜃 = (1 + 𝑟)
𝑐

Radiation Pressure: 𝐹 𝐼
𝑃= = cos 2 𝜃 (1 + 𝑟)
𝐴 𝑐
 Matter Waves

Louis Victor de Broglie put forward the bold

hypothesis that moving particles should display
wave like properties under suitable conditions.

Louis Victor de Broglie

1892 − 1987
 Matter Waves

• De Broglie wavelength of matter waves, 𝜆=

ℎ
=
ℎ
𝑝 𝑚𝑣

• If velocity is comparable to the speed of light,

ℎ 𝑚0 = Rest mass of particle

𝜆=
• All the moving particles have dual nature 𝑚0
𝑣
like light and can be associated with a 𝑣2 𝑣 = velocity of particle
1− 2
wave under suitable conditions. 𝑐
𝑐 = speed of light

• Kinetic energy of a particle can be expressed as,

• The waves associated with moving particles
are called Matter waves or de Broglie waves 𝑝2
𝐾. 𝐸. = ⇒ 𝑝 = 2𝑚 𝐾. 𝐸.
and the effective wavelength 𝜆 is known as 2𝑚
de Broglie wavelength.

• De Broglie wavelength of matter waves becomes,

ℎ
𝜆=
2𝑚 𝐾. 𝐸.
 Matter Waves

Quantities Photons Particles

ℎ ℎ ℎ
Momentum/Wavelength 𝑝= 𝜆= =
𝜆 𝑝 𝑚𝑣

ℎ𝑐 1
Energy 𝐸= 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝜆 2

speed 𝑐 𝑣

Rest mass 0 𝑚0

𝑚0
ℎ
Moving mass 𝑣2
𝜆𝑐 1− 2
𝑐
If the de Broglie wavelengths associated with a proton and an 𝛼 −particle are equal,
then the ratio of velocities of the proton and the 𝛼 −particle will be

Solution:
𝜆𝑝 = 𝜆𝛼

ℎ ℎ
⇒ =
𝑚𝑝 𝑣𝑝 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼

𝑣𝑝 𝑚𝛼
⇒ =
𝑣𝛼 𝑚𝑝

𝑣𝑝 4𝑚𝑝
⇒ =
𝑣𝛼 𝑚𝑝

𝑣𝑝 4
=
𝑣𝛼 1
 Comparison: Wave nature of Football and 𝒆−

Wave nature of matter is significant only when de Broglie wavelength is comparable

to dimensions of matter.

Football Electron
Mass: 1 kg Mass: 9.1 x 10−31 𝑘𝑔
𝑒−
Speed: 10 𝑚/𝑠 Speed: 10 𝑚/𝑠

ℎ 6.62 × 10−34 ℎ 6.62 × 10−34

De Broglie wavelength, 𝜆= = De Broglie wavelength, 𝜆= =
𝑝 1 × 10 𝑝 9.1 x 10−31 × 10

𝜆 = 6.62 × 10−35 𝑚 𝜆 = 7.27 × 10−5 𝑚

Wavelength is very small as compared to the Wavelength is comparable to the size of

dimensions of the football. Therefore, particle electron. Therefore, wave nature of electron
nature of football is significant. is significant.
 De Broglie Wavelength of an Electron

• If an electrons is accelerated with the

voltage 𝑉 , then its kinetic energy
becomes:
𝐸
Electron beam
𝑒− 𝑒− 𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑒𝑉

Vacuum tube • De Broglie wavelength becomes,

Filament ℎ
𝜆=
2𝑚 𝐾. 𝐸.

𝑉 ℎ
𝜆=
2𝑚 𝑒𝑉
L.T.
H.T. (High tension/voltage) (Low tension/voltage)
𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔

Electron gun 12.27

𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝜆= Å
𝑉
ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
If the de Broglie wavelength of an electron is equal to 10−3 times the wavelength of a
photon of frequency 6 × 1014 𝐻𝑧, then the speed of electron is equal to: (speed of light
= 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠, Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 and mass of electron = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔)

Given: 𝜆𝑒 = 10−3 𝜆𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 ; 𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 6 × 1014 𝐻𝑧

To find: Speed of electron (𝑣𝑒 )

ℎ 𝑐
Solution: 𝜆𝑒 = 10−3 𝜆𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 ⇒ = 10−3
𝑚𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛

ℎ × 𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
⇒ 𝑣𝑒 =
𝑚 × 𝑐 × 10−3

6.63 × 10−34 × 6 × 1014

⇒ 𝑣𝑒 =
9.1 × 10−31 × 3 × 108 × 10−3

𝑣𝑒 = 1.457 × 106 𝑚/𝑠

Find the de Broglie wavelength of a monoatomic gas particle at temperature 𝑇.

Solution:

3
K.E of each particle of monoatomic gas, 𝐸1 = 𝑘𝑇
2

ℎ ℎ
De Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = =
2𝑚 𝐾. 𝐸. 2𝑚𝐸1

ℎ
𝜆=
3
2𝑚 × 2 𝑘𝑇

ℎ
𝜆=
3𝑚𝑘𝑇
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty

principle, “ position and momentum of an
electron can not be determined
simultaneously with absolute accuracy”.

ℏ ℎ
∆𝑥 ⋅ ∆𝑝 ≥ ∆𝑥 ⋅ ∆𝑝 ≥
2 4𝜋

∆𝑥 = Uncertainty in position

∆𝑝 = Uncertainty in momentum
Werner Karl Heisenberg
1901 − 1976
 Photocell

A photocell works on the principle of photoelectric effect.

Incident Working:
light • When light of suitable wavelength falls on the emitter 𝐶,
𝐶
photoelectrons are emitted.
𝐴 • These photoelectrons are drawn to the collector 𝐴. Photocurrent of
the order of a few microampere can be normally obtained from a
photocell.
• A photocell converts a change in intensity of illumination into a
change in photocurrent. This current can be used to operate control
systems and in light measuring devices.

Applications:
• The activation/deactivation process of streetlights is mainly
𝜇𝐴 controlled by photocells.
𝐵 • These are used as timers in a running race to calculate the runner’s
speed.
• Photocells are used to count the vehicles on the road.

• These are used in burglar alarms to protect from a thief.

A photocell employs photoelectric effect to convert

Change in the frequency of light into a change in the

A electric current

Change in the frequency of light into a change in the

B electric voltage

Change in the intensity of illumination into a change

C in photoelectric current

Change in the intensity of illumination into a change

D in the work function of the photocathode
 Davisson and Germer Experiment

Vacuum chamber

𝐸 𝜃
Electron beam
Nickel
Vacuum tube 𝜙 target
𝜃
Filament 2.51 Å
Diffracted
𝑉 electron beam 0.91 Å
H.T. (High L.T.
tension/voltage) (Low tension/voltage)

Electron gun Moveable

collector Nickel crystal
To galvanometer
 Davisson and Germer Experiment

Vacuum chamber
• A collimated electron beam is
made to incident on a nickel target.

𝐸 Electron beam 𝜃
Nickel
• This electron beam is scattered in
Vacuum tube 𝜙
target
different directions by the atoms of
𝜃
Filament nickel target.
Diffracted
𝑉 electron
beam • The intensity of electron beam
Electron gun scattered in different directions is
Moveable found by rotating a movable
collector detector in a circle, which is
To galvanometer attached to a galvanometer that
gives the reading of photocurrent.
 Davisson and Germer Experiment

Vacuum chamber
• The experiment was performed by
varying the accelerating voltage
from 44 𝑉 to 68 𝑉.
𝐸 Electron beam 𝜃
Vacuum tube 𝜙
𝜃
Nickel
target
• The intensity (𝐼) of the scattered
Filament electrons is measured at different
angles of scattering (𝜙).
Diffracted
𝑉 electron
beam
Electron gun • A strong peak is appeared in
Moveable intensity 𝐼 of the scattered
collector electron for an accelerating voltage
To galvanometer of 54 𝑉 at a scattering angle 𝜙 =
50°.
 Davisson and Germer Experiment

Incident beam
44 𝑉 48 𝑉 54 𝑉

𝜙 50°

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

60 𝑉 64 𝑉 68 𝑉

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
 Davisson and Germer Experiment

Vacuum chamber
For accelerating voltage 𝑉 = 54 𝑉,
the de Broglie wavelength of
𝐸 Electron beam 𝜃 electron is
Nickel
Vacuum tube 𝜙 12.27
𝜃 target 𝜆= Å
Filament 𝑉
Diffracted
𝑉 electron 12.27
beam 𝜆= Å
54
Electron gun
Moveable
collector 𝜆 = 1.67 Å
To galvanometer
 Bragg’s Law for Waves

Incident Diffracted
beam beam
𝜆 𝜆
𝜙 = Scattering angle

𝜃 = Angle between incident beam

𝜙 and crystallographic plane
𝜃 𝜃

𝑑 𝑑 = Distance between atomic layer

(also known as interplanar spacing)
 Bragg’s Law for Waves

For constructive interference,

Path difference = 𝑛𝜆

𝜙 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜃 𝜃

𝜃 𝜃 𝑑 For 𝜙 = 50° ⇒ 𝜃 = 65°

Putting 𝑛 = 1, 𝑑 = 0.91Å, and 𝜃 = 65°

𝜆 = 1.66 Å
De-Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated by a voltage of 50 𝑉 is close to (𝑒 =
1.6 × 10−19 𝐶, 𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔, ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠)

Solution:

De-Broglie wavelength of an electron is given by

ℎ
𝜆=
2𝑚𝑒𝑉

12.27
⇒𝜆= Å
𝑉

12.27
⇒𝜆= Å
50

𝜆 = 1.735 Å
 Electrons accelerated by a potential 𝑉 are diffracted from a crystal. If 𝑑 = 1Å and 𝑖 =
30° , 𝑉 should be about

Solution:

For 1𝑠𝑡 order maxima, 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆

⇒ 2𝑑 sin(90° − 𝑖) = 𝜆

⇒ 2𝑑 cos 𝑖 = 𝜆
12.27
⇒ 2 × 1 × cos 30° =
𝑉
12.27
⇒ 𝑉=
3

𝑉 = 50.18 𝑉 ≈ 50 𝑉
 Compton Effect

• The Compton effect was an experiment conducted by Arthur H.

Compton in 1923 that further confirmed the quantum theory of light.

• Compton directed electromagnetic waves with short wavelength (X-

rays) at electrons and found that incident waves had slightly shorter
wavelength than the waves produced after collision.
ℎ
𝜆′ = 𝜆 + (1 − cos 𝜙)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐
𝑚𝑒 = mass of electron
ℎ
= Compton wavelength
𝑚𝑒 𝑐

• The shift in the wavelength is given by,

ℎ
∆𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜙)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐

Compton shift
 ෠ If
An electron (mass 𝑚) with initial velocity 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣0 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣0 𝑗Ƹ is in an electric field 𝐸 = −𝐸0 𝑘.
𝜆0 is initial de-Broglie wavelength of electron, its de-Broglie wavelength at time 𝑡 is
given by

𝑒𝐸0
Given: 𝐸 = −𝐸0 𝑘෠ 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣0 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣0 𝑗Ƹ 𝑣 ′ = 𝑣Ԧ + 𝑎𝑡
Ԧ = 𝑣0 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣0 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑡 𝑘෠
𝑚

⇒ 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣02 + 𝑣02 = 𝑣0 2 2
2 2
𝑒𝐸0
⇒ 𝑣′ = 𝑣0 + 𝑣0 + 𝑡
To find: de-Broglie wavelength at time 𝑡 (𝜆 ) ′
𝑚
Solution:
de-Broglie wavelength at time 𝑡,
Initial de-Broglie wavelength of electron,
ℎ ℎ ………………(2)
ℎ ℎ 𝜆′ = =
𝜆0 = = ………………(1) 𝑚𝑣 ′ 𝑒 2 𝐸02 𝑡 2
𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑣0 2 𝑚 2𝑣02 +
𝑚2
Force on electron, 𝐹Ԧ = −𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝐸0 𝑘෠ Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we get

⇒ 𝑚𝑎Ԧ = 𝑒𝐸0 𝑘෠ 𝜆′ 2𝑣0 𝜆0

= 𝜆′ =
𝑒𝐸0 𝜆0 ⇒
⇒ 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑘෠ 𝑒 2 𝐸02 𝑡 2 𝑒 2 𝐸02 𝑡 2
𝑚 2𝑣02 + 1+
𝑚2 2𝑚2 𝑣02
If 𝑣 ′ be the velocity of electron after time 𝑡,
 Light of two different wavelength 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 falls on a surface. Ratio of maximum
possible kinetic energies is 𝜂. Find the work function of the surface.

ℎ𝑐
Solution: 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥1 = −𝜙 ……………..(1) ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝜆1 ⇒𝜂 − 𝜂𝜙 = −𝜙
𝜆2 𝜆1

ℎ𝑐
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥2 = −𝜙 ……………..(2)
𝜆2 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
⇒ 𝜂−1 𝜙 =𝜂 −
𝜆2 𝜆1
Dividing eq (1) by eq (2)

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥1 −𝜙 −𝜙 ℎ𝑐 𝜂 1
𝜆1 𝜆1 𝜙= −
= ⇒𝜂= 𝜂 − 1 𝜆2 𝜆1
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥2 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
−𝜙 −𝜙
𝜆2 𝜆2
Light of wavelength 2000 Å falls on a metal surface of work function 𝜙 = 2 𝑒𝑉. Find the
maximum possible kinetic energy of emitted electrons. Comment on the statement
“ every ejected electron has kinetic energy 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ”.

Solution: 𝐸 = 𝜙 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

12400
⇒ 𝑒𝑉 = 𝜙 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜆(Å) 2000 Å
12400
⇒ 𝑒𝑉 = 2 𝑒𝑉 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
2000

⇒ 6.2 𝑒𝑉 = 2 𝑒𝑉 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜙 = 2 𝑒𝑉

𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4.2 𝑒𝑉

Since many of the ejected electrons have to suffer multiple collisions

before coming out of the surface, all the ejected electrons can’t have the
same kinetic energy.
An electron, a doubly ionized helium ion (𝐻𝑒 2+ ) and a proton are having the same
kinetic energy. The relation between their respective de-Broglie wavelengths 𝜆𝑒 , 𝜆𝐻𝑒 2+
and 𝜆𝑝 is

Solution:
ℎ ℎ
De Broglie wavelength is given by 𝜆= =
𝑝 2𝑚𝐾. 𝐸.

Also, 𝐾. 𝐸.𝑒 = 𝐾. 𝐸.𝐻𝑒 2+ = 𝐾. 𝐸.𝑝

𝑚𝐻𝑒 2+ > 𝑚𝑝 > 𝑚𝑒

∴ 𝜆𝐻𝑒 2+ < 𝜆𝑝 < 𝜆𝑒