Welcome to

Dual nature of radiation and

matter

E = 𝐻+ 𝜈
𝐹
E = 𝜑 + KEmax 𝑃=
𝐴
 Nature of Light

Newton’s Corpuscular Theory (1637) Light is a particle

Huygens’ Theory (1678) Light is a wave

Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Wave Theory (1861) Light is a wave

Light is a particle Max Planck’s Quantum Theory of Light (1900)

Dual nature of matter De Broglie Hypothesis (1924)

 Wave Nature of Light

Diffraction of Light Interference of Light

Original
direction
Particle Nature of Light –
Photoelectric effect

• When light of suitable frequency

illuminates a metal surface, free electrons
are emitted from the metal surface.

• Photoelectric effect is explained by

particle nature of light.
 Photon Theory of Light

• Photons are smallest possible packets of

electromagnetic energy.

• A photon has a definite energy and momentum.

• Photons always travel with the speed of light 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠

in vacuum.
• Energy of photon: ℎ𝑐 Planck constant ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 =
𝜆 ℎ ≈ 4.13 × 10−15 𝑒𝑉𝑠
𝑒𝑉 ℎ𝑐 ≈ 2 × 10−25 𝐽𝑚 ≈ 12400 𝑒𝑉 𝐴ሶ
12400 𝑒𝑉 𝐴ሶ
𝐸=
𝜆
𝐴ሶ

𝐸 ℎ
• Momentum of a photon: 𝑝= =
𝑐 𝜆

• Rest mass of photon is zero.

• Number of photons may not be conserved.

• Energy and momentum of a photon are always conserved.

 Intensity of Light

Intensity of light 𝐼 : The energy crossing per unit area per unit time perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.

𝑛, λ 𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝑛, λ

𝐴
𝜃
Radiation falling perpendicularly
𝐴

𝑛ℎ𝑐 𝑛ℎ𝑐
𝐼= 𝐼=
𝜆𝐴 𝜆𝐴 cos 𝜃

Note: 𝑛 is the number of photons per second.

 Photon Count

• Photon Count 𝑛 : Number of photons emitted per

second by the source.

𝑃𝜆
𝑛=
ℎ𝑐

• Photon Flux 𝜙 : Number of photons incident normally

on a surface per second per unit area.
𝑛ℎ𝑐 𝑛 𝐼𝜆
𝐼= ⇒ =
𝜆𝐴 𝐴 ℎ𝑐
Power of the source: 𝑃
𝑛 𝐼𝜆
𝜙= =
𝐴 ℎ𝑐
Monochromatic Light source
 When the sun is directly overhead, the surface of the earth receives 1.4 × 103 𝑊/𝑚2 of
sunlight. Assume that the light is monochromatic with average wavelength 500 𝑛𝑚
and that no light is absorbed in between the sun and the earth's surface. The distance
T between the sun and the earth is 1.5 × 1011 𝑚.
(a) Calculate the number of photons falling per second on each square meter of earth's
surface directly below the sun.

Given: 𝐼 = 1.4 × 103 𝑊/𝑚2 , 𝜆 = 500 𝑛𝑚, 𝑟 = 1.5 × 1011 𝑚

To find: 𝑛

Solution:
𝑛 𝐼𝜆 𝐼𝜆𝐴
𝜙= = ⇒ 𝑛=
𝐴 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐

1.4 × 103 × 500 × 10−9 × 1

𝑛=
2 × 10−25

𝑛 = 3.5 × 1021
 When the sun is directly overhead, the surface of the earth receives 1.4 × 103 𝑊/𝑚2 of sunlight.
Assume that the light is monochromatic with average wavelength 500 𝑛𝑚
and that no light is absorbed in between the sun and the earth's surface. The distance between
the sun and the earth is 1.5 × 1011 𝑚.
T (b) How many photons are there in each cubic meter near the earth's surface at any instant?

Given: 𝐼 = 1.4 × 103 𝑊/𝑚2 , 𝜆 = 500 𝑛𝑚, 𝑟 = 1.5 × 1011 𝑚, 𝑛 = 3.5 × 1021 /𝑚2 𝑠

To find: 𝑁 − number of photons in a cube of side 1 𝑚.

Solution: 𝑛 is the number of photons crossing the

cube per second.

Let ∆𝑡 be the time taken by the photon to travel 1 𝑚

inside the cube.

1𝑚
∆𝑡 =
𝑐

In ∆𝑡 amount of time, 𝑁 number photons enter the

cube.

𝑁 = 𝑛 × ∆𝑡 × 𝐴
1
𝑁 = 3.5 × 10 21
× × 1×1 𝑁 = 1.2 × 1013
3 × 108
 Free Electrons

• In metals, the electrons in the outer shells of the

atoms are loosely bound.

• They are quite free to move easily within the metal

surface but can not leave the metal surface. Such
loosely bound electrons are called free electrons.

• The minimum amount of energy required to

remove an electron from the metal surface is called
work function 𝜙 .

• The work function depends on the nature of the

metal surface.
 Thermionic Emission

Electrons
Emission
Electrons

• By suitably heating, sufficient thermal

energy can be imparted to the free
electrons to enable them to come out
of the metal.

Metal Piece
Heat
 Field Emission

Strong
Electrons Electric
Field

• By applying a very strong electric field

of the order of (108 𝑉/𝑚) to a metal,
electrons can be pulled out of the metal.

Metal
Photoelectric Emission

• When light of suitable frequency

illuminates a metal surface, free electrons
are emitted from the metal surface.

• These photo(light) generated electrons

are called photoelectrons.

• When uncharged zinc plate
is irradiated by ultraviolet
light, it becomes positively
charged and leaves diverge.
Hallwachs’ Observation
• If the negatively charged
zinc plate is exposed to
ultraviolet light, the leaves
come closer as the charges
leak away quickly.
• If the plate is positively
charged, it becomes more
positive upon irradiation of
UV rays and the leaves
diverge further.
Lenard’s Observation

Conclusion:
• When ultraviolet light
is incident on the • When ultraviolet light falls
negative plate 𝐶 , an on the negative plate,
electric current flows electrons are ejected from it
in the circuit that is which are attracted by the
indicated by the positive plate 𝐴.
deflection in the
galvanometer.
• On reaching the positive
plate through the evacuated
• If the positive tube, the circuit is
plate 𝐴 is irradiated completed and the current
by the ultraviolet flows in it.
light, no current is
observed in the • Thus, the UV light falling on the
circuit. negative plate causes the
electron emission from the
surface of the plate.
 Photoelectric Effect

Intensity
Evacuated
glass tube 𝐼, 𝜆 0 100 %

UV IR

400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚
Photo sensitive 𝐶 𝐴
plates
Electrons

Commutator

𝜇𝐴
𝐶: Cathode Circuit to change the
𝑉
voltage, and to
𝐴: Anode measure current.

+ −
 Photoelectric Effect

Ejection of electrons from material due to bombarding of photons on

it is known as photoelectric effect.

Intensity • The required frequency or wavelength for

0 100 %
ejection of electron depends on material.
𝐼, 𝜆 IR
Cathode
UV
• Below a particular wavelength,
400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚 photocurrent is produced even at lower
𝐶 𝐴 Anode
intensity.
Electrons
𝜇𝐴 Microammeter • Above a particular wavelength, no
photocurrent is produced even at very
𝑉(Variable Source) high intensity of light.
 Photoelectric Effect – Einstein's
explanation

• When a photon interacts with an electron,

it imparts its entire energy to the electron.
The electron can’t absorb a fraction of the
Intensity energy.
0 100 % • Electron can only take energy equal to
𝐼, 𝜆 UV IR ℎ𝜈 and not multiples of ℎ𝜈.
Cathode
𝐶 𝐴 Anode
400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚
• If an electron receives an energy 𝐸, it gets
ejected from the metal surface with a
Electrons
kinetic energy of 𝐸 − 𝜙, where 𝜙 is the work
𝜇𝐴 Microammeter function of the metal.
• The maximum kinetic energy of an
𝑉(Variable Source) emitted electron:

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙
 Threshold Wavelength and Frequency

• The value of wavelength 𝜆0 above which no photocurrent is • For Photoelectric effect to happen, the
produced is known as threshold wavelength. energy of incident photon must be
greater than the work function of metal.

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝐸≥𝜙 ⇒ ≥𝜙 ⇒ 𝜆≤
• The value of frequency 𝜈0 below which no photocurrent is 𝜆 𝜙
produced is known as threshold frequency.
𝜙
𝐸≥𝜙 ⇒ ℎ𝜈 ≥ 𝜙 ⇒ 𝜈≥
ℎ
• Minimum energy of photon to eject
electron is:

ℎ𝑐
• Maximum Kinetic energy of the emitted electron:
𝐸= 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈0
𝜆0
1 1
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑐 −
𝜆 𝜆0
• This energy is also known as the Work Function
(𝜙) of the metal.
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ 𝜈 − 𝜈0
 The work function of a substance is 4 𝑒𝑉. The longest wavelength of light can cause
T photoelectron emission from this substance is approximately:

JEE 2004
Given: 𝜙 = 4 𝑒𝑉

Solution: Let 𝜆𝑚 = Longest wavelength of light

ℎ𝑐
=𝜙
𝜆𝑚
ℎ𝑐 12400 𝑒𝑉𝐴ሶ
⇒ 𝜆𝑚 = = = 3100 𝐴ሶ = 310 𝑛𝑚
𝜙 4 𝑒𝑉

𝜆𝑚 = 310 𝑛𝑚
 Effect of Intensity of Light on
Photocurrent

• Wavelength and Potential difference are kept constant, only intensity is increased.

Intensity Photocurrent, 𝑖
0 100 %
𝐼, 𝜆 UV IR
Cathode
400 𝑛𝑚 800 𝑛𝑚
𝐶 𝐴 Anode
Electrons
𝜇𝐴 Microammeter

𝑉 (Variable Source) Intensity, 𝐼

Photocurrent ∝ Intensity of light

 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

𝐶 𝐴 𝐶 𝐴
𝐹𝑒 𝐸 𝐹𝑒 𝐸

𝑉 𝑉

• When the collector plate is at • When the emitter plate is at higher

higher potential, electric field potential, electric field decelerates
accelerates the electrons. the electrons.
 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

Photocurrent, 𝑖
• When 𝑉𝐶 = 0, some of the emitted
electrons reach collector because of
their own kinetic energy.
Saturation • When 𝑉𝐶 is increased,
Current 𝑖𝑆 photocurrent increases.
• When all the photoelectrons
emitted by the emitter reach the
collector plate, the current reaches
−𝑣𝑒 𝑂 +𝑣𝑒 a maximum value which is known
Retarding Collector plate
potential 𝑉𝐶 as Saturation Current (𝑖𝑆 ).
Potential

Note: 𝜆, 𝐼 is kept constant.

 Effect of Potential on Photocurrent

Photocurrent
• When Potential is reversed,
electrons get repelled by the
collector plates.
• As the potential increases, fewer
𝑖𝑆
photoelectrons reach the
collector plate.

Stopping
• The negative potential of emitter
potential plate at which the photocurrent
becomes zero is called Stopping
−𝑣𝑒 −𝑉0 𝑂 +𝑣𝑒
Collector plate
Potential 𝑉0 .
Retarding Potential
potential 𝑉𝐶

Note: 𝜆, 𝐼 are kept constant.

 Effect of Intensity on Photocurrent

Photocurrent

𝐼3 > 𝐼2 > 𝐼1
• Saturation Current increases with
increase in intensity.
𝐼𝑆3 𝐼3
𝐼2
• No. of photoelectrons emitted ∝ Intensity
𝐼𝑆2
𝐼𝑆1 𝐼1
• At a given frequency of incident
radiation, the stopping potential is
Stopping
potential
independent of its intensity.

−𝑣𝑒 −𝑉0 𝑂 +𝑣𝑒

Collector plate
Retarding Potential potential 𝑉𝐶
 Stopping Potential

• Stopping potential is the voltage

required to stop the most energetic
photoelectron.
𝐸
𝐶 𝐴 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0
𝐹Ԧ𝐸 𝑉

ℎ 𝜙 ℎ𝑐 1 𝜙
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐾𝐸 = 0 𝑉0 = 𝜈− or 𝑉0 = −
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 λ 𝑒
0

𝑉
 Effect of Frequency on
Stopping Potential

Photocurrent
• Saturation current is same
for all frequencies.
𝜈3 > 𝜈2 > 𝜈1
• Stopping Potential is higher in
magnitude for higher frequencies.
𝜈3
𝜈2 Saturation
𝜈1 Current
−𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
ℎ 𝜙
𝑉0 = 𝜈 −
𝑂
𝑒 𝑒
−𝑉03 −𝑉02 −𝑉01
Collector plate
potential 𝑉𝐶
Retarding Potential • 𝜈3 > 𝜈2 > 𝜈1 ⇒ 𝑉03 > 𝑉02 > 𝑉01

Note: 𝐼 is kept constant.

 Effect of Frequency on
Stopping Potential

ℎ 𝜙
𝑉0 = 𝜈 −
𝑒 𝑒

Stopping potential varies linearly with

Potential, 𝑉0

Material 𝐴 •
Stopping

the frequency for a given photosensitive

Material 𝐵 material.
ℎ constant for all
• Slope of graph = tan 𝜃 = →
𝑒 materials
𝜃 𝜃
𝜈𝑜 𝜈0′ 𝜙
Frequency, 𝜈 • y-intercept = −
𝑒
𝜙𝐴
−
𝑒 𝜈 > 𝜈𝑜 𝜙
• x-intercept = 𝜈0 =
𝜙𝐵 𝜈 > 𝜈′𝑜 ℎ
−
𝑒 • Where 𝜈0 is the threshold frequency of the
material, below which no photo electrons
are released.
 Light of wavelength 𝜆 = 400 𝑛𝑚 is incident on a metal surface of work function
T 𝜙 = 1.6 𝑒𝑉. Find the magnitude of stopping potential.

Given: 𝜆 = 400 𝑛𝑚, 𝜙 = 1.6 𝑒𝑉

To find: Stopping potential (𝑉0 )

ℎ𝑐
Solution: 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝜙
𝜆
1240 𝑒𝑉
⇒ 𝑒𝑉0 = −𝜙
𝜆 (𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑚)

1240
⇒ 𝑒𝑉0 = 𝑒𝑉 − 1.6 𝑒𝑉
400

⇒ 𝑒𝑉0 = 3.1 𝑒𝑉 − 1.6 𝑒𝑉 = 1.5 𝑒𝑉

𝑉0 = 1.5 𝑉
 A graph regarding photoelectric effect is drawn between the maximum
kinetic energy of emitted electrons and the frequency of the incident light.
T Based on this graph, calculate:
a) ℎ → Planck’s constant b) Work function

To find: ℎ and 𝜙
Solution:
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑒𝑉)
a) From the graph, 8
threshold frequency 𝜈0 = 10 × 1014 𝐻𝑧
6
∆𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 8 × 1.6 × 10−19
Slope = ℎ = = 4
∆𝜈 20 × 1014
⇒ ℎ = 6.4 × 10−34 𝐽 − s 2

b) Work function is given by, 𝑂 10 20 30

𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0 𝜈(× 1014 𝐻𝑧)

⇒ 𝜙 = 6.4 × 10−34 × 10 × 1014 = 6.4 × 10−19 𝐽

⇒ 𝜙 = 4 𝑒𝑉
 The Intensity Problem

Wave Theory Particle Theory

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙

The intensity of light K.E. of emitted The maximum kinetic energy of a

falling on metal is photoelectrons should photoelectron doesn’t depend on the
increased. also increase. intensity of the incident light.
 The Frequency Problem

Wave Theory Particle Theory

𝜈 > 𝜈0

The photoelectric effect should occur Photoelectrons will get ejected

for any frequency of the light, provided only when incident light frequency
that the light is intense enough to is more than the threshold value
eject the photoelectrons. for any intensity.
 The Time Delay Problem

Wave Theory Particle Theory

- -

Light energy is uniformly distributed Whole of the energy associated with a

among the electrons. The electron will photon is absorbed by a free electron.
take some time to accumulate enough Hence emission is instantaneous.
energy to escape from the metal surface.
Hence there should be a time lag.
Explanation by Photon Theory of Light

• An electron can receive only one

photon. So, it doesn’t matter how
many photons are being incident. It
only matters how much energy each
electron has ℎ𝜈 .
• An electron needs to overcome
𝜙 amount of energy to get out
of the metal.

• Electron emission is instantaneous.

Photons immediately impart energy,
whereas if it was a wave, it would
slowly eject electrons.
 Wave - Particle Duality of Light

Phenomenon Wave nature Particle nature

Reflection

Refraction

Interference

Diffraction

Polarization

Photoelectric
effect
 The stopping potential of a metal is 3 𝑉, when it is illuminated by light of wavelength
500 𝑛𝑚. What will be the stopping potential of the metal when the wavelength is
T
600 𝑛𝑚? (Photoelectric emission takes place in both the cases)

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
Given: 𝜆1 = 500 𝑛𝑚; 𝑉01 = 3 𝑉; 𝜆2 = 600 𝑛𝑚 2 − 1 ⟹ 𝑒𝑉02 − 𝑒𝑉01 = −
𝜆2 𝜆1
To find: New stopping potential 𝑉02

Solution: 12400 12400

𝑒𝑉02 − 𝑒 3 𝑉 = −
6000 5000
According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
ℎ𝑐 𝑒𝑉02 − 3 𝑒𝑉 = 2.06 𝑒𝑉 − 2.48 𝑒𝑉
𝑒𝑉0 = −𝜙
𝜆
ℎ𝑐 ⟹ 𝑒𝑉02 = 2.58 𝑒𝑉
Case 1: 𝑒𝑉01 = −𝜙 … (1)
𝜆1
⟹ 𝑉02 = 2.58 𝑉
ℎ𝑐
Case 2: 𝑒𝑉02 = −𝜙 … (2)
𝜆2
 When a certain photosensitive surface is illuminated by a monochromatic light of
frequency 𝜈, the stopping potential for photoelectric current is 𝑉0 . When the same
𝜈
T surface is illuminated by a monochromatic light of frequency 2 , the stopping
𝑉0
potential is . The threshold frequency for photoelectric emission is:
3

𝜈 𝑉0
Given: 𝜈1 = 𝜈; 𝑉01 = 𝑉0 ; 𝜈2 = ; 𝑉02 =
2 3
To find: Threshold frequency (𝜈0 )

Solution:

According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, (1) 𝜈 − 𝜈0

⟹3=
(2) 𝜈 − 2𝜈0
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸 − 𝜙 ⟹ 𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈0 2

⟹ 3𝜈 − 6𝜈0 = 2𝜈 − 2𝜈0
Case 1: 𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ 𝜈 − 𝜈0 … (1)
𝜈
𝑒𝑉0 𝜈 ⟹ 𝜈0 =
Case 2: 4
= ℎ − 𝜈0 … (2)
3 2
 Radiation Pressure

Radiation pressure : The pressure experienced by the surface exposed to

the radiation.

𝐼 𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

𝑃 = Radiation pressure

𝐹 = Normal force on plate due to photons

𝐴 = Area of plate
𝐴

• The magnitude of radiation pressure is so

minute that it has no effect on our normal
life.
 Complete Absorption and Normal Incidence

ℎ
Initial momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆
𝐼, 𝜆
Final momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑓 = 0 𝑛

Magnitude of Change in momentum of each photon,

ℎ
∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆
∆𝑝 𝑛ℎ 𝐴
Total Change in momentum per sec, =
∆𝑡 𝜆
∆𝑝 𝑛ℎ Radiation falling perpendicularly
Net force acting on the surface, 𝐹= =
∆𝑡 𝜆
𝑛ℎ𝑐 𝑛ℎ 𝐼𝐴
Intensity, 𝐼= ⇒ = 𝑛 = No. of photons incident per second
𝜆𝐴 𝜆 𝑐
∆𝑝 𝐼𝐴
∴ Net force acting on the surface, 𝐹= =
∆𝑡 𝑐

𝐼𝐴
𝐹
Radiation pressure, 𝑃= = 𝑐 𝐼
𝐴 𝐴 𝑃=
𝑐
 Complete Absorption and Oblique Incidence

ℎ
Initial momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆

Final momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑓 = 0

ℎ
Magnitude of Change in momentum of each photon, ∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆
∆𝑝 𝑛ℎ
Total Change in momentum per sec, =
∆𝑡 𝜆
∆𝑝 𝑛ℎ
Net force acting on the surface, 𝐹= = 𝑛 = No. of photons incident per second
∆𝑡 𝜆
𝑛ℎ𝑐 𝑛ℎ 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
Intensity, 𝐼= ⇒ =
𝜆𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆 𝑐
∆𝑝 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
∴ Net force acting on the surface, 𝐹= =
∆𝑡 𝑐

Force normal to the surface, 𝐹⊥ = 𝐹 cos 𝜃

𝐼𝐴 cos2 𝜃 𝐼
𝐹⊥ 𝑐 𝑃 = cos2 𝜃
Radiation pressure, 𝑃=
𝐴
=
𝐴
𝑐
 Complete Reflection and Normal Incidence

ℎ
Initial momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆
ℎ
Final momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑓 = −
𝜆
2ℎ
Magnitude of Change in momentum of each photon, ∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆

∆𝑝 𝑛2ℎ
Total Change in momentum per sec, =
∆𝑡 𝜆

∆𝑝 𝑛2ℎ 𝑛 = No. of photons incident per second

Net force acting on the surface, 𝐹= =
∆𝑡 𝜆
Assumption:- Elastic collision
𝑛ℎ𝑐 𝑛ℎ 𝐼𝐴
Intensity, 𝐼= ⇒ =
𝜆𝐴 𝜆 𝑐
∆𝑝 2𝐼𝐴
∴ Net force acting on the surface, 𝐹= =
∆𝑡 𝑐
2𝐼𝐴
𝐹
Radiation pressure, 𝑃= = 𝑐 2𝐼
𝐴 𝐴 𝑃=
𝑐
 Complete Reflection and Oblique Incidence

ℎ
Initial momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑖 =
𝜆
ℎ
Final momentum of each photon, 𝑝𝑓 = −
𝜆
2ℎ
Magnitude of Change in momentum of each photon, ∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = cos 𝜃
𝜆

∆𝑝 2ℎ
Total Change in momentum per sec, = 𝑛 cos 𝜃
∆𝑡 𝜆

∆𝑝 2ℎ 𝑛 = No. of photons incident per second

Net force acting on the surface, 𝐹 = = 𝑛 cos 𝜃
∆𝑡 𝜆
𝑛ℎ𝑐 Assumption:- Elastic collision
𝑛ℎ 𝐼𝐴 cos 𝜃
Intensity, 𝐼= ⇒ =
𝜆𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜆 𝑐
∆𝑝 2𝐼𝐴 cos2 𝜃
∴ Net force acting on the surface, 𝐹 = =
∆𝑡 𝑐
2𝐼𝐴 cos2 𝜃
Radiation pressure, 𝐹 𝑐
𝑃= = 2𝐼
𝐴 𝐴 𝑃= cos 2 𝜃
𝑐
 Partial Reflection and Normal Incidence

0 < 𝑎 < 1, 0 < 𝑟 < 1, 𝑎+𝑟 =1

𝑎 = Absorption coefficient 𝐼, 𝜆
𝑛
𝑟 = Reflection coefficient

𝑛 = No. of photons incident per second

No. of photons absorbed per second, 𝑛𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑛 𝐴

No. of photons reflected per second, 𝑛𝑟 = 𝑟 × 𝑛 Radiation falling perpendicularly

𝐼 𝐼
Radiation pressure due to absorption, 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑎 = (1 − 𝑟)
𝑐 𝑐
2𝐼
Radiation pressure due to reflection, 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑟
𝑐

Net Radiation pressure, 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑟

𝐼 2𝐼 𝐼
⇒ 𝑃 = (1 − 𝑟) + 𝑟 𝑃 = (1 + 𝑟)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
 Partial Reflection and Oblique Incidence

0 < 𝑎 < 1, 0 < 𝑟 < 1, 𝑎+𝑟 =1

𝑎 = Absorption coefficient 𝐼, 𝜆

𝑟 = Reflection coefficient

𝑛 = No. of photons incident per second 𝜃

No. of photons absorbed per second, 𝑛𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑛 𝐴

No. of photons reflected per second, 𝑛𝑟 = 𝑟 × 𝑛 Oblique incidence

𝐼 𝐼
Radiation pressure due to absorption, 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑎 cos2 𝜃 = (1 − 𝑟) cos2 𝜃
𝑐 𝑐
2𝐼
Radiation pressure due to reflection, 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑟 cos2 𝜃
𝑐
Net Radiation pressure, 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑟
𝐼 2𝐼 𝐼
⇒ 𝑃 = (1 − 𝑟) cos2 𝜃 + 𝑟 cos2 𝜃 𝑃 = (1 + 𝑟) cos 2 𝜃
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
 A beam of white light is incident normally on a plane surface absorbing 70% of the
light and reflecting the rest. If the incident beam carries 10 𝑊 of power, find the force
T exerted by it on the surface.

Given: Power = 10 𝑊, 𝑎 = 0.7 ⇒ 𝑟 = 0.3

Power = 10 𝑊

To find: Force exerted on the surface, 𝐹

𝑎 = 0.7
𝑟 = 0.3
Solution:
𝐴
𝐸 Power 10
Intensity, 𝐼 = = =
𝐴𝑡 𝐴 𝐴

𝐼 10
Force exerted on the surface, 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴 = 1+𝑟 𝐴 = 1+𝑟 𝐴
𝑐 𝐴𝑐

10 −8 𝑁
⇒𝐹= 1 + 0.3 ⇒ 𝐹 = 4.3 × 10
3 × 108
 A perfectly reflecting solid sphere of radius 𝑅 is placed in the path of a parallel beam of
light of large aperture. If the beam carries an intensity 𝐼, the force exerted by the beam
T
on the sphere is

Given: Radius = 𝑅, Intensity = 𝐼

To find: Force

Solution:

𝑑𝐹 = Force exerted by the light on the small

elemental area 𝑑𝐴 of the thin ring.

The vertical components 𝑑𝐹 sin 𝜃 of forces

on two symmetrical elemental areas of the
ring cancel each other and the net force is
due to the horizontal component 𝑑𝐹 cos 𝜃.

𝑑𝐴′ = Total area of thin ring = න 𝑑𝐴

𝑑𝐹 ′ = Net force on this thin ring = න 𝑑𝐹 cos 𝜃

 𝑑𝐹 2𝐼
Radiation pressure, 𝑃= = cos2 𝜃
𝑑𝐴 𝑐

Area of thin ring, 𝑑𝐴′ = න 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅 sin 𝜃 × 𝑅𝑑𝜃

Net force on thin ring,

𝑑𝐹 ′ = ‫ 𝐹𝑑 ׬‬cos 𝜃

2𝐼
=න cos 2 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝑐

2𝐼
= cos3 𝜃 න 𝑑𝐴
𝑐
2𝐼
𝑑𝐹 ′ = cos3 𝜃 2𝜋𝑅 sin 𝜃 × 𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝑐
𝜋/2 𝜋/2
2𝐼
Force on entire sphere, 𝐹 = න 𝑑𝐹 ′ = න cos3 𝜃 2𝜋𝑅 sin 𝜃 × 𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝑐
𝜋/2 0 0
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐼
= න cos3 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑐
0
𝜋
2 4
4𝜋𝑟 𝐼 cos 𝜃 2 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐼
=− 𝐹=
𝑐 4 0
𝑐
 Matter Waves

The waves associated with moving particles are called Matter waves or de Broglie waves.

• The wavelength associated with a moving

𝑚, 𝑣 particle is known as de Broglie wavelength.

ℎ ℎ ℎ = Planck’s constant
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 𝑝 = Momentum
 Matter Waves

• In ordinary situation, de Broglie wavelength is very small and wave nature of matter
can be ignored.

Baseball Electron

Mass: 146 g Mass: 9.1 x 10−31 𝑘𝑔

𝑒−
Speed: 30 𝑚/𝑠 Speed: 3 × 107 𝑚/𝑠

De Broglie 𝜆 = 1.51 × 10−34 𝑚 De Broglie 𝜆 = 2.42 × 10−11 𝑚

wavelength, wavelength,
 De Broglie Wavelength of an Electron

 If an electrons is accelerated
𝐸
Electron beam with the voltage 𝑉, then its
𝑒− 𝑒− kinetic energy becomes:

Vacuum tube
𝐾 = 𝑒𝑉
Filament

 De Broglie wavelength becomes,

𝑉
L.T. ℎ ℎ
H.T. (High tension/voltage) (Low tension/voltage) 𝜆= =
2𝑚 𝐾 2𝑚 𝑒𝑉

Electron Gun 12.27

𝜆= Å
𝑉
Find the de Broglie wavelength of a monoatomic gas particle at temperature 𝑇.

Given: Monoatomic gas at temperature 𝑇

To find: De Broglie wavelength (𝜆)

3
Solution: K.E of each particle of monoatomic gas, 𝐸1 = 𝑘𝑇
2
ℎ ℎ
De Broglie wavelength, 𝜆= =
2𝑚 𝐾 2𝑚𝐸1

ℎ
𝜆= (𝑘 = Boltzmann constant)
3
2𝑚 × 2 𝑘𝑇

ℎ
𝜆=
3𝑚𝑘𝑇
 Davisson and Germer Experiment

𝑉
− + H.T. (High tension
voltage)
Vacuum
chamber

Filament Accelerator
Electron beam
Nickel
𝜃 target
+ −
Electron
gun
Diffracted
electron
beam
Movable
collector

To galvanometer
 Davisson and Germer Experiment

• A strong peak is appeared in intensity

𝐼 of the scattered electron for an
accelerating voltage of 54 𝑉 at a
scattering angle 𝜃 = 50°.

• This peak was the result of constructive

interference of electrons scattered from
the nickel target

For accelerating voltage 𝑉 = 54 𝑉, the

de Broglie wavelength of electron is
• The experiment was performed by
varying the accelerating voltage from
44 𝑉 to 68 𝑉. 12.27 12.27
𝜆= Å 𝜆= Å
𝑉 54
• The intensity (𝐼) of the scattered
electrons is measured at different
angles of scattering (𝜃).
𝜆 = 1.67 Å
 Bragg’s Law

𝜃 = Scattering angle

𝜙 = Angle between incident beam and

crystallographic plane

𝑑 = Distance between atomic layer (also

known as interplanar spacing)

For constructive interference,

Path difference = 𝑛𝜆

2𝑑 sin 𝜙 = 𝑛𝜆

For 𝜃 = 50° ⇒ 𝜙 = 65°

Putting 𝑛 = 1, 𝑑 = 0.91Å, and 𝜙 = 65°

𝜆 = 1.66 Å
 Electrons accelerated by a potential 𝑉 are diffracted from a crystal. If 𝑑 = 1Å and 𝑖 =
30° , 𝑉 should be about

Solution:

For 1𝑠𝑡 order maxima, 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆

⇒ 2𝑑 sin(90° − 𝑖) = 𝜆 Incoming Outgoing

electrons electrons
⇒ 2𝑑 cos 𝑖 = 𝜆 𝑖
𝜃
12.27
⇒ 2 × 1 × cos 30° = 𝑑
𝑉
12.27
⇒ 𝑉=
3

𝑉 = 50.18 𝑉 ≈ 50 𝑉
Electrons accelerated by a potential 𝑉 are diffracted from a crystal. If 𝑑 = 1Å and 𝑖 =
30° , 𝑉 should be about

A 1000 𝑉

Incoming Outgoing
B 2000 𝑉 electrons
𝑖
electrons

𝑑
C 50 𝑉

D 500 𝑉
 Physical Interpretation of Matter Waves

• Matter wave represents the probability of finding a particle in space.

• The intensity (square of the amplitude) of the matter wave at a point determines the
probability density (probability per unit volume) of the particle at that point.

Probability of finding a particle in space:

𝐼 = Intensity of matter wave

𝑃 = 𝐼 × ∆𝑉
∆𝑉 = Small volume
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty

principle, “It is not possible to measure both the
position and momentum of a particle at the
same time exactly”.
The product of error in measurement of
position and momentum is in the order of ℏ.

∆𝑥 = Uncertainty in position
∆𝑥 ⋅ ∆𝑝 ≈ ℏ ∆𝑝 = Uncertainty in momentum
ℎ
ℏ=
2𝜋

ℎ ℏ
∆𝑥 ⋅ ∆𝑝 ≥ =
Werner Karl Heisenberg 4𝜋 2
1901 − 1976
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

𝑏↓ 𝜆
𝑏 sin 𝜃 = +
𝑏
𝜃 𝜃
𝜆
sin 𝜃 = −
sin 𝜃 ↑ 𝑏

• When the slit is made narrower there is a lesser space for the photons to go through
which means the uncertainty in the position has become smaller and the uncertainty
in momentum has become larger.

• Therefore the uncertainty in the velocity of photons has also become larger that’s why
now the photons can go at higher angles.
 Wave Packets

The wave packet corresponds to a spread of wavelength around some

central wavelength.

• The matter wave associated with the

electron is not extended all over space
(because a wave of definite wavelength
extends all over space). It is a wave
packet extending over some finite region
of space.

• In that case ∆𝑥 is not infinite but has some

finite value depending on the extension of
the wave packet.
 Wave Packets

The wave packet corresponds to a spread of wavelength around some

central wavelength.

• By de Broglie’s relation, then, the

momentum of the electron will also
have a spread – an uncertainty ∆𝑝. This
is as expected from the uncertainty
principle.
 Photocell

A photocell works on the principle of photoelectric

Incident
effect.
light
𝐶
Working:
𝐴
• When light of suitable wavelength falls on the
emitter 𝐶, photoelectrons are emitted.

• These photoelectrons are drawn to the

collector 𝐴. Photocurrent of the order of a few
microampere can be normally obtained from
a photocell.
𝜇𝐴
• A photocell converts a change in intensity of
𝐵 illumination into a change in photocurrent. This
current can be used to operate control systems
and in light measuring devices.
 Photocell

Incident
light Applications:
𝐶

𝐴
• The activation/deactivation process of
streetlights is mainly controlled by photocells.

• These are used as timers in a running race to

calculate the runner’s speed.

• Photocells are used to count the vehicles on

the road.

𝜇𝐴
• These are used in burglar alarms to protect
𝐵 from a thief.
An electron, a doubly ionized helium ion (𝐻𝑒 2+ ) and a proton are having the same
kinetic energy. The relation between their respective de-Broglie wavelengths 𝜆𝑒 , 𝜆𝐻𝑒 2+
and 𝜆𝑝 is

Solution:
ℎ ℎ
De Broglie wavelength is given by 𝜆= =
𝑝 2𝑚𝐾. 𝐸.

Also, 𝐾. 𝐸.𝑒 = 𝐾. 𝐸.𝐻𝑒 2+ = 𝐾. 𝐸.𝑝

𝑚𝐻𝑒 2+ > 𝑚𝑝 > 𝑚𝑒

∴ 𝜆𝐻𝑒 2+ < 𝜆𝑝 < 𝜆𝑒

 ෠ If 𝜆0 is initial
An electron (mass 𝑚) with initial velocity 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣0 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣0 𝑗Ƹ is in an electric field 𝐸 = −𝐸0 𝑘.
de-Broglie wavelength of electron, its de-Broglie wavelength at time 𝑡 is given by

𝑒𝐸0
Given: 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣0 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣0 𝑗Ƹ 𝑣 ′ = 𝑣Ԧ + 𝑎𝑡
Ԧ = 𝑣0 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣0 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑡 𝑘෠
⇒ 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣02 + 𝑣02 = 𝑣0 2 𝑚

𝐸 = −𝐸0 𝑘෠ 2
𝑒𝐸0
⇒ 𝑣′ = 𝑣02 + 𝑣02 + 𝑡
𝑚
To find: de-Broglie wavelength at time 𝑡 (𝜆′ )

Solution: de-Broglie wavelength at time 𝑡,

Initial de-Broglie wavelength of electron, ℎ ℎ ………………(2)

𝜆′ = =
𝑚𝑣 ′ 𝑒 2 𝐸02 𝑡 2
ℎ ℎ 𝑚 2𝑣02 +
𝜆0 = = ………………(1) 𝑚2
𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑣0 2
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we get
Force on electron, 𝐹Ԧ = −𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝐸0 𝑘෠

⇒ 𝑚𝑎Ԧ = 𝑒𝐸0 𝑘෠ 𝜆′ 2𝑣0 𝜆0

= 𝜆′ =
𝜆0 𝑒 2 𝐸02 𝑡 2
𝑒𝐸0 2𝑣02 + ⇒ 𝑒 2 𝐸02 𝑡 2
⇒ 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑘෠ 𝑚2 1+
𝑚 2𝑚2 𝑣02