CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 541

ering
• Four-wheel ste
• Steering system
s
u r- w h e e l- s te e r in g systems
• Fo
R a c k -a n d -p in io n steering systems w h e e l s te e r in g w it h rear power
• • Four-
e r in g s y s te m s w it h worm gearing
• Ste cylinder
S te e r in g a n d s u spension angles e r s te e r in g features
• • O th
• Steering boxes • Technical terms
d -p in io n steering boxes s
• R a c k -a n • Review question
c k -a n d -p in io n p o w e r steering
• Ra c omponents
n p o w e r s te e r in g
• Rack-and-pinio p o w e r steering
rac k -a n d -p in io n
• Speed-sensitive
o -h y d r a u li c p o w e r steering
• Electr
steering
• Electric power
in g b o x e s w it h w o r m gearing
• Steer
e r in g fo r w o r m -t y pe boxes
• Power ste

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 542 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR
To enable a vehicle to be steered, the front wheel
spindles with their hubs and wheels are turned in the
direction of travel. This arrangement, where the centre
part of the axle or suspension is fixed and the outer parts
pivot, is known as the Ackermann principle of steer-
ing. There are many variations and refinements, but
this is the basis of all motor vehicle steering systems.
Steering systems
The main parts of a steering system are:
1 The steering column – assembly with a steering
wheel.
2 The steering box – with its gearing.
3 Linkage – connecting the steering box to the
front wheels.
4 Front suspension parts – the ball joints, strut
mountings or king pins that allow the steering
knuckles to pivot.
There are two basic types of steering systems:
those with rack-and-pinion steering boxes and those
with worm-type steering boxes. Rack-and-pinion and
worm refer to the type of gearing in the steering box.
The gearing is needed so that the driver can turn the
steering wheel against the resistance of the wheels.
There are a number of different steering linkage
arrangements. The linkage is designed to hold the
front wheels parallel while the vehicle is moving
straight ahead and to turn the wheels through the
correct angle when the vehicle is turning.
The front wheels do not remain parallel when
the vehicle is on a turn; the inside wheel is turned
a greater angle than the outside wheel. This allows
each wheel to roll around the correct path without
scuffing the tyres.
Figure 29.1 illustrates the position of the wheels
on a turn. All four wheels will roll about a central
point, but each wheel will follow a different arc.
The difference in the angles of the front wheels is
designed into the steering system.
Reference: Steering angles are discussed later
in the section ‘Toe-in and toe-out’.
Rack-and-pinion steering
systems
A rack-and-pinion steering system is shown in
Figure 29.2. The parts of the system are:
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 542
Figure 29.1 Path of the wheels on a turn – the inner front
wheel pivots through a greater angle than the
outer front wheel HOLDEN LTD
1 steering wheel
2 steering column
3 mainshaft
4 intermediate shaft and universal joints
5 steering box
6 tie rods and ball joints
7 steering arms.
The steering wheel is attached to the mainshaft, which
fits inside the steering column. Steering movement is
transferred through the mainshaft and intermediate
shaft to the steering box.
When the steering wheel is turned, rotary move-
ment is transferred by the shafts to the pinion in the
steering box. The pinion teeth are meshed with
the teeth of the rack, so pinion rotation moves the
rack from side to side.
The ends of the rack are connected to the steering
arms by the tie rods, so that rack movement pivots
the knuckles and turns the wheels at an angle for
steering. Ball joints at each end of the tie rods provide
for steering and suspension movement.
There are four mounting locations for the steering
assembly: the mainshaft and the steering column are
supported by a mounting at the dash and by a lower
mounting to the body. The rack-and-pinion assembly
has two mountings to the body.
Rack-and-pinion steering is a compact system that
is used on many passenger cars. It is direct-acting
and so has fewer linkage parts than other systems.
The intermediate shaft and universal joints allow the
steering box to be mounted centrally on the body of
the vehicle.
27/3/09 3:17:35 PM
 CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 543

Figure 29.2 Rack-and-pinion steering system

1 steering wheel, 2 column, 3 mainshaft, 4 and 5 mountings, 6 universal joint, 7 intermediate shaft, 8 universal joint, 9 mountings,
10 ball joint, 11 left-hand tie rod, 12 steering gearbox, 13 right-hand tie rod, 14 bellows, 15 ball joint, 16 steering arm FORD

Steering systems with

worm gearing
Steering systems, such as the one in Figure 29.3,
have a worm-type steering box. This provides a
gear reduction and also a 90° change in direction of
movement. The steering box has a pitman arm and
this is connected by linkage to the idler arm and to
the wheels.
There are different types of steering boxes that are
covered later. There are also various arrangements of Figure 29.3 Steering arrangement for an independent
linkages as follows. suspension MAZDA

Steering system for independent front suspension

A typical steering system for independent suspension 1 Pitman arm. This is attached to the sector shaft
was illustrated in Figure 29.3, and Figure 29.4 in the steering box. It moves from side to side
identifies the steering parts. These are: when the steering wheel is turned.

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 544 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR
Figure 29.4 Steering linkage with a pitman arm and an idler arm
2 Idler arm. This is mounted to the subframe and
is parallel to the pitman arm. It moves with the
pitman arm.
3 Track rod. This connects the pitman arm to the
idler arm and relays movement from one to the
other.
4 Tie rods. These connect the track rod to the
steering arms on the steering knuckles. They
transfer movement of the pitman arm to turn
the wheels.
5 Ball joints. Located on the ends of the track rod
and tie rods, the ball joints provide for steering
and suspension movement.
Steering system for a forward-control vehicle
Figure 29.5 shows an arrangement for a van where the
steering system is mounted in front of the engine and
wheels. The steering box (3) is mounted to the front
of the subframe with the pitman arm (4) vertical. A
drag link (5) connects the pitman arm to the relay
lever (7). The relay lever has two arms; one of these
is connected to the drag link as already noted, and
the other is connected by the track rod (8) to the
idler arm (10). Tie rods (6 and 9) connect the track
rod to the steering knuckles. Ball joints are fitted at
all the connections.
Steering system for a four-wheel-drive vehicle
Figure 29.6 illustrates one type of steering arrange-
ment for a four-wheel-drive vehicle. The steering
knuckles are mounted on large ball joints on the
ends of the front-axle housing so that they can pivot
for steering purposes. The steering box is offset from
the steering column, so two universal joints and an
intermediate steering shaft are used.
In this particular arrangement, a hydraulic damper,
similar to a shock absorber, is fitted between the track
rod and the subframe. This is used to prevent shocks
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 544
Figure 29.5 Steering system for a van with forward controls
1 steering wheel, 2 steering column, 3 steering box, 4 pitman arm,
5 drag link, 6 right-hand tie rod, 7 relay lever, 8 track rod,
9 left-hand tie rod, 10 idler arm
from being transmitted back through the linkage to
the driver when the vehicle is operating in rough
terrain.
The drag link is connected between the pitman
arm and an arm on the front of the left-hand knuckle.
The track rod is connected between the steering
arms on the knuckles, and this transfers movement
from one knuckle to the other.
Information: There are a number of different
arrangements of suspension and steering systems for
four-wheel-drive vehicles.
Steering and suspension
angles
Various angles are built into the steering and suspen-
sion systems. These angles are all interrelated and
must be correct for vehicle stability, ease of steering
and minimum tyre wear.
The main suspension angles are caster, camber
and steering-axis inclination. The steering system
angles are toe-in, toe-out, and toe-out-on-turns. All
these angles are covered in Chapter 30 but, because
they are related to the steering linkage, toe-in, toe-
out and toe-out-on-turns will be discussed here.
Toe-in and toe-out
When the vehicle is being driven in a straight-ahead
direction, the front wheels should be parallel. To
27/3/09 3:18:00 PM
 CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 545

steering column

universal joints

damper track rod

ball joint

swivel ball joint

steering
knuckle

steering box
drag link

Figure 29.6 Front-axle assembly and steering arrangement for a four-wheel-drive vehicle

achieve this, the front wheels of rear-wheel-drive

vehicles are usually adjusted so that they are a little
closer at the front than at the rear; that is, they are
given toe-in (Figure 29.7).
This prevents tyre wear that could occur as a
result of suspension angles, or from deflection of the
components in the steering and suspension systems,
which tends to cause toe-out.
The front wheels on front-wheel-drive vehicles
may be set at zero, or sometimes with toe-out, because
operating conditions tend to cause deflections in the
opposite direction to those in the front end of rear-
wheel-drive vehicles. Figure 29.7 Wheels with toe-in (viewed from above) –
dimension A is less than dimension B
Toe-out-on-turns (steering angles)
With the Ackermann principle of steering, the
steering arms on the steering knuckles are not at
right angles to the wheel spindle, but are offset and the inside wheel has turned an angle of 40°. The
(inclined) 10° to 15° towards the centre of the inner wheel travels along an arc with a shorter radius
vehicle. The arrangement causes the inner front than the outer wheel.
wheel to turn through a greater angle than the outer Each wheel will travel along a different arc, but all
wheel (Figure 29.8). the arcs have a common centre. This arrangement
The need for this can be seen from Figure 29.1, enables the wheels to follow a curve in the road
where the outside wheel has turned an angle of 35° without scuffing the tyres.

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 546 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR
Figure 29.8 Wheels with toe-out-on-turns (exaggerated) –
angle b is greater than angle a, and dimension A is greater than
dimension B
How toe-out-on-turns is achieved
The diagram in Figure 29.9 shows how toe-out-on-
turns is achieved. The offset steering arms are joined
by a track rod and, in the straight-ahead position, this
is centred and the wheels are held parallel.
1 Right turn. During a right turn, steering wheel
action moves the track rod towards the left as
shown by the dotted lines. The end of the track
rod pushes the left steering arm and moves in
an almost straight line (A in the diagram).
The opposite end of the track rod pulls
the right steering arm towards the left and
also towards the front of the vehicle (B in the
diagram). The movement at B is greater than A,
so the right wheel is turned through a greater
angle than the left.
2 Left turn. When a left turn is made the opposite
occurs – the left wheel is turned through a
greater angle than the right. Again, this is
because of the offset steering arms.
Figure 29.9 Toe-out-on-turns is obtained by offset steer-
ing arms which produce unequal angular movement when the
wheels are turned – A and B show movement of steering arms
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 546
Information: The diagram is of a simple rigid axle
with a parallelogram linkage. The steering arms of
other linkage systems function in a similar manner.
Need for correct linkage adjustment
Linkage systems that have a pitman arm and an idler
arm, as in Figure 29.3, must have both arms parallel
to each other and parallel to the centreline of the
vehicle. Unequal length adjustment of the tie rods
could position these at an angle to the centreline and
this would affect steering-linkage movement. The
wheels would then have greater toe-out-on-turns on
one lock than on the other.
The length of the track rod could also affect the
relationship of the pitman arm and the idler arm,
although the track rod is usually a fixed length and
not adjustable. A track rod that is too short or too
long will put the pitman arm and the idler arm out of
parallel and will affect toe-out-on-turns.
Reference: Toe-out-on-turns is also referred to as
steering angles, steering geometry or turning radius.
Steering wheels and
columns
The primary function of the steering column assembly
is to transmit steering wheel movement through the
steering shaft to the steering box. Modern steering
column assemblies incorporate more safety, security
and control systems. Functions of the steering
column include:
1 Steering and ignition lock
2 Tilt and distance adjustment
3 Collapsible steering shaft and mounting
brackets
4 Steering wheel air bag
5 Lighting and wiper control
6 Cruise control
7 Audio control
8 Transmission control
Steering boxes
A steering box is a small gearbox connected between
the steering mainshaft and the linkage of the steering
system. The gearing enables the front wheels to be
27/3/09 3:18:04 PM

turned easily from side to side, and also prevents
road shocks from being transmitted directly back to
the driver.
Gear ratios of steering boxes vary from about
12:1 up to about 18:1. With these ratios, the steering
wheel is rotated about 21/2 turns up to 31/2 turns to
pivot the front wheels from lock to lock.
There are two basic designs of steering boxes for
passenger cars and light commercial vehicles – those
with rack-and-pinion gearing and those with worm
gearing. The steering boxes that are most commonly
used are the rack-and-pinion and the recirculating-
ball types.
Rack-and-pinion steering
boxes
The dismantled parts of a rack-and-pinion steering
box are illustrated in Figure 29.10. This enables the
construction to be seen and parts identified as follows:
1 The main parts are the housing (1), the
toothed rack (7) and the pinion (6). The
pinion is in mesh with the teeth of the rack,
so that rotation of the pinion moves the rack
from side to side.
2 The pinion is carried by a ball bearing (5) at
its upper end and by a roller bearing in the
Figure 29.10 Rack-and-pinion steering-box components
1 housing, 2 oil seal, 3 snap ring, 4 snap ring, 5 bearing, 6 pinion, 7 rack, 8 inner ball joint, 9 tie rod, 10 clamp, 11 bellows, 12 locknut, 13
tie-rod-end ball joint, 14 locknut, 15 yoke-adjusting plug, 16 spring, 17 cushion rubber, 18 rack-support yoke, 19 mounting rubber,
20 mounting bracket MITSUBISHI
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 547
CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 547
housing at its lower end. The rack operates in
bushes in the housing.
3 A spring-loaded yoke (18) supports the rack
below the pinion (6), and holds the rack in
mesh with the pinion to eliminate free play
between the gear teeth. The spring loading on
the yoke is adjustable by means of the threaded
plug (15) which screws into the housing.
4 The pinion preload of this particular steering
box is adjustable by selective fit of the
bearing snap ring (3). Other steering boxes
may have threaded adjustments or shim
adjustments.
5 The inner ball joint (8) is screwed to the end
of the rack and is covered by the bellows (11)
which fits on the tie rod (9) and over the end of
the housing. Clamps at each end of the bellows
6
retain it in place.
The ball joint (13) on the outer end of the
tie rod is threaded onto the tie rod, and this
enables the tie rod to be adjusted for length.
7 The housing is mounted to the body of the
vehicle by two brackets (20) (only one is
shown).
Rack and pinion lubrication
Lubrication of the rack-and-pinion is by means of
a semifluid grease or heavy-viscosity oil. This is
transferred from side to side in the housing, to a
27/3/09 3:18:08 PM
 548 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR
certain extent, by rack movement. Where grease is
used as a lubricant, rapid movement of the wheels
from lock to lock with the wheels off the ground
could create a pressure which would damage the
bellows or force it off the housing.
Variable-ratio gearing
Many rack-and-pinion steering boxes have a rack with
a variable gear ratio (Figure 29.11). The variable ratio
is achieved by changes in the shape of the teeth from
the centre of the rack towards the ends.
The teeth become closer together towards the
ends of the rack and this provides higher gearing
when the wheels are turned towards full lock. This
reduces the amount of steering wheel movement
required when turning or parking the vehicle. As an
example, a standard rack could require 3.5 turns of
the steering wheel to turn the wheels from lock to
lock, while an equivalent variable ratio rack could
require only 2.7 turns.
Rack-and-pinion power
steering
A rack-and-pinion power steering system is shown in
Figure 29.12. It has the same mechanical parts as a
steering system that is not power assisted, but it also
has a number of hydraulic parts. These are:
1 an oil pump and reservoir
2 a high pressure line and hose
3 a return line and hose
4 a control valve assembly
5 a power cylinder.
Figure 29.11 Rack-and-pinion with a variable gear ratio
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 548
Operating principle
The basic operation of rack-and-pinion power steering
is shown in the diagrams in Figure 29.13. The pump
produces hydraulic pressure, the flow-control valve
controls the pressure, and the control valve directs
pressure fluid to the piston which is attached to the
rack.
A simplified control valve is shown. This turns to
open or close passages whenever the steering wheel
is turned.
1 Steering straight ahead. In Figure 29.13(a), the
control valve is in a neutral position. Fluid from
the pump circulates through the flow-control
valve, then through the control valve and back
to the reservoir.
There is oil on each side of the piston, but
there is no pressure in the power cylinder and
so there is no power assistance.
2 Steering on a turn. In Figure 29.13(b), the steering
wheel has been turned and so the control valve
has also turned. The control valve now directs
pressure oil to one side of the power cylinder and
connects the other side to the return line.
The oil on the pressure side of the piston
assists rack movement, while oil displaced
on the other side goes back to the reservoir
through the return line.
3 Steering wheel held turned. When the steering
wheel has been turned and held in position, the
control valve will return to the neutral position.
The pressure in the power cylinder will be
relieved and there will be no power assistance.
Air-control valve
The air control valve is a pressure-operated switch
that is used to increase the engine idle speed when
DAIHATSU
27/3/09 3:18:09 PM
 CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 549

Figure 29.12 Rack-and-pinion power-steering assembly – a sectional view of the steering box is also shown FORD

reservoir reservoir

pump pump
P P
flow control return flow control return
valve line valve line
air control
valve
supply control supply control
line valve valve

cylinder cylinder

piston piston

(a) Neutral position (b) On a turn

Figure 29.13 Rack-and-pinion power-steering – principles of operation DAIHATSU

the oil pump is under maximum load. This occurs

when the steering wheel is turned to the full lock
position. Oil pressure in the supply line operates
the air-control valve switch to increase idle speed. It
does this in an EFI fuel system by allowing extra air to
bypass the throttle valve.
Flow-control valve
The flow-control valve controls the flow of oil to the
control valve by bypassing oil to the pump intake.
It also has a pressure relief valve to limit maximum
pressure.
Rack-and-pinion power
steering components
Oil pump assembly
The oil pump (Figure 29.14) is a vane-type pump
which is driven by a belt from the crankshaft pulley.
The pump assembly includes a reservoir, a flow-
control valve and a pressure-relief valve.
The flow-control valve controls oil flow by
bypassing oil from the outlet side to the inlet side
of the pump. This reduces oil flow in the system

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 550 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR

A sectional view of a steering box and control valve

assembly is shown in Figure 29.16. This has a rotary-
type valve that directs oil flow to and from the power
cylinder as the steering wheel is turned. The parts
are listed below with the same numbers that they
have on the illustration. The control valve parts of
the assembly are:
1 torsion bar
2 input shaft and the inner member of the valve
3 valve housing
4 valve sleeve
5 pressure pipe from the oil pump
6 oil-return line

Figure 29.14 Oil pump and reservoir assembly for power

steering MAZDA

at higher speeds when the pump output would be

much greater than required.
A pressure-relief valve is included as part of the
flow-control valve. If the wheels are held on full lock,
the pressure in the system will build up quickly.
When a certain pressure is reached, the pressure-
relief valve will be lifted off its seat to allow oil to pass,
and so prevent the hydraulic system from developing
excessive pressure.

Power cylinder
The power cylinder is shown in Figure 29.15. The
cylinder is formed in the steering-box housing, and
the piston is attached to the rack. The control valve
assembly is located on top of the housing, and two
tubes connect it to the cylinder, one to each side of Figure 29.16 Rotary control-valve assembly of a rack-and-
pinion power steering
the piston. The illustration shows oil under pressure 1 torsion bar, 2 input shaft and inner member of the control
being directed to the piston to force the piston and valve, 3 valve housing, 4 outer sleeve, 5 pressure pipe from the
rack to the right to assist the wheels to turn. pump, 6 oil-return pipe, 7 oil pipe to power cylinder for right
turn, 8 oil pipe to power cylinder for left turn, 9 pinion, 10 rack,
Control valve assembly 11 yoke, 12 yoke adjuster MAZDA

QSFTTVSF
UP
QVNQ MFGUUVSO
UVCF SFUVSO
GSPN
QVNQ

SJHIUUVSO
UVCF SBDL
QJTUPO
QPXFS
DZMJOEFS

Figure 29.15 Power cylinder of a rack-and-pinion power steering HOLDEN LTD

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 CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 551

7 pipe to the power cylinder (right turn)
8 pipe to the power cylinder (left t urn)
and the steering box parts of the assembly are:
9 pinion
10 rack
11 yoke
12 yoke adjuster.
Valve operation occurs when the inner member
of the valve rotates slightly inside the valve sleeve.
This opens appropriate ports between the two parts.
Pressure oil from the pump is allowed to reach one
side of the power cylinder, while oil from the other
side is returned to the reservoir.
Valve operation
The inner member of the valve is attached to the input
shaft, and the outer sleeve is, in effect, attached to
the pinion. Both parts turn when the steering wheel
is turned, but the torsion bar twists a little under
load and allows movement between the two parts to
operate the valve.
Whenever the input shaft is turned, the torsion
bar is twisted slightly as it turns the worm. Because
the inner member of the valve is a part of the input
shaft and because the sleeve is attached to the worm,
the sleeve will always have a slight delay in response
to steering-wheel movement, and this will cause
ports in the valve to open and close.
The amount of twist of the torsion bar will depend
on steering conditions. For normal driving, where
only light movements of the steering wheel are
required, there will be very little twist and therefore
little valve operation or power assistance.
Under other conditions, such as when parking,
a greater force is used on the steering wheel. This
causes a much greater deflection of the torsion bar
and a correspondingly greater movement of the
inner member of the valve in relation to the sleeve.
Under these conditions, the valve ports open wider
to provide a much greater flow of oil and more power
assistance.
has more effect at low speeds than at high speeds.
Figure 29.17 is a basic diagram of a speed-
sensitive power steering system. In addition to the
normal hydraulic components, it has an electronic
control unit and a solenoid valve. The solenoid valve
is located in the supply line where it is able to restrict
the flow of oil to the power cylinder.
By restricting the oil flow, the pressure in the
power cylinder can be varied. This enables power
assistance to be adjusted to suit different steering
conditions.
The solenoid valve is controlled by the electronic
control unit (ECU). At low speeds and when most
power assistance is needed, the solenoid valve is
opened to provide high pressure. At higher speeds,
when power assistance is not needed, the valve is
almost closed.
The ECU receives signals from three sensors: a
vehicle-speed sensor, an engine-speed sensor, and
a steering-angle sensor. From this information, the ECU
determines how much power assistance is required
for the particular conditions. It then sends signals to
the solenoid which is energised and de-energised
to provide the right pressure to the power cylinder.
steering reservoir
angle
vehicle
speed
engine
speed
ECU
P
return
line
flow
control
solenoid
valve valve
control
valve

Speed-sensitive rack-and-
pinion power steering
With power steering, most assistance is needed when
parking, less assistance when driving at lower speeds, power cylinder piston rack rod
and very little when driving at higher speeds. Speed-
Figure 29.17 Speed sensitive steering – principle of operation
sensitive power steering provides this type of assistance DAIHATSU
by modulating the oil pressure in the system so that it

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 552 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR

dipstick

Electro-hydraulic power
reservoir
steering
Figure 29.18 shows an electro-hydraulic power
steering assembly. The main parts are:
1 electro-hydraulic supply unit
2 rack-and-pinion unit
resonator and
3 hydraulic lines pressure-limiting
4 wiring harness. valve

The rack and pinion assembly, with its control

pump unit
valve and power cylinder, are the same as those used
in other power steering systems, but the hydraulic
pressure is provided by the electric motor and pump
of the electro-hydraulic supply unit. This system is self- electric motor
contained and operates independently of the engine.

Electro-hydraulic supply unit

The parts of the electro-hydraulic supply unit are housing
shown in Figure 29.19. While the unit is shown
dismantled, it is not repairable and has to be replaced
as a unit if it becomes unserviceable. The parts are:
1 Reservoir, which holds the fluid.
2 Resonator, which reduces pulsations from the
pump.
3 Pressure limiting valve, which limits maximum
electronic control
pump pressure.
Figure 29.19 Electro-hydraulic power steering
4 Pump assembly, which is a gear-type pump that
components of the hydraulic supply unit HOLDEN LTD
provides hydraulic pressure.

reservoir return line

pressure line

wiring harness

electric motor
and pump control
valve

power
cylinder
pipes to power
cylinder

Figure 29.18 Electro-hydraulic power steering assembly HOLDEN LTD

29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 552 27/3/09 3:18:14 PM


5 Electric motor, which drives the hydraulic
pump.
6 Motor housing, which encloses the electric
motor.
7 Electronic control, which controls the motor
operation.
Operation
The electro-hydraulic unit is connected to the rack-
and-pinion assembly by a supply line and a return
line. The electric motor operates the hydraulic pump
continuously when the ignition is switched on.
The system has two modes, standby mode and
operational mode. These have different motor speeds
and different fluid pressures. The electronic control
switches between these modes as required.
1 Standby mode. In the standby mode, where
power steering is not required, the motor runs
at around 2200 rpm and draws a current of only
a few amps. The motor operates the pump, but
the flow-control valve in the electro-hydraulic
unit is open, so there is no pressure and no
power assistance.
2 Operational mode. In the operational mode
(when the steering wheel is being turned) the
control valve on the rack and pinion assembly
turns. This directs pressure fluid to the power
cylinder and provides assisted steering. The
motor speed is increased to approximately
3200 rpm and the motor current also
increases.
Electronic control
The electronic control has two functions, motor man-
agement and control management. Motor manage-
ment regulates the voltage at the motor and controls
the motor speed. It also monitors the motor
temperature. Control management switches between
the standby mode and the operational mode.
The electronic control also has a safety function
that continually monitors the system. It can return the
system to normal operation if a possible malfunction
is detected. If there should be a fault with the power
system, the steering system of the vehicle will remain
operational, but there will be no power assistance.
Electric power steering
Electric power steering is fitted to some smaller
vehicles. With this system, an electric motor provides
the power to assist with steering. There is no power
steering pump or other hydraulics, so electric power
steering provides a compact assembly as well as
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 553
CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 553
reducing the load on the engine.
An electric power steering assembly is shown in
Figure 29.20. This forms the upper section of the
steering column and carries the steering wheel. The
assembly consists of three main parts:
1 the outer column and steering shaft
2 a torque sensor
3 an electric motor and worm gear.
There is also an electronic control unit. Steering
assistance is provided by the electric motor, which
applies torque to the steering shaft by means of
worm gearing and a friction clutch.
Power operation
Power steering is monitored by the electronic
control unit. This receives road-speed signals from
the speedometer and engine-speed signals from
the engine control unit. When the steering wheel
is turned, the electronic control unit also receives
signals from the torque sensor which indicate the
direction and degree of turn. The electronic control
unit continuously processes these signals and
determines the torque that should be applied to
assist the driver to turn the steering wheel.
steering shaft
steering column
torque
electrical sensor
connectors
electric motor
mounting
bracket
worm gear with
friction clutch
Figure 29.20 Electrical power steering assembly HOLDEN LTD
27/3/09 3:18:14 PM
 554 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR
The torque will vary according to the road speed
and the engine speed, as well as the angle through
which the wheels are being turned. In this way, the
amount of steering assistance is adjusted by the control
unit to suit the particular driving conditions.
The system is speed sensitive. During parking, the
engine rpm is low, the road speed is almost zero and
the turning angle is great. Under these conditions, the
control unit will provide maximum steering assistance.
When driving at lower road speeds, there will be
less assistance required than during parking and this
is adjusted by the control unit. At higher road speeds,
very little assistance is needed and so the torque is
reduced accordingly.
Fail-safe provision
An electric steering indicator light on the instrument
panel lights when the ignition is switched on and
goes off once the engine starts. If there is a fault in
the system, the indicator light will remain on as a
warning. The electronic control unit will be isolated
and there will be no power assistance. The steering
then acts as a manual system.
The electronic control unit is provided with a
self-diagnosis function. Apart from the indicator
light remaining on to show that a problem exists,
the control unit provides fault codes. These can be
accessed with suitable test equipment.
Safety: With fail-safe, the steering will function
normally except that the vehicle will be heavier to steer.
Steering boxes with
worm gearing
A worm and sector steering box is shown in Figure
29.21. This is a basic worm-type steering box. It has
a housing that encloses the worm and a gear sector.
The mainshaft, which carries the worm, is supported
by bearings in the housing.
The sector is a portion of a gear with a number
of teeth. It has its own shaft mounted in bearings or
bushes in the housing at right angles to the worm.
The outer end of the sector shaft (also referred to as
a pitman shaft or a cross-shaft) is splined to take the
pitman arm which forms part of the steering linkage.
Its operation is simply that the mainshaft and worm
are turned by the steering wheel and the worm turns
the sector and its shaft.
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 554
Figure 29.21 Basic arrangement of a worm-and-sector
steering box
Worm and nut is another basic type of worm
steering box. With this design, the worm works in
a large nut, which is wound up and down in the
steering box as the steering wheel is turned.
Information: There are other types of steering
boxes, but the principles of worm and sector and worm
and nut have current applications.
Recirculating-ball steering box
A recirculating-ball steering box is shown in Figure
29.22. This combines the principles of worm-and-nut
and worm-and-sector. The mainshaft has a worm that
carries a large square nut and the nut has teeth which
are engaged with the teeth of a sector gear.
Friction is kept low by the use of steel balls
between the worm and the nut. These run in the
grooves in the worm and grooves in the nut. With
this arrangement, the nut is virtually mounted on ball
bearings on the worm.
As the worm rotates, the steel balls are rolled
along the grooves and the nut is moved up or down
on the worm. The nut, being meshed with the sector
gear, turns the sector shaft and so moves the pitman
arm and steering linkage.
The steering box is known as a recirculating-ball
type because the balls can pass out of the nut at each
end, but are directed back into the nut by tubes called
ball-return guides. In this way, the balls are recirculated.
Figure 29.23 shows the action of the worm and nut.
In the steering box shown (Figure 29.22) the
steering shaft bearings are adjustable by a large
threaded adjuster at the top of the box. The sector is
adjustable for mesh by an adjusting screw at the end
of the sector shaft.
27/3/09 3:18:15 PM
 CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 555

Figure 29.22 Components of a recirculating-ball steering box FORD

The pump is belt-driven from the engine. It takes oil

from the reservoir and delivers it through a pressure
line to the control-valve assembly in the steering
box. A second line returns oil to the reservoir, so
that the oil is being continuously circulated between
the pump and the control valve, whether pressure is
needed for steering or not.
Under normal driving conditions, the oil is circu-
lated with very little increase in pressure, and so little
engine power is absorbed. When the vehicle is on a
turn or being parked, the pressure builds up in the
system and so a greater demand is placed on the
engine.
Figure 29.23 The action of the worm and nut in a Power steering boxes have mechanical com-
recirculating-ball steering box MITSUBISHI ponents that function in the same way as those in a
manual steering box, but they have additional parts
to provide the hydraulics for power steering. These
are: a control valve to direct the fluid, and a power
cylinder and piston to convert oil pressure into
Power steering for movement.
worm-type boxes The basic principle of power steering is, simply,
that whenever the steering wheel is turned, a
The main parts of a worm-type power steering system control valve is moved to direct oil under pressure
are shown in Figure 29.24: to one side of a piston in a cylinder. This provides
1 the pump and reservoir hydraulic assistance for steering. The amount of valve
2 the steering box movement is limited so that even small movements
3 the control-valve assembly. of the steering wheel will move the valve.

29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 555 27/3/09 3:18:16 PM

 556 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR

SFTFSWPJS both part of the steering box assembly, but the valve
is shown separately in the schematic diagram. The
SFUVSO
IPTF power cylinder is an internal part of the steering box
and the piston is attached to a toothed rack which is
meshed with the teeth of the sector shaft. Oil pressure
QSFTTVSF
IPTF against the piston helps turn the sector shaft.
The diagram shows the steering on a turn. The
inner member of the rotary valve has been turned in
QVMMFZ relation to the valve sleeve so that pressure oil flows
through the valve to the cylinder. The valve also
allows oil from the non-pressure side of the cylinder
to return to the reservoir.
When the vehicle is steered in the opposite
direction, the inner member of the valve will be
turned to direct pressure oil to the opposite end of
the cylinder.
QVNQ For straight-ahead driving, when no power assis-
1PXFSTUFFSJOH
QVNQ
tance is needed, the valve will centralise. Oil will
continue to flow, but there will be no pressure at
either side of the cylinder.

QSFTTVSF
BOE
SFUVSO
IPTFT

DPOUSPM
WBMWF
BTTFNCMZ

XPSNUZQF
TUFFSJOH
CPY

4UFFSJOH
CPY

Figure 29.24 Power steering pump and a worm steering box –

basic components

Schematic power steering system

Figure 29.25 shows the basic arrangement of a power-
steering system for a worm-type steering box. The
diagram shows:
1 an oil pump and reservoir
2 a rotary control valve
3 a power cylinder and piston.

A vane-type oil pump provides oil pressure. It

takes oil from the reservoir and delivers it to the
Figure 29.25 Basic principle of power steering for a worm-
rotary control valve. type steering box
The rotary control valve and the power cylinder are

29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 556 27/3/09 3:18:19 PM


Information: The sector shaft of this particular
steering box has a follower for the worm and separate
sector teeth for the piston rack.
System with recirculating-ball steering box
The diagram in Figure 29.26 shows the operating parts
of a power-steering system with a recirculating-ball
steering box and a spool-type valve. The operation
on a left turn is shown. The spool valve is operated
by the action of a torsion rod, which functions in
a similar way to rotary valves for rack-and-pinion
steering, discussed previously.
For the left turn, as shown, the spool valve has
been moved upwards to allow pressure oil from the
pump to pass through the valve to the cylinder and
piston. At the same time, oil from the other side of
the cylinder is allowed to return to the reservoir.
When the steering wheel is turned, the worm is
turned inside the piston to wind it up and down and
this turns the sector shaft. This acts in the same way
as a normal recirculating steering box. In addition,
oil pressure in the power cylinder assists piston
movement.
Figure 29.26 Operation of recruiting-ball power steering on a left turn
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 557
CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 557
Power steering box with recirculating balls and
rotary valve
Figure 29.27 is a sectional view of a power steering
box with recirculating balls and a rotary control valve.
The recirculating balls are between the worm shaft
and the piston, which is actually the nut. The piston
has teeth that mesh with the teeth of the sector shaft.
These parts are similar to those in a manual steering
box, except that the piston, which operates in the
power cylinder, is also the nut for the worm.
The rotary valve assembly is at the top of the box.
It has a torsion bar between the input shaft and the
worm. This is similar to the torsion bar in a rack-and-
pinion steering box, but the valving is different.
When the input shaft is turned, it will turn the
worm and also the valve. Lag between the parts of
the valve achieved by the torsion bar between the
steering-box input shaft and the worm will cause valve
action. Oil pressure will be directed to the piston to
provide power assistance.
Four-wheel steering
The principle of four-wheel steering is shown in
Figure 29.28. With this arrangement, the rear wheels
are being continuously steered. Depending on the
extent to which the steering wheel is turned, the rear
wheels will be steered either in the same direction as
MITSUBISHI
27/3/09 3:18:30 PM
 558 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR
ball
inner valve assembly
input shaft
torsion shaft
sector shaft
Figure 29.27 Recirculating-ball power steering box with a rotary control valve
Figure 29.28 Four-wheel steering system in which the rear
wheels can steer in the same direction as the front wheels,
or in the opposite direction to the front wheels (the angles are
exaggerated in the drawings) HONDA
the front wheels, or in the opposite direction to the
front wheels.
1 Normal driving. In Figure 29.28(a), the front
wheels have been turned to the right and the
rear wheels have turned in the same direction,
but through a smaller angle.
This occurs during normal driving when
making steering corrections and when changing
lanes. With the rear wheels being steered in this
way, the rear of the vehicle moves quickly in the
same direction as the front.
2 Slow speed manoeuvring. In Figure 29.28(b)
the front wheels have turned through a large
angle and the rear wheels have turned through
a smaller angle, but in the opposite direction.
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 558
housing
worm shaft
piston seal
cylinder
piston
DAIHATSU
This occurs during parking or slow-speed
manoeuvring, where the steering wheel has
to be turned a large amount. The rear of the
vehicle moves in the opposite direction to the
front so that the vehicle does a tighter turn.
Operation
When the steering wheel is turned, the front wheels
are turned to steer normally. The rear wheels also
turn a little in the same direction, with their angle
increasing until the steering wheel has turned about
half a turn.
As the steering wheel is turned beyond this
point, the rear wheels gradually reduce their angle
until they are parallel with the front wheels. Further
turning of the steering wheel causes the rear wheels
to turn, but now in the opposite direction to the
front wheels.
Four-wheel-steering
systems
Figure 29.29 shows the arrangement of a four-wheel-
steering system. It has two steering subsystems. The
front subsystem has a steering box and tie rods for
the front wheels. The rear subsystem has a steering
box and tie rods for the rear wheels.
The front steering box has the power steering
components for the system. The rear steering box
is a mechanical arrangement connected to the front
steering box by a centre shaft.
The front steering box has two racks and two
pinions. One pinion is connected to the steering
27/3/09 3:18:52 PM
 CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 559

Figure 29.29 Arrangement of a foiur-wheel steering system with front and rear steering boxes HONDA

wheel and this moves its rack from side to side in
the usual way to steer the front wheels. The second
pinion is a driving pinion, which is connected to the
centre shaft. This pinion is rotated by its rack and,
through the centre shaft, transfers steering-wheel
movement to the rear steering box.
The rear steering box changes the rotary
movement of the centre shaft to side-to-side (lateral)
movement, and the tie rods use this to turn the rear
wheels for steering.
Rear steering box
The construction of the rear steering box is shown
in Figure 29.30. Input from the centre shaft is to the
offset shaft at the front of the assembly, and output
is from the stroke rod, which is connected to the tie
rods. Gearing is provided by a pair of planetary gears.
The internal gear is fixed, but the planetary gear
rotates inside it.
Figure 29.31 is a simplified diagram of the com-
ponents of the rear steering box. The large offset pin
of the offset shaft fits into the centre of the planetary

Figure 29.30 Construction of the rear steering box of a four-wheel steering system HONDA

29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 559 27/3/09 3:18:54 PM

 560 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR
Figure 29.31 Operation of the rear steering box of a four-
wheel steering system HONDA
gear, and a similar offset pin on the planetary gear fits
into the slider.
When the offset shaft is turned by the centre
shaft, it rotates the planetary gear around the inside
of the internal gear. The offset pin on the planetary
gear moves the slider and the slider, in turn, moves
in its guide.
As the planetary gear turns, it moves the slider
up and down in its guide and also from side to side.
Vertical movement is absorbed by the slider and
guide, but lateral (side) movement moves the stroke
rod from side to side.
The action of the planetary gear first pushes the
stroke rod fully to one side, then pulls it back and
pushes it fully to the other side. This gives the tie rods
the movement needed to change the wheels from
same-direction steering to opposite-direction steering.
Information: Reduction gearing is needed in
the rear steering box because the offset shaft makes
a number of revolutions from lock to lock, but the
planetary gear must rotate only once.
Service precautions
The rear gearbox is of rugged construction, but it
should not be confused with a rear axle and used as
a jacking point.
If towing the vehicle with the front wheels off
the ground, the steering wheel must be centred and
secured with a strap to make sure that the rear wheels
remain in the straight-ahead position.
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 560
Four-wheel steering with
rear power cylinder
Figure 29.32 is a schematic arrangement of a four-
wheel steering system with a rear power cylinder.
There is a power system for the front wheels and
a separate power system for the rear wheels. The
transfer shaft, which transfers angular movement from
the front to the rear system, is the only connection
between the two parts.
The front steering assembly is similar to a normal
rack-and-pinion power steering box, but it has an
additional set of teeth on the rack and an extra pinion
to which the transfer shaft is connected.
Parts of the system
With reference to Figure 29.32, the following are the
parts of the system:
1 Oil pump and reservoir. These provide oil
pressure to the front and rear systems through
separate hydraulic circuits.
2 Front control valve. When the steering wheel
is turned, the valve directs pressure oil to the
front power cylinder. (The rear control valve
directs pressure to the rear power cylinder.)
3 Front power cylinder. This assists with rack
movement in the front cylinder.
4 Rear power cylinder. This turns the rear wheels
in the direction and to the angle required.
5 Transfer shaft. This transfers movement of the
rack in the front steering box to the rear steering
assembly. It connects the output pinion of the
front steering box to a small bevel gear in the
phase control unit.
6 Phase control unit. This has a unique
arrangement of gears and levers which alter
the phase of the rear wheels. The phase is the
direction and angle of turn.
7 Rear control valve. This is a spool valve that
is moved by the linkage of the phase control
unit. It can direct pressure oil to either side of
the rear power cylinder to turn the wheels for
steering.
8 Stepper motor. This is a small electric motor
that does not spin. It can rotate in either
direction, but only in ‘steps’. It is mounted on
the phase control unit with a worm on its shaft
engaged with the teeth of a yoke.
Operation of the stepper motor moves the
yoke to make small adjustments to the linkage
in the phase control unit. This will also affect
the rear control valve.
27/3/09 3:19:05 PM
 CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 561

oil pump and

reservoir

front front
power cylinder return line

front
pressure line

transfer
shaft

front control
valve
speed
sensor

electronic rear
control unit return line

rear
pressure line

rear to front solenoid

sensor valve

stepper rear
motor control valve

phase
control unit
rear
power cylinder

Figure 29.32 Schematic arrangement of a four-wheel steering system with a rear power cylinder and electronic control

9 Electronic control unit. This processes signals Operation of the system

from the sensors. It sends output signals to the
stepper motor, which makes adjustments to
the rear control valve.
10 Sensors. These provide input to the electronic
control unit. A sensor on the transmission
output shaft senses road-speed, and a sensor on
the phase control unit monitors the position of
the rear wheels in relation to the front wheels.
11 Solenoid valve. Under normal conditions, with
the engine running, the solenoid valve is held
open by the electronic control unit. Oil passes
through the valve when going to and from the
rear control valve.
When the steering wheel is turned to the right, the
pinion moves the rack in the front steering box. It also
rotates the control valve so that pressure oil reaches
the front power cylinder to provide assistance with
turning the front wheels.
At the same time, movement of the rack rotates
the second (output) pinion, which is connected to
the transfer shaft. Rotation of the shaft is transferred
through to a small bevel gear in the phase control
unit. The small bevel gear turns the larger bevel gear
and this adjusts the position of the levers and rods
within the phase control unit.
The mechanical action within the phase control

29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 561 27/3/09 3:19:08 PM

 562 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR
unit moves the rear control valve so that pressure oil
reaches one side of the power cylinder to turn the
wheels in the required direction.
The transfer shaft has no direct connection with
the wheels, it only transfers the steering angle from
the front to the rear of the vehicle. The electronic
control unit monitors road speed and other
conditions and uses the stepper motor to make
adjustments.
Fail-safe arrangement
The solenoid valve is part of a fail-safe arrangement.
It is normally held open by the electronic control unit
so that oil passes through it on its way to the rear
control valve.
If a problem develops in the rear-steering system,
the solenoid valve will be closed to block off the rear
oil supply. There will be no pressure to operate the
power cylinder, but a fail-safe device will hold the
wheels in the straight-ahead position. This is a large
spring in the power cylinder, which centres the piston
when there is no oil pressure.
Front steering system
Figure 29.33 shows the parts of the front steering
system. These are similar to those in a normal
power-steering system, except that there is an extra
set of gear teeth on the rack and an extra pinion.
These are shown as the output rack and output
pinion.
oil pump
control valve
input shaft
output rack
Figure 29.33 Front steering assembly for a four-wheel steerinng system
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 562
Information: The output pinion is connected to
the transfer shaft and this is connected to the phase-
control unit of the rear steering system.
Rear steering system
In the basic diagram, the rear-steering system was
shown as a number of separate parts, but these are
combined into an assembly in the actual system, as
shown in Figure 29.34.
The transfer shaft is connected to a small bevel
gear in the phase control unit, which is meshed with
a larger bevel gear.
There is also an arrangement of levers and
rods – the purpose of this is to provide controlled
movement of the spool valve in the control valve.
With this arrangement, the control valve responds
to steering wheel movement to turn the rear wheels
in the required direction and to the appropriate
angle.
The electronic control unit, by means of the
stepper motor, adjusts the steering angle to suit the
speed and operating conditions of the vehicle.
Other steering features
Passive four-wheel steering
A type of steering which can be referred to as passive
four-wheel steering allows the rear wheels to turn
slightly of their own accord. This provides a limited
reservoir
main rack
output pinion
rear steering gear
MAZDA
27/3/09 3:19:09 PM
 CHAPTER 29 • STEERING SYSTEMS 563

neutral
max. 5o

oil pressure
line

oil return
transfer shaft line
power cylinder

rear-to-front steering solenoid valve

ratio sensor

self-centring
spring output rod

stepper motor control valve

phase control
unit
Figure 29.34 Rear-steering arrangement for a four-wheel steering system with power steering MAZDA

degree of rear-wheel steering. This feature is built
into the rear suspension system with special bushes
that will deflect under load.
For normal driving, the wheels are held parallel
and pointing straight ahead but, when the vehicle is
on a turn, the cornering force provides a side thrust
against the rear wheels. This provides enough
deflection of the suspension to cause the outer
rear wheel to toe-in. The wheel is turned slightly in
the same direction as the front wheel to make the
vehicle more responsive on curves and during lane
changes.
Oversteer and understeer
There are two terms that are related to the steering
characteristics of a vehicle. These are oversteer and
understeer.
1 Oversteer is where the vehicle is over-
responsive when cornering and tends to move
further into the curve than it is actually being
steered.
2 Understeer is the opposite effect. The vehicle is
not as responsive to steering as it should be and
tries to keep out wide on a curve.
Oversteer and understeer are not directly related
to the vehicle’s steering system, but are due more
to the overall vehicle design – the suspension
system, distribution of weight, vehicle load, type of
drive and so on. It is unlikely that one factor will
be responsible for a vehicle’s characteristics. It is
usually a combination of features that gives it an
understeer or oversteer tendency.
A slight tendency to understeer is usually con-
sidered more desirable than oversteer, but for
normal speeds and conditions of driving, the driver
is unlikely to be aware of one condition or the
other.

29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 563 27/3/09 3:19:09 PM

 564 PART 4 • RUNNING GEAR
Technical terms
Ackermann, steering box, steering knuckle, rack, rack-and-
pinion, worm gearing, idler arm, pitman arm, tie rod, tie-rod
ball joint, drag link, track rod, toe, toe-in, toe-out, toe-out-on-
turns, turning circle, steering geometry, turning radius, variable
gear ratio, power cylinder, rotary valve, speed sensitive,
torsion bar, electro-hydraulic, resonator, mode, worm-and-
nut, worm-and-sector, sector (of gear), recirculating ball,
sector shaft, spool valve, four-wheel steering, stepper motor,
lateral, planetary gears, lateral, fail safe, passive, oversteer,
understeer.
Review questions
1. What is the Ackermann principle of steering?
2. Name the main parts of a steering system.
3. Why must the front wheels pivot through different angles
on a turn?
4. What are the two general designs of steering systems?
5. How does the steering system for a large four-wheel-drive
vehicle differ from that of a passenger car?
6. What are the main steering-system angles?
7. Why should the pitman arm and the idler arm of a
steering system be parallel?
8. What is the track rod, and what is its function?
9. What are the features of a rack-and-pinion steering box?
29 May - Automotive 8e.indd 564
10. What is variable-ratio gearing?
11. Name the main parts of a rack-and-pinion power steering
system.
12. Where is the control valve located in a rack-and-pinion
power steering system?
13. Explain briefly what occurs with a rack-and-pinion power
steering when the steering wheel is turned.
14. Give a brief explanation of how a rotary control valve
works.
15. What is a speed-sensitive steering system?
16. How does electro-hydraulic power steering differ from
other systems?
17. Name the main parts of an electro-hydraulic steering
system and state briefly their function.
18. What is a worm-type steering box?
19. What is a recirculating-ball steering box?
20. Name the parts of a recirculating-ball steering box.
21. What is the purpose of the sector shaft?
22. What is the basic principle of power steering?
23. How is this principle applied to a worm-type steering
box?
24. What is meant by four-wheel steering?
25. Explain briefly how steering-wheel movement is
transferred to the rear wheels in one type of four-wheel
steering.
26. Using the schematic diagram, explain how a four-wheel
steering system with a rear power cylinder operates.
27/3/09 3:19:10 PM