Chapter 1 – Mechanical Waves

Objectives: After completion of this

module, you should be able to:
• Demonstrate your understanding of transverse and
longitudinal waves.
• Define, relate and apply the concepts of frequency,
wavelength, and wave speed.
• Solve problems involving mass, length, tension, and
wave velocity for transverse waves.
• Write and apply an expression for determining the
characteristic frequencies for a vibrating string with
fixed endpoints.
 What are mechanical waves?

What do you think waves carry?

Can you see waves? Examples?

 Mechanical Waves
A mechanical wave is a physical
disturbance in an elastic medium.

Consider a stone dropped into a lake.

lake
Energy is transferred from stone to floating log, but
only the disturbance travels.

Actual motion of any individual water particle is small.

Energy propagation via such a disturbance is known
as mechanical wave motion.
 Mechanical Waves
• Mechanical waves are disturbances
in matter that carry energy from one
place to another.
– Usually require matter through which to
travel
– The matter a wave travels through is
called a medium.
• Medium can be a solid, liquid, or gas
• Some waves can travel through space…
with no medium!
 How are mechanical waves
created?
Need a source of energy!
That energy causes a vibration to travel
through the medium
 Periodic Motion
Simple periodic motion is that motion in which a
body moves back and forth over a fixed path,
returning to each position and velocity after a
definite interval of time.
Period,
Period T,
Period
Period, T,isisthe
thetime
time
1 for
forone
onecomplete
complete
f  oscillation.
oscillation.(seconds,s)
(seconds,s)
T
Amplitude
A Frequency,
Frequency f,f,isisthe
Frequency
Frequency, the
number
numberof ofcomplete
complete
oscillations
oscillationsper
per
second.
second.Hertz
Hertz(s(s-1))
-1
Example: The suspended mass makes 30
complete oscillations in 15 s. What is the
period and frequency of the motion?

15 s
T  0.50 s
30 cylces
x F
Period:
Period: TT == 0.500
0.500 ss

1 1
f   Frequency:
Frequency: ff == 2.00
2.00 Hz
Hz
T 0.500 s
Features of a wave:
 A Transverse Wave
In
In aa transverse
transverse wave,
wave, thethe vibration
vibration of
of the
the
individual
individual particles
particles of
of the
the medium
medium isis
perpendicular
perpendicular toto the
the direction
direction of
of wave
wave
propagation.
propagation.

Motion of Motion of
particles wave
 A Transverse Wave
In
In aa transverse
transverse wave,
wave, thethe vibration
vibration of
of the
the
individual
individual particles
particles of
of the
the medium
medium isis
perpendicular
perpendicular toto the
the direction
direction of
of wave
wave
propagation.
propagation.

Motion of Motion of
particles wave
 Longitudinal Waves
In
In aa longitudinal
longitudinal wave
wave,, thethe vibration
vibration ofof the
the
individual
individual particles
particles isis parallel
parallel to
to the
the
direction
direction ofof wave
wave propagation.
propagation.

Motion of Motion of
particles wave
 Longitudinal Waves
In
In aa longitudinal
longitudinal wave
wave,, thethe vibration
vibration ofof the
the
individual
individual particles
particles isis parallel
parallel to
to the
the
direction
direction ofof wave
wave propagation.
propagation.

Motion of Motion of
particles wave
 Longitudinal Waves
In
In aa longitudinal
longitudinal wave
wave,, thethe vibration
vibration ofof the
the
individual
individual particles
particles isis parallel
parallel to
to the
the
direction
direction ofof wave
wave propagation.
propagation.

Motion of Motion of
particles wave
 Water Waves

An
An ocean
ocean wave
wave isis aa combi-
combi-
nation
nation of
of transverse
transverse and and
longitudinal.
longitudinal.

The
The individual
individual particles
particles
move
move inin ellipses
ellipses as
as the
the
wave
wave disturbance
disturbance moves
moves
toward
toward the
the shore.
shore.
 Water Waves
An
An ocean
ocean wave
wave isis aa combi-
combi-
nation
nation of
of transverse
transverse and and
longitudinal.
longitudinal.
 Wave speed in a string.
The L
The wave
wave speed
speed vv inin
aa vibrating
vibrating string
string isis
determined
determined byby the
the
tension
tension FF and
and the
the
 = m/L
linear density ,, or
linear density or
mass
mass per
per unit
unit length.
length.

vv==speed
speedof
ofthe
thetransverse
transversewave
wave(m/s)
(m/s)
F FL
v  FF==tension
tensionon
onthe
thestring
string(N)
(N)
 m or
orm/L
m/L==mass
massper
perunit
unitlength
length(kg/m)
(kg/m)
Example 1: A 5-g section of string has a
length of 2 M from the wall to the top of a
pulley. A 200-g mass hangs at the end.
What is the speed of a wave in this string?
F = (0.20 kg)(9.8 m/s2) = 1.96 N

FL (1.96 N)(2 m) 200 g

v  vv == 28.0
28.0 m/s
m/s
m 0.005 kg

Note:
Note: Be
Be careful
careful to
to use
use consistent
consistent units.
units. The
The
tension FF must
tension must be
be in
in newtons
newtons,, the
the mass
mass mm in
in
kilograms
kilograms,, and
and the length LL in
the length in meters
meters..
 Periodic Wave Motion
A vibrating metal plate produces a
transverse continuous wave as shown.
For one complete vibration, the wave moves
a distance of one wavelength  as illustrated.


A B

Wavelength is distance between two

particles that are in phase.
 Velocity and Wave Frequency.
The period
The period TT isis the
the time
time to
to move
move aa distance
distance of
of
one
one wavelength.
wavelength. Therefore,
Therefore, thethe wave
wave speed
speed is:
is:
 1
v but T so v f
T f
The frequency f is in s-1 or hertz (Hz).
The velocity of any wave is the product of
the frequency and the wavelength:

v f
 Production of a Longitudinal Wave




• An oscillating pendulum produces condensations

and rarefactions that travel down the spring.

• The wave length l is the distance between

adjacent condensations or rarefactions.
 Velocity, Wavelength, Speed


Frequency f = waves
Wavelength  (m)
per second (Hz)
s
v
t
v f

Velocity v (m/s) Wave equation

 Example 2: An electromagnetic vibrator
sends waves down a string. The vibrator
makes 600 complete cycles in 5 s. For one
complete vibration, the wave moves a
distance of 20 cm. What are the frequency,
wavelength, and velocity of the wave?
600 cycles
f  ; ff == 120
120 Hz
Hz
5s

The distance moved during v = f

a time of one cycle is the
wavelength; therefore: v = (120 Hz)(0.02 m)

 ==0.020
0.020 m
m vv == 2.40
2.40 m/s
m/s
 Energy of a Periodic Wave
The energy of a periodic wave in a string is a
function of the linear density m , the frequency f,
the velocity v, and the amplitude A of the wave.
f A  = m/L

E
 2 2 f 2 A2  P  2 2 f 2 A2  v
L
Example 3. A 2-m string has a mass of 300 g and
vibrates with a frequency of 20 Hz and an amplitude o
50 mm. If the tension in the rope is 48 N, how much
power must be delivered to the string?
m 0.30 kg
   0.150 kg/m
L 2m
F (48 N) P  2 2 f 2 A2  v
v   17.9 m/s
 0.15 kg/m

P = 22(20 Hz)2(0.05 m)2(0.15 kg/m)(17.9 m/s)

PP==53.0
53.0W
W
 The Wave Equation
We can write an expression for the disturbance as a function
of both position and time:

 2x 
y  A sin  2ft  
  
“+” if wave travels
This is called the wave equation. toward –x
“-” if wave travels
toward +x
The Wave Equation

Follow the point on the

wave where y = 0: we
see that this wave is
moving toward the right
(+x).
The Wave Equation
The wave equation for this rightward-moving wave:

 2x 
y (constant
If we freeze time ft 
 A sin t2, “snapshot”):
  

2x(x), and t is a constant

 position
then we have y as a function of
phase angle whosey value
A sin  t  on the time at which we
depends
stopped the clock.   
 The Wave Equation
If we see an
equation that
looks like: 
y   0.15m  sin 1570.8 s -1 t  4.5796 m -1 x 
... we can write
 2x 
down the y  A sin  2ft  
amplitude,   
frequency, A  0.15 m 2f  1570.8 s -1  f  250 Hz
velocity, and 2
 4.5796 m -1    1.372 m
wavelength of 
the wave it v  f  343 m/s, in the  x direction.
describes.
Wave Behavior

• We know that waves travel through

mediums.
• But what happens when that medium
runs out?

31
Boundary Behavior

• The behavior of a wave when it reaches

the end of its medium is called the
wave’s BOUNDARY BEHAVIOR.
• When one medium ends and another
begins, that is called a boundary.

32
Fixed End

• One type of boundary that a wave may

encounter is that it may be attached to a
fixed end.
• In this case, the end of the medium will not
be able to move.
• What is going to happen if a wave pulse
goes down this string and encounters the
fixed end?
33
Fixed End

• Here the incident pulse is an upward pulse.

• The reflected pulse is upside-down. It is
inverted.
• The reflected pulse has the same speed,
wavelength, and amplitude as the incident
pulse.

34
Fixed End Animation

35
Free End

• Another boundary type is when a wave’s

medium is attached to a stationary object
as a free end.
• In this situation, the end of the medium
is allowed to slide up and down.
• What would happen in this case?

36
Free End

• Here the reflected pulse is not inverted.

• It is identical to the incident pulse,
except it is moving in the opposite
direction.
• The speed, wavelength, and amplitude
are the same as the incident pulse.

37
Free End Animation

38
Wave Interaction

• All we have left to discover is how waves

interact with each other.
• When two waves meet while traveling
along the same medium it is called
INTERFERENCE.

39
 The Superposition Principle
• When two or more waves (blue and green) exist in
the same medium, each wave moves as though the
other were absent.
• The resultant displacement of these waves at any
point is the algebraic sum (yellow) wave of the two
displacements.

Constructive Interference Destructive Interference

Constructive Interference
• Two or more waves combine to produce
a wave with a larger displacement
Destructive Interference
• Two or more waves combine to produce
a wave with a smaller displacement
• Let’s look at the superposition
of some simple combinations of
two waves.
 A crest of one wave is
positioned with the
• The first addition of waves
crest that will be
of the other
wave. The same can be
described involvessaid
two forwaves
troughs. that are in

phase.

• This is referred to as

constructive interference.
This represents the displacement
by the white wave alone.
This represents the displacement
by the orange wave alone.
Since they are both displacements
on the same side of the baseline,
they add together.
 A crest of one wave is
positioned with a trough
• The next addition of waves that will be
of the other wave.

described involves two waves that are out

of phase.

• This is referred to as

destructive interference.
This represents the displacement by the white wave alone.
This represents the displacement by the orange wave alone.
Since the two displacements are on opposite sides of the baseline,
the top one should be considered positive and the bottom one negative.
Just add the positive and negatives together like this.
• Finally we observe two waves that are
partially in phase.

• A different method of adding the waves

will be demonstrated.
From the baseline measure to the “white” wave.
Continuing on with this
Then add this to the “orange” wave. See animation.
process gives
Note the white arrow would
be zero in length here. Zero white arrows added to
“orange” wave occur at these
So zero added to the other locations.
“orange” wave would give

By overlaying the constructive interference curve

from a previous slide you can tell that the curve of
this slide is not fully constructive interference.
 Check Your Understanding
• Which points will produce constructive interference
and which will produce destructive interference?

 Constructive
G, J, M, N

 Destructive
H, I, K, L, O
Standing Waves
• Occur because of interference!
• A standing wave is a wave that appears
to stay in one place.
Parts of a Standing wave

• Node – Where there is no displacement

of the medium in a standing wave
• Antinode – Where there is maximum
displacement of the medium in a
standing wave
Formation of a
Standing Wave:
Incident and reflected
waves traveling in
opposite directions
produce nodes N and
antinodes A.

The distance between

alternate nodes or anti-
nodes is one wavelength.
 Parts of a Standing wave
N A N A N A N


4 
2

• The distance between adjacent nodes or

antinodes is
2
• The distance between a node and an adjacent

antinode is
4
Possible Wavelengths for Standing Waves

Fundamental, n = 1
1st overtone, n = 2
2nd overtone, n = 3
3rd overtone, n = 4
n = harmonics

2L
n  n  1, 2, 3, . . .
n
 Possible Frequencies f = v/:

Fundamental, n = 1 f = 1/2L
1st overtone, n = 2 f = 2/2L

2nd overtone, n = 3 f = 3/2L

3rd overtone, n = 4 f = 4/2L

n = harmonics f = n/2L

nv
fn  n  1, 2, 3, . . .
2L
 Characteristic Frequencies
Now, for a string under
tension, we have:

F FL nv
v  and f 
 m 2L

Characteristic n F
fn  ; n  1, 2, 3, . . .
frequencies: 2L 
Example 4. A 9-g steel wire is 2 m long
and is under a tension of 400 N. If the
string vibrates in three loops, what is the
frequency of the wave?

For three loops: n = 3

n F
fn  ; n3 400 N
2L 
3 FL 3 (400 N)(2 m)
f3  
2L m 2(2 m) 0.009 kg

Third harmonic
f3 = 224 Hz
2nd overtone
Pressure waves in air
Longitudinal waves

Animation
from Dan
Russel
Standing waves or modes in a
column of air

The motions shown are air speeds

One of these is a pipe that is closed on one
end and the other is open on both ends.
Which one is which?
Standing waves in air colums
• Standing waves can be set up in a tube or air (pipe, flute, …)
• Distinguish between open end pipes and close end pipes
• Analogous to standing waves on a string.
• Antinode on open ends. Node on closed ends.

Both ends open:

 Standing waves in air colums

• Antinode on open ends.

• Node on closed ends.

One end closed:

In a pipe open at both ends, the natural frequencies of
oscillation form a harmonic series that includes all
integral multiples of the fundamental frequency

v v
fn  n n  1, 2, 3, ...
n 2L

In a pipe closed at one end and open at the other, the

natural frequencies of oscillation form a harmonic series
that includes only odd integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency.

v v
fn  n n  1, 3, 5, ...
n 4L
Summary for Wave Motion:

F FL 1
v  v f f 
 m T

n F
fn  ; n  1, 2, 3, . . .
2L 

E
 2 2 f 2 A2  P  2 2 f 2 A2  v
L
 Summary for Wave Motion:
 2x 
y  A sin  2ft  
  


y   0.15m  sin 1570.8 s -1 t  4.5796 m -1 x 
 2x 
y  A sin  2ft  
  
A  0.15 m 2f  1570.8 s -1  f  250 Hz
2
 4.5796 m -1    1.372 m

v  f  343 m/s, in the  x direction.
 CONCLUSION:
Mechanical Waves