Automotive/Motorsport Powertrain

Drivetrain Systems
Gearbox
ad6382@coventry.ac.uk
Gareth Williams
Assistant Professor in Motorsport Engineering
 Drivetrain Systems

1. Gearboxes 16.03.2023
2. Shifting, Clutch and Differentials (TBC) 21.03.2023
 Lecture Content

1. Purpose of Transmission
2. Transmission Types
3. Gear Ratio Selection and Tractive Force
4. Shaft Design Considerations

3
Mechanical Principles (1930) by Ralph Steiner [4min selection] – YouTube

It`s all about gears and linkages .

.
 Purpose of Transmission / Gearbox

1) To provide a range of vehicle speeds wider than those available with direct drive
2) To enable the engine to stay within an efficient / powerful speed range
3) To provide a means of torque multiplication

No. Teeth No. Teeth Gear Overall

Gear No. Output Input Ratio Ratio
1 34 13 2.62 11.25
2 25 13 1.92 8.27
3 24 16 1.50 6.45
4 23 19 1.21 5.21
5 21 21 1.00 4.30

Trans Drop 1 1 1.00

Bevel 1 1 1.00
FD(1-4) 43 10 4.30
FD(5-7) 43 10 4.30
How it used to be . . .
And now . . .
General types
Manual “H-Pattern” Gearbox
General types
• Almost all road cars use synchromesh of one form or other.
• Good for normal driving, but the gear change is slowed by the synchro
mechanism
Synchromesh
• Synchro units use friction between a conical section on the gear and a
floating ring to synchronise gear speeds before the sleeve can engage

• This slows things down, and means that electronic shifting especially
is less effective
Dog Box
1) No synchromesh units – box
is shorter and stiffer

2) All gears are spur-type –

straight-cut teeth, fewer
transmission losses ( Less
thrust force friction )

3) Far fewer moving parts –

saves weight, makes ratio-
changes much simpler.
Honda F1 2007 Gear & Layshaft Assembly

Regulation limit
Min weight 600g / gear pair
Unlimited gear set

2010
Maximum 30 gear sets
7 speed gear box

From 2018
Fixed gear set per season
8 speed gear box
Sequential Gearbox
Bike Transmission

Sequential transmission – bikes have had this

type of gearbox for many years, so it`s the
norm.

The manual transmission in a motorcycle is to shift gears by clicking a lever

up or down with your toe. It is a much faster way to shift. This type of
transmission is called a sequential gearbox or a sequential manual
transmission.
Mechanism
EliseParts Sequential gearbox working internals view - YouTube
Even faster . . .
 DSG (Direct Shift Gearbox)

• The DSG and other TCT (Twin Clutch Transmission) systems overcome the ON-OFF-ON
problem due to the twin-clutch design which enables them to "pre-select" the next gear.

• Since the clutch for the odd gears is disengaged, the pre-selection of 3rd will not affect
2nd gear.

• In this way, the transmission can

change gear from 2nd to 3rd
instantaneously, without any OFF
period, and without any delay - the
only delay is caused by the smooth
disengagement and engagement of
the two clutches. Therefore power
delivery is smooth and
uninterrupted.
 DSG Operation
1. Assume the car is accelerating in 2nd.
2. Even Gear Clutch = Engaged. Odd Gear Clutch = Disengaged
3. From throttle position and rpm ECU Predicts next gear = 3rd
4. ECU Engages 3rd Gear
5. RPM hits required value OR upshift request
6. ECU simultaneously engages Odd Clutch and Disengages Even
Zero-Shift
 Zero-Shift Ratchet System
• A ratchet system between each gear which allows two gears to be selected at the
same time, but with only one engaged. When the transmission is shifted, the
engagement of the next gear causes the disengagement of the previous one.

• This is bringing the benefits of DCT without

breaking the rules.

• Assuming 30 shifts per lap and a 0.03 second advantage per

shift, the advantage of 0.9 second claimed by Zeroshift
 Zero shift Video
ZeroShift Transmission - YouTube
Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)

• Most efficient power transmission depends on the number of gear ratios

available, sensible to assume the best system has an infinite number of possible
ratios.

• CVT is an attempt to achieve that ideal.

• The first toroidal CVT patent was filed in

1886

• Today: several car manufacturers,

including GM, Toyota, Audi, Honda and
Nissan, are designing their drivetrains
around CVTs.
Been around a while . ..

A Timeline of CVT Innovation

1490 - da Vinci sketches a stepless continuously variable
transmission
1886 - first toroidal CVT patent filed
1935 - Adiel Dodge receives U.S. patent for toroidal CVT
1939 - fully automatic transmission based on planetary gear
system introduced
1958 - Daf (of The Netherlands) produces a CVT (The Variomatic)
in a car
1989 - Subaru Justy GL is the first Japanese production
automobile to offer a CVT
2002 - Saturn Vue with a CVT debuts; first Saturn to offer CVT
technology
2004 - Ford begins offering a CVT
 Pulley-based CVT
• a CVT is a study in simplicity
- Most CVTs only have three
basic components:

• A high-power metal or
rubber belt

• A variable-input "driving"
pulley

• An output "driven" pulley

 Pulley-based CVT
• The simplicity and stepless nature of CVTs make them an ideal transmission. CVTs
have been used in a variety of vehicles, including tractors, snowmobiles and motor
scooters.

• In all of these applications, the transmissions have relied on high-density rubber belts,
which can slip and stretch, thereby reducing their efficiency.

• The introduction of new materials makes CVTs more reliable and efficient. One of the
most important advances has been the design and development of metal belts to
connect the pulleys. These flexible belts are composed of several (typically nine or 12)
thin bands of steel that hold together high-strength, bow-tie-shaped pieces of steel.

• Metal belts don't slip and are highly durable, enabling CVTs to handle more engine
torque. They are also quieter than rubber-belt-driven CVTs.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PEq5_b4LWNY

Understanding CVT
 Toroidal CVT
• All of the components are analogous to
a belt-and-pulley system and lead to
the same results -- a continuously
variable transmission.

• One disc connects to the engine. This is

equivalent to the driving pulley.

• Another disc connects to the drive

shaft. This is equivalent to the driven
pulley.

• Rollers, or wheels, located between the

discs act like the belt, transmitting
power from one disc to the other.
Torotrak's Full-Toroidal Variator
 Ratio Selection
Factors
•Engine speed range from 2000 – 20000 rpm

•Useful power for a race car is at the upper end of engine speed range

•Power development at low speeds is usually poor

•Acceleration is proportional to torque supplied to wheels

•Top speed is proportional to power at the wheels

•Power is proportional to engine torque and engine speed

•Wheel torque is proportional to engine torque, gear ratio and final drive ratio
 Power, torque, ratios, speed
900

Useful power Peak Torque Power tailing

begins here Here off here
800

700

600

Torque lb-ft
Power bhp
500
First gear
seco nd gear
thi rd gear
400
Fourth Gear
Fifth gear
sixth gear
300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

• The graph shows the relationship between power, torque , gear ratios and vehicle speed.
• In typical form, engine power below 6000rpm is poor, so engine speed should not really
drop below this value during gear-changes
• Equally, the power tails off at 15,000rpm, so gear-changing should be here ideally.
• Peak torque occurs at 11,000 rpm, so ideally gear changes in the top 3 gears (4-5-6th
gears) should hit above it.
 Like so
250

Peak
Torque

200

150
first
second
third
fourth
fifth
100
sixth

Clutch slip

50

0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000
 Ratio Selection

• Ratio selection is very important:

• Track/Event Dependent:
• Max Speed between Corners
• Minimum Corner Speed and required Acceleration.

• Acceleration is governed by Mass, Aerodynamic Drag, Rolling

Resistance, Traction and Torque at the driven wheels.

• Top speed depends on Cd (Drag coefficient) and frontal area of vehicle,

and then whether or not it can accelerate up to that in the length of
straight available.
 Traction
When a torque is applied to a wheel, it applies a force along the ground.

• The Tractive Force is the friction between the wheel and the ground that is necessary
to make it move forward.

• If No traction, the wheel will slip and will not move forward.

• Note: Normal force pressing contact surfaces

Coefficient of adhesion (fx)

Diagram of the longitudinal coefficient of

adhesion (fx) in function of the speed and the
weather conditions for the asphalt:

A) dry asphalt

B) Asphalt drainage in wet conditions

C) Asphalt in wet conditions

D) Snow

E) Ice
Traction Force vs Speed Map without Gearbox
Traction Force vs Speed Map with Gearbox
 Tractive Force (Ft)

Ft = (Te x η x Rt x Rd ) / R

Where,
Ft – tractive force in N
Te – Engine torque in Nm
η – Overall efficiency of power train (Typically 0.8)
Rt – Transmission ratio
Rd – Differential ratio (Driving axle ratio)
R – Tire rolling radius
 Simplified Tractive Force (Ft)

𝑇𝑤
𝐹𝑡 =
𝑅𝑤
Ft = tractive force (N)
Tw = torque at the driven wheel (Nm)
Rw = rolling radius of driven wheel (m)

Torque at the driven wheel: 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑇𝑐 × 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑐𝑤

Tw = torque at the driven wheel (Nm)
Tc = torque at the crankshaft (Nm)
ratiocw = overall reduction ratio from crankshaft to
wheel
 Ultimate Tractive Force

• If the engine on a race car could rotate at maximum power all the time,
what would the tractive force be at any given road speed? (Imagine it used an
ideal CVT)

• By plotting this curve, you get a line which represents the maximum
possible tractive force the race car could generate at any road speed.

• You then plot the actual tractive force curve in each gear, and see how
closely it matches the ultimate tractive force curve. The closer it can get to
the ultimate tractive force curve, the better the gearing (in terms of
performance).
Ultimate Tractive Force in each gear
Tractive force in each gear
4000

Tractive force
3500

3000

2500
Tractive force (N)

2000

1500

1000

Drag force
500

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
MPH
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Ultimate tractive force Total drag
 Example

Engine develops maximum power at 11500rpm.

Maximum power is 89.147kW.
Crank torque at maximum power is 74.02Nm.
Rolling radius of rear wheel is 0.305m

Calculate ultimate tractive force for 70mph.

Convert speed to m/s:
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 70 × 0.447 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝒎/𝒔

Calculate wheel rpm at 31.29m/s:

31.29
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑝𝑚 = × 60 = 𝟗𝟕𝟗. 𝟔𝟔𝒓𝒑𝒎
2 × 𝜋 × 0.305

Calculate (theoretical) overall gear ratio required:

11500
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟒
979.66

Calculate what wheel torque would be with that gear ratio:

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 × 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 74.02 × 11.74 = 𝟖𝟔𝟖. 𝟗𝟗𝑵𝒎

Calculate tractive force from that wheel torque:

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 868.99
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = = = 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟗. 𝟏𝟓𝑵
𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 0.305
Example : Engine Power to Tractive Force
Tractive force vs Engine Speed
Example: Spread sheet calculation
Tractive force vs Drag force

Tractive force

Drag force
 Theoretical maximum speed

• 6th gear tractive force line crosses the Drag force line at about 165mph - which is below
the speed the ultimate force line crosses.

• It runs out of tractive force before it reaches the theoretical maximum speed.

• So the 6th gear ratio need to be changed.

 Optimized gear ratio
Tractive force in each gear
4000

Tractive force
3500

3000

2500 Theoretical
Tractive force (N)

maximum
2000 speed
172mph
1500

1000

500
Drag force

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
MPH

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Ultimate tractive force Total drag
 Rolling resistance (rr)

𝑟𝑟 = 𝑐𝑟𝑟 × 𝑚𝑟 + 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑔

rr = rolling resistance (N)

crr = coefficient of rolling resistance (tyre and surface dependant - given as
0.012)
mr = mass of driver (kg)
mm = mass of vehicle (kg)
g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2
Aerodynamic drag (ra)

𝑟𝑎 = 0.5 × 𝜎𝑎 × 𝑐𝑑 × 𝑎𝑓 × 𝑣 2

ra = aerodynamic drag (N)

σa = density of air (given as 1.2 kg/m3 @STP)
cd = coefficient of drag
af = frontal area (m2)
v = vehicle speed (m/s)
Drag Force Parameters

Auto manufacturers can control drag by

reducing:
Vehicle frontal area:
2005 Corvette is 1.57 m2
Most cars around 1.8 m2
2006 Hummer H3 is 2.56 m2

Drag coefficient CD:

2004 Toyota Prius – 0.26
2005 Porsche Boxster – 0.29
1983 Audi 100 – 0.3
2006 Dodge Challenger – 0.33
2003 Hummer – 0.57
Formula 1 car ?– 0.7 to 1.0 (it used to be
even higher but rules restrict how much area can be used
for aerodynamic devices)

Best measurement is CdA – taking both into

account
Example : Drag Coefficient (Cd.A)

Drag Coefficient (A.Cd)

Rear Ride H
46 54 62 70 78 86 94

26 0.342 0.344 0.344 0.353 0.360 0.367 0.374

Front Ride Height 30 0.341 0.344 0.351 0.346 0.359 0.372 0.385

34 0.333 0.340 0.339 0.347 0.360 0.372 0.384

38 0.339 0.342 0.341 0.356 0.353 0.350 0.347

42 0.336 0.338 0.345 0.349 0.351 0.353 0.354

46 0.334 0.334 0.337 0.343 0.349 0.355 0.362

50 0.331 0.330 0.335 0.336 0.347 0.358 0.369

Shaft design
 Torsional Deflection

• Ideally, shafts as short as possible: shorter = less twist

Aim for as little torsional deflection as possible

Where;
T = torque, T  G
j= polar moment of inertia, = =
τ = torsional stress,
R = shaft radius,
j R L
G = modulus of rigidity,
θ = radian angle of twist
L = length
 Values

Polar moment of inertia:

Solid shaft Hollow shaft

j=
D
4

j=
 (D − d )
4 4

32 32
Gsteel (modulus of rigidity) = 79 Gpa

•What are sensible values for shaft diameter and length to give minimum
deflection and hence minimum torsional stress?
 Example

To get all the gears on, the shaft is going to have to be around 400mm (0.4m) in length.

Worst case is for first gear to be at the far end of the shaft, so that engine torque travels
the full length of the input shaft, and multiplied torque travels the full length of the
output shaft.

Ideally, we would like 1 degree (= π / 180 = 0.01745 radian) of twist or less.

Assume that the engine provides 300Nm of torque,

first gear is 3:1 ratio and
Gsteel (modulus of rigidity) = 79 Gpa (79 * 10^9 pa)
Work it out . . .
 Whirling speed

• All shafts will have a set of resonant frequencies, at which they will
naturally “whirl” and deflect radially (like a skipping rope but
hopefully not quite that extreme)

• It is important that these speeds are avoided when gear-changing

becomes necessary – the whirling speed will prevent the dog-
clutches operating satisfactorily.
 Resonance
 gEI
f =
2

2n wL
4

Where as:
f = frequency (revs/sec),
n = vibration mode
E = Young’s modulus
I = polar moment of inertia
w = weight / m
L = shaft length