• TORSION AND HELICAL SPRINGS • The deformation that results from the above assumptions is relatively simple: Each
cross section rotates as a rigid entity about the axis of the shaft. Although this conclusion
• TORSION OF CIRCULAR SHAFT
In many engineering applications, members are required to carry torsional loads. A
circular cross section is an efficient shape for resisting torsional loads, circular shafts are
commonly used to transmit power in rotating machinery.
a. Simplifying Assumptions
The figure below shows the deformation of a circular shaft that is subjected to a
twisting couple (torque) 𝑻. To visualize the deformation, we scribe the straight line 𝑨𝑩
on the surface of the shaft before the torque is applied. After the loading, this line deforms
into the helix 𝑨𝑩’ as the free end of the shaft rotates through the angle 𝜽. During the
deformation, the cross sections are not distorted in any matter−they remain plane, and
the radius 𝒓 does not change. In addition, the length 𝑳 of the shaft remains constant. Based
on these observations, we make the following assumptions:
• Circular cross sections remain plane (do not warp) and perpendicular to the axis
of the shaft.
• Cross sections do not deform (there is no strain in the plane of the cross section.
• The distances between cross sections do not change (the axial normal strain is
zero).
Fig. 1.1 Notice the deformation of the
rectangular element when this
rubber bar is subjected to a
torque.
is based on the observed deformation of a cylindrical shaft carrying a constant internal
torque, we assume that the result remains valid even if the diameter of the shaft or the
internal torque varies along the length of the shaft.
b. Compatibility
To analyze the deformation in the interior of the shaft in Fig. 1.1, we consider the
portion of the shaft shown in Fig. 1.2. We first isolate a segment of the shaft of
infinitesimal length 𝑑𝑥 and the “peel” off its outer layer, leaving us with the cylindrical
core of radius 𝝆. As the shaft deforms, the two cross sections of the segment rotate about
the 𝑥 −axis. Because the cross sections are separated by an infinitesimal distance, the
difference in their rotations, denoted by the angle 𝑑𝜃, is also infinitesimal. We now
imaging that the straight line 𝐶𝐷 has been drawn on the cylindrical surface. As the cross
sections undergo the relative rotation 𝑑𝜃, 𝐶𝐷 deforms into the helix 𝐶𝐷′. By observing the
distortion of the shaded element, we recognize that the helix angle 𝛾 is the 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
of the element.
Fig. 1.2 (a) Fig. 1.2 (b)
Fig. 1.2:
(a) Shear strain of a material caused by twisting of the shaft
(b) The corresponding shear stress
 ̅̅̅̅̅ = 𝜌𝑑𝜃 = 𝛾𝑑𝑥, from which the
From the geometry of Fig. 1.2 (a), we obtain 𝐷𝐷′
shear strain is
Fig. 1.4. Calculating the resultant of
𝑑𝜃 the shear stress acting on the cross
𝛾= 𝜌 section. Resultant is a couple equal to
𝑑𝑥
the internal torque, 𝑇.
The quantity 𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑥 is the 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, where 𝜃 is expressed
in radians. The corresponding shear stress, illustrated in Fig. 1.2 (b) is determined from
Hooke’s law:
𝑑𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 = 𝐺 𝜌 Recognizing that ∫𝐴 𝜌2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐽 is (by definition) the polar moment of inertia of the
𝑑𝑥
Note that 𝐺(𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑥) is independent of the radial distance 𝜌. Therefore, the shear cross-sectional area, we can write this equation as 𝐺(𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑥) 𝐽 = 𝑇, or
stress varies linearly with the radial distance 𝜌 from the axis of the shaft. The variation of
the shear stress acting on the cross section is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. The maximum shear
stress, denoted by 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 , occurs at the surface of the shaft. 𝑑𝜃 𝑇
=
𝑑𝑥 𝐺𝐽

The rotation of the cross section at the free end of the shaft, called the
Fig. 1.3. Distribution of shear stress 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡, is obtained by integration:
along the radius of a circular shaft.

𝐿 𝐿
𝑇
𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 0 𝐺𝐽
c. Equilibrium
For the shaft to be in equilibrium, the resultant of the shear stress acting on a cross If the integrand is independent of 𝑥, as in the case of a prismatic bar carrying a
section must be equal to the internal torque 𝑇 acting on that cross section, Fig. 1.4 constant torque, then the formula above is reduces to the 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 − 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝.
shows a cross section of the shaft containing a differential element of a area
𝑑𝐴 located at the radial distance 𝜌 from the axis of the shaft. The shear force acting on
this area is 𝑑𝑃 = 𝜏𝑑𝐴 = 𝐺(𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑥)𝜌𝑑𝐴, directed perpendicular to the radius. Hence, 𝑇𝐿
the moment (torque) of 𝑑𝑃 about the center 𝑂 is 𝜌𝑑𝑃 = 𝐺(𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑥)𝜌2 𝑑𝐴. Summing 𝜃= 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝜃 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
the contributions of all the differential elements across the cross-sectional area 𝐴 and
𝐽𝐺
equating the result to the internal torque yields Where:
𝑑𝜃 𝜃 = Angle of twist (degrees) 𝐺 = Modulus of Rigidity (MPa)
𝐺( ) ∫ 𝜌2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑇
𝑑𝑥 𝐴 T = Torque (𝑁 − 𝑚𝑚) L = Length (mm)
J = Polar Moment of Inertia (mm4 )
 d. Torsion Formulas e. Power Transmission
𝑇𝜌 In many practical applications, shafts are used to transmit power. The power 𝑃
𝜏=
𝐽 transmitted by a torque 𝑇 rotating at the angular speed 𝜔 is given by 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔, where
𝜔 is measured in radians per unit time. If the shaft is rotating with a frequency 𝑓
Where:
revolutions per unit time, then 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, which 𝑃 = 𝑇(2𝜋𝑓). Therefore, the torque
𝜏 = Shearing Stress (MPa) can be expressed as
𝑇 = Torque (N − mm) 𝑃
𝜌 = distance from the center (mm) 𝑇=
2𝜋𝑓
𝐽 = Polar Moment of Inertia (mm4 )
Where:
• Polar Moment of Inertia
𝑃 = Power (Watts), Note: 1.0 Watt = 1.0 N ∙ m/s
It is a measure of an object’s capacity to oppose or resist torsion when some
𝑓 = Frequency (Hertz), Note: 1.0 Hz = 1.0 rev/s
amount of torque is applied to it on a specified axis.
𝐽 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦
Power in English Units is often expressed in horsepower (hp)
Polar Moment of Inertia of Solid shaft,
1.0 hp = 550 lb ∙ ft/s
𝜋𝐷 4 𝜋𝐷 4 = 396 × 103 lb ∙ in/min
𝐽= + 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐷 = Diameter of the shaft
64 64
On the other hand,
𝜋𝐷 4
𝐽= (for Solid Shaft) Imperial unit conversion for horsepower
32
Polar Moment of Inertia of Hollow shaft, 1.0 hp = 746 watts
= 746 N ∙ m/s
𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 ) 𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 )
𝐽= +
64 64
𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 ) f. Statically Indeterminate Problems
𝐽= (for Hollow Shaft)
32
The procedure for solving statically indeterminate torsion problems is similar to the
steps presented for axially loaded bars:
The maximum shear stress is found by replacing 𝜌 by the radius 𝑟 of the shaft: a. Draw the required free-body diagrams and write the equations of equilibrium.
b. Derive the compatibility equations from the restrictions imposed on the angles
of twist.
𝑇𝑟 c. Use the torque-twist relationship to express the angles of twist in the
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = compatibility equations in terms of the torques.
𝐽
d. Solve the equations of equilibrium and compatibility for the torques.
Example 1: A solid shaft of 150 mm diameter is used to transmit torque. Find the Example 3: Determine the diameter of a solid steel shaft which will transmit 90 kW at
maximum torque transmitted by the shaft if the maximum shear stress induced to the 160 rpm. Also determine the length of the shaft if the twist must not exceed 1° over the
shaft is 45 MPa. entire length. The shear stress is limited to 60 MPa. Take the value of Modulus of Rigidity
= 80 × 103 MPa.
Solution:
Solution:
𝑇𝑟 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐽
160 rev 1min 𝑟𝑒𝑣
150 𝑓= × = 2.67
𝑇( ) min. 60sec 𝑠
45 = 𝜋 2 90 = 2𝜋𝑇(2.67)
(150)4
32
𝑇 = 5.37 kN − m
𝑇 = 29.82 kN − m (Ans.)
Allowable shearing stress in the shaft = 60 MPa
Allowable angle of twist in the shaft = 1°
Example 2: Two shafts of the same material and of same lengths are subjected to the 𝑇𝑟
same torque, if the first shaft is of a solid circular section and the second shaft is of hollow 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐽
circular section, whose internal diameter is 2/3 of the outside diameter and the maximum
stress developed in each shaft is the same, compare the weights of the shaft. 𝐷
(5.37 × 106 )( 2 )
60 = 𝜋 4
Solution:
32 𝐷
𝐷 𝑑 65 1/3
𝑇( 2 ) 𝑇( 2 ) 𝐷=( ) 𝑑 𝐷 = 76.79 mm (Ans.)
𝜋 = 𝜋 81
(𝐷 4) 4 (2𝑑/3)4 ]
32 32 [𝑑 −
𝑊𝑆𝑂𝐿𝐼𝐷 𝑉𝑆𝑂𝐿𝐼𝐷
= 𝑇𝐿
𝑊𝐻𝑂𝐿𝐿𝑂𝑊 𝑉𝐻𝑂𝐿𝐿𝑂𝑊 𝜃=
1 1 𝐽𝐺
= 𝜋 2
𝐷 3 65 3 [(65/81)1/3 𝑑] 𝐿
81 𝑑
𝑊𝑆𝑂𝐿𝐼𝐷 4 𝜋 (5.37 × 106 )𝐿
= 𝜋 1° × = 𝜋
𝑊𝐻𝑂𝐿𝐿𝑂𝑊 [𝑑2 − (2𝑑/3)2 ] 𝐿 180 (76.97)4 (80000)
4 32
81𝐷 3 = 65𝑑3 𝑊𝑆𝑂𝐿𝐼𝐷
= 1.55 (Ans. )
𝑊𝐻𝑂𝐿𝐿𝑂𝑊 𝐿 = 895.55 mm (Ans.)
Example 4: A compound shaft is made of two materials - on the left is 1 m length of Example 1: The compound shaft is attached to a rigid wall at each end. For the bronze
steel, 90 mm ø, and on the right is 0.8 m length of aluminum, 60 mm ø. The shaft is fixed segment AB, the diameter is 75 mm and G = 35 GPa. For the steel segment BC, the
at the left end and a torque of 1 kN-m is applied at the right end. Determine the additional diameter is 50 mm and G= 83 GPa. Given that bronze is 2 m and steel is1.5 m, compute
torque that can be applied at B without exceeding the permissible stress in steel of 90 the largest torque that can be applied as shown below if the maximum shear stress is
MPa. limited to 60 MPa in the bronze and 80 MPa in the steel.
Solution:
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆𝑡 )(2000) (−𝑇𝑆𝑡 )(1500)
Additional torque that can be applied at B without 𝜋 + 𝜋 =0
(75)4 (35000) (50)4 (83000)
exceeding permissible stress of 90 MPa: 32 32
Consider cutting a section in the 90 mm solid steel 𝑇 = 2.601 𝑇𝑆𝑡 (Eq. 1)
shaft
Consider maximum shearing stress in the
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 𝑇 + 1 × 106 steel shaft
𝑇𝑟
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Free-Body Diagram of steel shaft:
𝐽 Solution:
90 Free-Body Diagram
(𝑇 + 1 × 106 )( 2 )
90 = 𝜋 𝑇 = 11.88 kN − m (Ans. )
4
32 (90)

• STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SHAFTS

Torsional shafts are classified as statically indeterminate when the equations of 𝑇𝑆𝑡 𝑟𝑆𝑡
equilibrium will no longer be adequate for determining the torques. Torsional members 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑆𝑡 =
𝐽𝑆𝑡
of this kind can be analyzed by supplementing the equilibrium equations with 𝑇𝐿
compatibility equations pertaining to the rotational displacements. 𝜃= 50
𝐽𝐺 𝑇𝑆𝑡 ( 2 )
The procedure for solving statically indeterminate torsion problems is similar to the 80 = 𝜋
4
process of solving axially loaded bars: 𝜃𝐵/𝐴 =
𝑇𝐵𝑟 𝐿𝐵𝑟 32 (50)
𝐽𝐵𝑟 𝐺𝐵𝑟
1. Write the equations of equilibrium, obtained from free body diagrams of the 𝑇𝑆𝑡 = 1.96 kN − m
given physical situation. 𝑇𝑆𝑡 𝐿𝑆𝑡
𝜃𝐶/𝐵 = Subs 𝑇𝑆𝑡 in Eq. 1,
2. Formulate the equations of compatibility, based upon physical conditions 𝐽𝑆𝑡 𝐺𝑆𝑡
pertaining to the angles of twist and
𝑇 = 2.601(1.96 )
Note: Relate the angle of twist to the torques. 𝜃𝐵/𝐴 + 𝜃𝐶/𝐵 = 0
𝑇 = 5.11 kN − m
 Check maximum shearing stress in the 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐵𝑟 = 37.95 MPa < 60 MPa (Ok!) 𝑞 = 𝜏𝑡
bronze shaft:
Since maximum actual stress is less than Where:
maximum allowable stress, 𝑞 = shear flow
Maximum torque that can be applied to 𝜏 = shearing stress
compound shaft:
𝑡 = wall thickness
𝑇 = 5.11 kN − m (Ans. )

𝑇𝐵𝑟 𝑟𝐵𝑟 There is twisting in the member due to the applied torque. The rotation is called
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐵𝑟 =
𝐽𝐵𝑟 the angle of twist, 𝜃.

75 The angle of twist of a thin walled member of length 𝐿 can be determined by the
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆𝑡 ) ( 2 )
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐵𝑟 = formula:
𝜋
(75)4
32
𝑇𝐿 𝑑𝑠
𝜃= 2 ∮
4𝐴𝑚 𝐺 𝑡
• TORSION OF THIN-WALLED HOLLOW MEMBERS
If a thin walled hollow member is subjected to torque 𝑇, shearing stress 𝜏 is developed.
Symbolically expressed as: 𝐺 = shear modulus or modulus of elasticity for shear from the previous
discussion of angle of twist formula:
𝑇
𝜏=
2𝑡𝐴𝑚
𝑇𝐿
Where: 𝜃=
𝐽𝐺
𝜏 = shearing stress developed over a particular thickness of the hollow
member The equivalent formula for polar moment of inertia J of thin walled member is:
𝑇 = resultant internal torque at the cross section applied torque
𝑡 = wall thickness 4𝐴𝑚2
𝐽=
𝐴𝑚 = the mean area enclosed within the boundary of the area bounded by the 𝑑𝑠
∮ 𝑡
centerline of the wall thickness
Where:
𝑑𝑠
When shearing stress is developed, it can be expressed as a resisting force per ∮ = total perimeter at the centerline of wall thickness divided by
𝑡
unit length along the wall mean perimeter which is called shear flow, q. It can be
the wall thickness.
computed from the formula:
Example 1: Determine the shear flow and shearing stress of the given thin walled • HELICAL SPRINGS
tube in the figure below if torque is 900 N − m.
Close-coiled helical springs are those in which the angle of the helix is so small that
if the axis of the spring is vertical, the coils may be assumed to be in a horizontal plane.
Solution: Such a spring may be acted upon by an axial load that will produce an axial extension.

For the Shearing Stress,

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 + 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝑇
𝜏= 𝑃 𝑇𝑟
2𝑡𝐴𝑚 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +
𝐴 𝐽
𝑑
𝑃 𝑇(2 )
𝐴𝑚 = the areas of two semi-circles and the rectangle 𝜏𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 𝜋 + 𝜋
𝜋 (𝑑)2 (𝑑)4
4 32
𝐴𝑚 = (24)2 + 100(24)
4
𝐴𝑚 = 2852.39 mm2 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅

16𝑃𝑅 𝑑
900(1000) 𝜏𝑀𝐴𝑋 = (1 + ) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜏= = 52.59 MPa 𝜋𝑑3 4𝑅
2(3)(2852.39)

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒:
For Shear Flow, 1. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔.
𝑞 = 𝜏𝑡 𝑑
2. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙.
𝑞 = 52.59 (3) 4𝑟

N
𝑞 = 157.77 (Ans. ) For heavy springs and considering the curvature of the spring, A.M. Wahl formula a
mm
more precise, it is given by:

16𝑃𝑅 4𝑚 − 1 0.615
𝜏 = 3
( + )
𝜋𝑑 4𝑚 − 4 𝑚
Where:
𝑚 = 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 • SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
When springs are laid in parallel, it is
4𝑚 − 1 assumed that the springs have equal
= 𝑊𝑎ℎ𝑙 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
4𝑚 − 4 deflections. The load P will be distributed
to each spring depending upon their
properties.
Deflection when carrying the load:
P = P1 + P2 + P3 , P = K𝛿

𝛿 = 𝑅𝜃
K𝛿 = K1 𝛿1 + K 2 𝛿2 + K 3 𝛿3

But,
𝐊 = 𝐊 𝟏 + 𝐊 𝟐 + 𝐊 𝟑 (𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍)
𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐽𝐺
• SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
SERIES

When two springs are connected in

𝑃𝑅 (2 𝜋 𝑅) series, the load on each spring is the same
𝛿 = 𝑅( ) as the applied load. The total deflection of
𝜋 4
𝑑 𝐺 the spring will be the sum of the deflection
32
of each spring.

64𝑃𝑅 3 𝑛 𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2
𝛿= = 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐺 𝑑4
P P1 P2
= +
K K1 K2
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒:
1. 𝛿 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + (𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔)
𝑃 𝑲 𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟐
2. 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛿
Example 1: A helical spring in which the slope of the helix may be assumed small, is
required to transmit a maximum pull of 1 kN and to extend 10 mm for 200 N load. If the
mean diameter of the coil is to be 80 mm, find the suitable diameter for the wire and the
number of coils required. Take G = 80 GPa and allowable shear stress as 100 MPa.
Solution:
For Suitable diameter, 𝐝

P𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 1 kN = 1000 N

16𝑃𝑅 𝑑
𝜏𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 3
(1 + )
𝜋𝑑 4𝑅

16(1000)(40) 𝑑
100 = 3
(1 + )
𝜋𝑑 4(40)

d = 13.01 mm (Ans. )

For number of coils, 𝐧

64𝑃𝑅 3 𝑛
𝛿=
𝐺 𝑑4

64 (200) (40)3 𝑛
10 =
(80, 000) (13.01)4

n = 27.98 𝑠𝑎𝑦 28 turns (Ans. )

*Always round your answer to the nearest whole number.