Edexcel AS-Level Physics

Year 1 (AS); Unit 2 – Particle Nature of Light

(Includes Unit 1 – Introduction)

Learning Objectives
Arguments that light is a wave
1. Light refracts and measurably slows down in a denser material
2. Light diffracts
3. Light can experience interference
4. Light can be polarised; a particle cannot

The speed of light in a vacuum (c) is 3x108 ms-1

 −2
𝑊𝑚
 
Intensity  ‘radiation flux density’
Intensity is power per unit area
  𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦=
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴
 Calculate the intensity of a green laser, with a power of 5mW and a
beam diameter of 1.5mm?
• Area = =
• Intensity =
 Solar Panels & Light Intensity
 Calculate the power of the sun on the panel if the panel’s
area =

  420
1. Form an angle to find the intensity of sun on the panel 65
 

  65 • I = P/A so P = IA
We know hypotenuse;
  420 looking for the opposite; so  • = 360 x 5
use sine
• = 1900W
  = 420 x sin(65) = 380
2. Finish the calculation
The Sun  ‘luminosity’ = Sun’s power
•Intensity
  of sunlight = 1360
Distance from Earth to Sun = 1.49m   1.49m
Calculate the sun’s power?
• The sun’s energy is released spherically…
 • Considering this ‘sphere of energy’, the sphere’s
surface area =
 • I = P/A so P = IA  P = I
 • P = 3.82
 Black body radiation
Black  Good at absorbing / emitting radiation

Blackbody Radiation Curves

Planck found that intensity of radiation is not
normally distributed.

He explained the cause of this:

Intensity

• Electromagnetic radiation is made of

Quanta  Indivisible, fixed amounts of
energy; now called a photon.
• EQUANTUM = hf
Wavelength
Planck’s equation
Quanta  indivisible, fixed amounts of energy  now called ‘photons’

𝐸𝑄𝑈𝐴𝑁𝑇𝑈𝑀 =h𝑓
 

Amount of energy in a   Planck’s Constant

= X Frequency
quantum

Planck concluded, therefore, that there was an argument for a particle-like nature
of light; that light was made of fixed amount of energy.
Finding Planck’s Constant
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iGw_qjUT5DA
Practice Question
•A laptop screen emits 5.0W of energy. The radiation has a wavelength of 600nm;
how many photons are emitted per second?
• Wave equation  v=fx so f = v/x  frequency = speed/wavelength
• Frequency = speed of light / 600nm =
• Frequency =
• Eq = hf  E = Planck’s Constant x Frequency =
• Number of photons = total energy / energy per photon
• = 5.0W / Eq = Photons / second
 Using light (photo) to knock electrons
Photoelectric effect (electric) out of the surface of a metal.

UV light shines on the plate

A nano-coulomb meter, with a -

negatively charged zinc plate Electrons are lost; the
on it negative charge is lessened
-
 Using light (photo) to knock electrons
Photoelectric effect (electric) out of the surface of a metal.

• Even with a low intensity UV lamp, electrons are

immediately released from the metal plate – this
happens instantly
- - • If visible light is used, no electrons are ever
emitted
• If the plate is positively charged, electrons are
- - - -
- - - emitted but they are pulled back
• We refer to electrons emitted this way as
‘photoelectrons’
 Using light (photo) to knock electrons
Photoelectric effect (electric) out of the surface of a metal.

Einstein concluded that the only way to explain this was that light acts like a particle:

Visible Light Ultraviolet Light

• Lower frequency  less energy in a • Higher frequency  more energy in
visible light photon [E = hf] a UV photon [E = hf]
• Not enough energy to knock an • Enough energy to knock an electron
electron out allow it to escape; pulling the
electron from the positive metal
ions.
 Using light (photo) to knock electrons
Photoelectric effect (electric) out of the surface of a metal.

• Over time, a wave constantly transmits energy; think coastal erosion

• If light is a wave, then enough energy to displace an electron would
eventually be transmitted
• However, visible light never displaces electrons
• Therefore, light must act like particles, attacking electrons one-by-one;
if any single particle doesn’t have enough energy to remove an
electron then an electron will never be released.
Electron-Volt (eV)
•  A measure of energy
• 1eV =
• Makes calculations at electron level easier

Electron-Volt: work done (energy transferred) to an

electron when it is accelerated through a potential
difference of 1V

  Why does 1 eV = ?
• W=QxV
• = C (electron charge) x 1V
• =
 Complete the following table
E/J E/eV
Green photon 532nm   J 2.34 eV
Red photon J
UV photon 200nm
X-Ray 120,000 eV

 Energy(J & eV) of the green photon:

• E = hf
• Frequency = speed of light / wavelength =
• =
• E = hf =
 •eV = Energy / Electron charge =
• = 2.34 eV
 Complete the following table
E/J E/eV
Green photon 532nm   J 2.34 eV
Red photon 650nm J 1.91 eV
UV photon 200nm
X-Ray 120,000 eV

 Energy (eV) & wavelength of the red photon:

• eV = Energy / Electron charge = J
• = 1.91 eV
 • F = speed/wavelength  wavelength = speed/frequency
• E = hf  f = E/h  wavelength =
• Wavelength = = 650nm
 Complete the following table
E/J E/eV
Green photon 532nm   J 2.34 eV
Red photon 650nm J 1.91 eV
UV photon 200nm   J 6.22 eV
X-Ray 120,000 eV

 Energy(J & eV) of the UV photon:

• E = hf
• Frequency = speed of light / wavelength =
• =
• E = hf =
 •eV = Energy / Electron charge =
• = 6.22 eV
 Complete the following table
E/J E/eV
Green photon 532nm   J 2.34 eV
Red photon 650nm J 1.91 eV
UV photon 200nm   J 6.22 eV
X-Ray 0.01nm   J 120,000 eV

 Energy(J& eV) of the UV photon:

• eV = Energy / Electron charge  Energy = eV x electron charge
• = 120,000 eV x = J
 • wavelength = = = 0.01nm
Work function of a metal Φ

minimum energy required to release a

Φ = work function of a metal = photoelectron from the surface of a
metal

• E.g. Zinc has a work function of 4.2eV; a red photon is fired at it

• 4.2eV is the minimum energy needed to release a photoelectron
• A red photon has an energy of 1.91eV
• 1.91eV < 4.2eV so a photoelectron is not released
• A UV photon has an energy of 6.22eV, so it will release a photelectron
on collision with the surface of the zinc.
 Einstein’s photoelectric equation

𝐸 𝑃𝐻𝑂𝑇𝑂𝑁 =𝜙+𝐸 𝐾
 

•The
  maximum possible kinetic energy of a photoelectron is the energy of the photon
fired, subtract the energy used to release the electron (Ek = Ep - )
This is the maximum possible amount of energy as more energy is often required to
release a photoelectron, when it is buried deeper into the metal.

  1 2 1
 𝐸 𝑃𝐻𝑂𝑇𝑂𝑁 =h𝑓 h𝑓 =𝜙 + 𝑚 𝑣  
𝐸𝐾= 𝑚 𝑣
2
2

2
 Kinetic energy & frequency of a photoelectron
  (EK) of
photoelectron   Find the work function:
• Multiply f0 (x-intercept) by Planck’s
constant, as
• Multiply the y-intercept by -1 (c=-)

  Y = 1/2mv2 = 0
So hf = + 0
So hf = here
h 𝑓 0=𝜙
 

Frequency

f0 = threshold frequency of the Minimum frequency required to

metal evict an electron

y = mx +c   • Gradient = h = Planck’s constant

• y-intercept = -
½mv
  2
= hf -
 How to measure maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron
A phototube can be used to investigate the photoelectric effect by connecting a variable
potential difference across it and measuring the current with a very sensitive ammeter.

The potential difference is

reversed by connecting the
anode to the negative
-
LIGHT ANODE nA +
V

CATHODE

The nanoammeter detects if photoelectrons bridge the gap between anode and cathode; if some
do, the circuit is complete and a current is measured.
 How to measure maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron

-
LIGHT ANODE nA +
V

CATHODE

The reverse p.d. does work to decelerate the photoelectrons by repelling them.

By increasing the reverse voltage with the potentiometer – making the voltage sufficiently
negative – less and less photoelectrons have enough energy to bridge the gap, as they are
repelled by a stronger voltage.
 How to measure maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron

When no current is measured, no photoelectrons can cross; even those with maximum
kinetic energy cannot bridge the gap, which shows the maximum kinetic energy of a
photoelectron.
This is known as the ‘stopping voltage’ (Vs)
If photoelectrons stop at 2V, the maximum kinetic energy = 2eV
2eV = 3.2x1019J

• Work done slowing a photoelectron = charge x stopping voltage (W = QVs)

• W = charge per electron x stopping voltage (W = e x Vs)
• Therefore, eVs = 1/2mv2MAX

  1 2
𝑒 𝑉 𝑠= 𝑚 𝑣 𝑀𝐴𝑋
2
How to measure maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron

  1 2
𝑒 𝑉 𝑠= 𝑚 𝑣 𝑀𝐴𝑋
2

This can be put into Einstein’s photoelectric equation:

  1
 
 2
h𝑓 =𝜙 + 𝑚 𝑣¿ 𝑒 𝑉 𝑠
2
Atomic Spectra & Photon Emission
When electricity flows through certain gases in a tube, electrons
are energised and light is emitted.
When looked at through a diffraction grating, the differing
wavelengths of coloured light are visible:
https://youtu.be/xYrAYsi8rSQ?t=2m28s
 How are photons emitted?
Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom in energy levels.

An electron is in its ground state at the lowest energy level possible (nearest the nucleus)
When an electron is energised, they can gain enough energy to jump to a higher energy level:
Electrons can gain enough energy to jump to a higher energy level. When they fall
again, a photon is emitted.

Electrons can jump multiple levels if they have enough energy; when they fall from
a higher level, a greater amount of energy is released, and the photon released has
more energy.

• E.g.: from the first level to ground state, an infrared photon might be
excitation emitted.
Photon emitted
• From the highest level to ground state, a UV photon might be emitted.

NUCLEUS
 How are photons emitted?
The energy of the emitted photon is the difference between the energy at each level:

E2 – E1 = photon energy = hf

When we see lines of spectra through a diffraction grating, the lines appear thin; only a single, exact
frequency of coloured light is emitted, as the energy at each level is exact – they are called discrete
energy levels.

 Ionisation energy is the energy that must be supplied for an electron in the lowest energy level to
escape from the atom (completely!)
A quantum is a fixed (discrete) amount of energy
The emission spectrum of a chemical element or compound is the spectrum of frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation emitted when the electrons in an atom transition from a high energy
state to a lower energy state.
 How are photons emitted?
• The lower the energy level, the lower an electron’s energy; the electron has a negative potential energy.
• This is because energy is added to allow an electron to escape; when an electron escapes, it has a potential
energy of 0.
• So if the lowest energy level of hydrogen, for example, is -13.6eV, then the ionisation energy needed to
release an electron is 13.6eV, as 13.6eV must be transferred for the electron to have a potential energy of
0eV.

Example  what is the wavelength of the photon released?

-1.51eV • Find the energy of the photon: E2 – E1 = hf  hf = -1.51eV - -3.41eV = 1.9eV
• Convert this to Joules: 1.9eV x 1.6x10-19 = 3.04x10-19J
-3.41eV • Calculate frequency: E = hf  f = E/h  f = (3.04x10-19) / (6.63x10-34)
• = 4.59x1014 Hz
• Calculate wavelength: V = fx  x = V/f  x = (3x108 ms-1) / (4.59x1014 Hz)
• = 654 nm
 De Broglie’s Formula
Planck established the connection between light as a particle and as a wave:

E=
hf
WAVE PARTICLE
λ=h÷
p
  De Broglie later theorised that every particle with momentum (p) must have a
corresponding wavelength ()
  h   h
𝜆= 𝜆=
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
 This duality was later proven in a lab:
Interference pattern
Graphite Screen forms on screen

Electron gun
fires electrons

Diffraction Occurs

• Electrons fired through graphite in an evacuated tube

• Spacing of atoms in graphite was around the same as the wavelength
of the electrons, causing the graphite to act like a diffraction grating
• An image of interference rings forms on the screen:
 Wave-particle duality

Evidence that light = wave Evidence that light = particles

• Diffraction • Photoelectric effect
• Interference • Emission spectra
• Refraction
• Polarisation

• The complementarity principle says that sometimes light has the properties of particles
and sometimes the properties of waves, but never both together
• The practical reality is to choose the model that suits the situation