The Chronological Outline of the Scythians, Arattas,

Ancient Persians, Cimmerians, Hittites, Hurrians

(Mitanni), Romas (Gypsies), and Tokharins

Vedveer Arya

The majority of modern European historians have identified the Scythians as a group of
nomadic tribes of Iranian origin and some others have argued for their Tartaric origin.
According to historians, the chronology of Scythians generally begins around the 8th century
BCE because they replaced the Cimmerians in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe in the 8th century
BCE. The Cimmerians were identified as a nomadic tribe of Eastern Iran and culturally
Scythian. Homer’s Odyssey has a reference to the Cimmerians and the Greek scholars,
Herodotus and Hippocrates give the account of the Scythians. Hesiod also mentions Scythians
in his Theogony.

Archaeologists have attempted to establish the chronology of the monuments of the

Scythians in the east and west of the Eurasian steppe region based on both archaeological
and radiocarbon data. The Arzhan barrow is Central Asia's earliest monument of the Scythian
type. The archaeological study of the Scythian antiquities and the series of radiocarbon dates
would suggest the commencement of the early Scythian epoch in the 9 th – 8th centuries BCE.

Interestingly, the traditional account of Scythians given in the ancient sources of Greece,
Persia, and India unambiguously indicate the Indian origin of Scythians but modern historians
and archaeologists have mistakenly assumed them as Iranian people because they imagine
that the historic period of India begins around the 6 th century BCE. Based on the
multidisciplinary studies, I have established that the chronological antiquity and historical
period of India, Greece, and Persia can arguably be traced back to 14500-11000 BCE.

Sakas of Ancient India = Scythians

India's traditional, literary, and epigraphic sources unambiguously indicate that the Sakas
known as Scythians have been a native tribe of India since the Vedic era. They originally
belonged to the region known as “Sakasthan” located in southwestern Afghanistan and
Balochistan. This Sakasthan was part of Sauvira-Sindhu Mahajanapada and Gandhara
Janapada of ancient India.

Ancient Persian and ancient Greek sources also refer to the Scythians as Saka or Sakai and the
land of the Saka as Sakasthan or Sistan. During the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian
periods, Zaranka, or Zaranj was the capital of Sakasthan. Many coins of the Parthian kings and

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the Sasanian kings have been minted in Sakasthan. A Persian text “Tarikh-i-Sistan” written by
an unknown author gives the historical account of Sistan (Sakasthan) as an eastern
neighbouring country of Iran. According to Tarikh-i-Sistan and Firdausi’s Shahnama,
Zabulistan was part of Sistan. The land of Sakas, i.e., Sakasthan was undoubtedly located in
southwestern Afghanistan and Balochistan. Therefore, the Sakas, i.e., Scythians were
originally Indians.

Ancient Indian traditional account informs us that the Sakas were professional horse breeders
and Rishi Vasishtha of the Vedic period had groomed them as a warrior class (Yaudheyas)
when he conflicted with Vishvamitra. This is the reason why Valmiki Ramayana poetically says
that the Sakas originated from the Kamadhenu (name of a cow) of Rishi Vasishtha. Though
the Sakas have been considered “Mlechchas” (uncivilized), they have been an integral part of
the Sauvira /Gandhara Janapada of Ancient India. The language of Sakas was Gandhari Prakrit
mixed with the local dialect. Therefore, it is absurd to identify the Scythians as Eastern
Iranians. The Scythians were originally Indians and worshipped Vedic gods. Moreover, Persian
historians (the author of Tarikh-i-Sistan and Firdausi of Shahnama) narrate the Scythians as
invaders of Persia.

Arattas of Ancient India

There are numerous references to the Aratta kings and the land of Arattas in
Mesopotamian/Akkadian literature and ancient Indian literature. But Modern historians have
miserably failed to identify the location of the land of Arattas. Though Mesopotamian/
Akkadian epigraphic and literary sources indicate the location of the land of Arattas close to
the Hindu-Kush mountain region (where Lapis Lazuli is found) and ancient Indian & Persian
literary sources unambiguously locate the land of Arattas in the Kandahar-Kabul region of
India, historians have, however, concocted a baseless hypothesis that Aratta was just a
mythical land mentioned in the Mesopotamian myths because no archaeological record of
Aratta has been found till date. In fact, historians have mistakenly assumed that the historical
period of Indian civilization starts around 600 BCE and propounded Aratta as mythical land.

Aratta in Mesopotamian/Akkadian Sources

The earliest reference to Aratta is found in Mesopotamian historical legends describing the
conflict between King Enmerkar of Uruk and King En-suhgir-ana (Ensuhkeshdanna) of Aratta.
According to the legend, “the goddess Inana resides in Aratta, but Enmerkar of Uruk pleases
her more than the lord of Aratta, En-suhgir-ana. Enmerkar wants Aratta to submit to Uruk,
bring stones down from the mountain, craft gold, silver, and lapis lazuli, and send them, along
with "kugmea" ore to Uruk to build a temple. Inana advises him to send a messenger to Aratta,
who ascends and descends the "Zubi" mountains (Zagros mountains) and crosses Susa,
Anshan, and "five, six, seven" mountains before approaching Aratta. Aratta in turn wants
grain in exchange. However, Inana transfers her allegiance to Uruk, and the grain gains the
favour of Aratta's people for Uruk, so the lord of Aratta challenges Enmerkar to send a

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champion to fight his champion. Then the god Ishkur makes Aratta's crops grow.” The
Mesopotamian historical legends describe the land of Arattas as:

“The messenger gave heed to the words of his king. He journeyed by the starry night, and
by day he traveled with Utu of heaven. Where and to whom will he carry the important
message of Inana with its stinging tone? He brought it up into the Zubi mountains, he
descended with it from the Zubi mountains. Susa and the land of Anšan humbly
saluted Inana like tiny mice. In the great mountain ranges, the teeming multitudes groveled
in the dust for her. He traversed five mountains, six mountains, and seven mountains. He
lifted his eyes as he approached Aratta. He stepped joyfully into the courtyard of Aratta,
he made known the authority of his king. Openly he spoke out the words in his heart.” [160-
175 from 1.8.2.3]

“My sister, let Aratta fashion gold and silver skillfully on my behalf for Unug. Let them cut
the flawless lapis lazuli from the blocks, let them …… the translucence of the flawless lapis
lazuli ……. …… build a holy mountain in Unug. Let Aratta build a temple brought down from
heaven -- your place of worship, the Shrine E-ana; let Aratta skillfully fashion the interior of
the holy ĝipar, your abode; may I, the radiant youth, may I be embraced there by you.
Let Aratta submit beneath the yoke for Unug on my behalf. Let the people of Aratta bring
down for me the mountain stones from their mountain, build the great shrine for me, erect
the great abode for me, make the great abode, the abode of the gods, famous for me, make
my me prosper in Kulaba,…” [38-64 from t.1.8.2.3]

“While the hearts of his brothers beat loudly, while the hearts of his comrades
sank, Lugalbanda took in his hand such of his provisions as he had not eaten, and each of
his weapons one by one. From the foot of the mountains, through the high mountains, into
the flat land, from the edge of Anšan to the top of Anšan, he crossed five, six, seven
mountains.”

“Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork
are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the
cypress grows.”

The description of the land of Arattas given in the Mesopotamian legends unambiguously
indicates the location of the land of Arattas close to the Hindu-Kush mountains of the
Badakhshan region of Afghanistan because lapis-lazuli is found only in this region. Lapis Lazuli
has been mined in this region at least since the 8th millennium BCE because Lapis artifacts
have been found in archaeological sites of India like Bhirrana (7570 BCE), Mehargarh (7000
BCE), etc. According to the chronology of Mesopotamia, as discussed in detail in Chapter 6,
Enmerkar and Lugalbanda flourished around 10000 BCE. Therefore, the historical events
narrated in the legend of King Enmerkar and King En-suhgir-ana (Ensuhkeshdanna) of Aratta
occurred around 10000 BCE.

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Interestingly, Enheduanna, daughter of King Sargon (3473-3417 BCE), the founder of the
Akkadian Empire, mentions Aratta in her poems:

Temple Hymn 7: an Excerpt (To the Kesh Temple of Ninhursag by Enheduanna, loose
translation by Michael R. Burch:

“O, high-situated Kesh, form-shifting summit, inspiring fear like a venomous viper!
O, Lady of the Mountains, Ninhursag's house was constructed on a terrifying site!
O, Kesh, like holy Aratta: your womb dark and deep, your walls high-towering and
imposing! O, great lion of the wildlands stalking the high plains! ...”

Inana and Ebih – t.1.3.2

"I shall set fire to its thick forests. I shall take an axe to its evil-doing. I shall make Gibil,
the purifier, do his work at its watercourses. I shall spread this terror through the
inaccessible mountain range Aratta." [45-48 lines]

"Let me set fire to its thick forests. Let me take an axe to its evil-doing. Let me make Gibil,
the purifier, do his work at its watercourses. Let me spread this terror through the
inaccessible mountain range Aratta." [104-107 lines]

Shulgi (3033-2975 BCE), a king of the third dynasty of Ur also mentions Aratta in his poetry:

“I lined up my gold statues and lapis-lazuli statues in the main courtyard of her E-niĝara.
I filled it with treasures like those of holy Aratta.”…… “Aratta, full-laden with treasures”

The Mesopotamian legends and literary sources indicate that the kingdom of Arattas was
extended from the Kabul-Kandahar region to eastern Iran, and the holy land of Aratta was
located close to the Badakshan region of the Hindu-Kush mountains.

Aratta in Indian Literature

“Ārāshtra” word of Vedic Sanskrit has been transformed into Aratta in Prakrit. According to
the genealogy given in Vishnu Purana (4.17), the son of Druhyu was Babhru; his son was Setu;
his son was Ārabda; his son was Gāndhāra; his son was Dharma; his son was Dhrita; his son
was Duryāman; his son was Pracetas, who had a hundred sons, and they were the princes of
the lawless Mlecchas of the north. In some manuscripts, Arabdha, the father of Gandhara was
read as Aratta. This genealogy indicates that Arattas were the descendants of King Druhyu of
the Rigvedic period. Puranas indicate that Arattas and Gandharas were the same because
both are descendants of Druhyu. Vayu Purana also says that Gandhara is a large country and
famous for its breed of horses. Atharvaveda has a reference to Gandhara (Kandahar) and
Bahlika (Bactria).

Interestingly, Baudhayana Shrautasutra (18.44) tells us that King Pururava of the Rigvedic
period had two sons, Ayu and Amavasu. Ayu ruled over the Kuru, Panchala, Kashi and Videha
etc., in the east [of the Sarasvati River] whereas Amavasu’s kingdom was extended up to
Gandhara, Parshu and Aratta in the west [प्राङायुः प्रवव्राज तस्यैते करुपञ्चालाुः काशिशवदे हा

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इत्येतदायवं प्रव्राजम्प्रत्यङमावसस् तस्यैते गन्धारय स्पिशवोऽराट्टा इत्येतदामावसवम्]. Baudhayana
Dharmasutra (1.1.2) mentions the land of Arattas along with the Sindu-Sauvira janapada
[उपावृत्-शसन्ध-सौवीरा एते संकीर्श-योनयुः ॥ आरट्टान् कारस्करान् पण्ड्र ान् सौवीरान् वङ्गान् कशलङ्गान्
प्रानूनान् इशत च]. Kashmir recension of ancient Ramayana refers to the land of Arattas (Aratta-
Kapisham-Baahlim - 4/44/23).

A detailed account of Arattas given in Mahabharata’s Karnaparva as follows:

“There where forests of Pilu stand, and those five rivers flow, viz., the Satadru, the Vipasa,
the Iravati, the Candrabhaga, and the Vitasa and which have the Sindhu for their sixth,
there in those regions removed from the Himavat, are the countries called by the name of
the Arattas. Those regions are without virtue and religion. No one should go thither. The
gods, the pitris, and the Brahmanas, never accept gifts from those that are fallen or those
that are begotten by Shudras on the girls of other castes, or the Vahikas who never perform
sacrifices and are exceedingly irreligious.' That learned brahmana had also said in the Kuru
court, 'The Vahikas, without any feelings of revulsion, eat of wooden vessels having deep
stomachs and earthen plates and vessels that have been licked by dogs and that are stained
with pounded barley and other corn. The Vahikas drink the milk of sheep and camels and
asses and eat curds and other preparations from those different kinds of milk. Those
degraded people number many bastards among them. There is no food and no milk that
they do not take. The Aratta-Vahikas that are steeped in ignorance, should be avoided.'
……… There where the five rivers flow just after issuing from the mountains, there among
the Aratta-Vahikas, no respectable person should dwell even for two days. There are two
Pishacas named Vahi and Hika in the river Vipasa. The Vahikas are the offspring of those
two Pishacas…... The regions are called by the name of Arattas. The people residing there
are called the Vahikas. The lowest of Brahmanas also are residing there from very remote
times. They are without the Veda and without knowledge, without sacrifice, and without
the power to assist with others’ sacrifices. They are all fallen and many amongst them have
been begotten by Shudras upon other peoples' girls. The gods never accept any gifts from
them. The Prasthalas, the Madras, the Gandharas, the Arattas, those called Khasas, the
Vasatis, the Sindhus, and the Sauviras are almost as blamable in their practices.

In former days a chaste woman was abducted by robbers (hailing) from Aratta. Sinfully
was she violated by them, upon which she cursed them, saying, 'Since ye have sinfully
violated a helpless girl who is not without a husband, therefore, the women of your families
shall all become unchaste. Ye lowest of men, never shall ye escape from the consequences
of this dreadful sin.' The sisters' sons of the Arattas, and not their own sons, become their
heirs.

the Vahikas are thieves; the Saurashtras are bastards. They that are defiled by ingratitude,
theft, drunkenness, adultery with the wives of their preceptors, the harshness of speech,
slaughter of kine, lustful wanderings during the night out of home, and the wearing of other
people's ornaments, --what sin is there that they do not incur? Fie on the Arattas and the

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 people of the country of the five rivers! Commencing with the Pancalas, the Kauravas, the
Naimishas, the Matsyas, --all these, --know what religion is. The old men among the
Northerners, the Angas, the Magadhas, (without themselves knowing what virtue is) follow
the practices of the pious. Many gods, headed by Agni, dwell in the East. The pitris dwell
in the South that is presided over by Yama of righteous deeds. The West is protected by the
mighty Varuna who overlooks the other gods there. The north is protected by the divine
Soma along with the Brahmanas. So, Rakshasas and Pishacas protect the Himavat, the best
of mountains. The Guhyakas, protect the mountains of Gandhamadana. Without a doubt,
Vishnu, otherwise, called Janardana, protects all creatures. (For all that the Vahikas have
no special protectors among the gods). The Magadhas are comprehenders of signs; the
Koshalas comprehend from what they see; the Kurus and the Pancalas comprehend from a
half-uttered speech; the Salwas cannot comprehend till the whole speech is uttered. The
Mountaineers, like the Sivis, are very stupid. The Yavanas and the Suras are particularly
so. The mlecchas are wedded to the creations of their own fancy. Other people cannot
understand. The Vahikas resent beneficial counsels; as regards the Madrakas there are
none amongst those (mentioned above.) The Madrakas are regarded on Earth as the dirt
of every nation. So, the Madra woman is called the dirt of the whole female sex. They that
have for their practices the drinking of spirits, the violation of the beds of their preceptors,
the destruction of the embryo by procuring miscarriage, and the robbing of other people's
wealth, there is no sin that they have not. Fie on the Arattas and the people of the country
of the five rivers.”

Ancient Indian literary sources indicate that the capital of the Aratta kings was in the Kabul-
Jalalabad region. Gandhara or Kandahar kingdom was under the control of Arattas before the
Mahabharata period.

Aratta in Persian Sources

According to ancient Persian sources, In-Su-Kush-Siranna was the ruler of the Kingdom of
Aratta, who reigned over Greater Iran that consisted of several provinces that currently
constitute modern countries like Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Armenia,
Pakistan, Iraq, and some parts of India and Turkey. Interestingly, the Aratta King In-Su-Kush-
Siranna had celebrated Nowruz in Greater Iran 2000 years before Cyrus the Great (1199-1190
BCE). Thus, the Aratta king In-su-Kush-Siranna can be dated around 3200 BCE.

It appears that the Arattas and Scythians of India had dominated over Iran for more than 3800
years from 7000 BCE to 3200 BCE. It would be pertinent to explore the chronological history
of ancient Persian civilization to understand the rise of the Arattas of India in the 7th
Millennium BCE.

The Chronology of Ancient Persian Civilization

A multigenerational political conflict between Devas and Asuras during the Rigvedic period
resulted in a large-scale out-of-India migration of Asuras to Persia around ~11200 BCE. Devas

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and Asuras were originally step-brothers but political rivalry led to the evolution of two
distinct traditions of Vedas. Devas followed the Saptarshi tradition of four Vedas whereas
Asuras followed the tradition of Asuraveda. When Asuras lost to Devas led by Indra during
the Rigvedic period, Asuras migrated from India and settled in Persia. There were significant
similarities in the words and grammar of the Asura Sanskrit and the Vedic Sanskrit languages.
Seemingly, Asuraveda of Asuras had been recompiled by Zoroaster I around 7500 BCE which
came to be known as Avesta of Zoroastrianism. Avesta mentions Mithra, Varuna, Indra, Yama,
etc. The Gathas of Avesta mention Rudra along with Angra Mainyu. Vedic and post-Vedic
sources indicate that the Asuras also performed Yajnas. Gopatha Brahmana refers to the
Asuraveda of Pratichyas (westerners) and Asita Dhānvan, an Asura Rishi. Asita is also
mentioned in Avesta. Shānkhāyana Shrautasutra mentions about Asuravidyā. The Asuras
compiled their own Veda for performing rituals. The same recompiled Asuraveda came to be
known as Avesta. Unfortunately, a major portion of Avesta’s text is now lost.

The Asuras evolved archaic Avestan Sanskrit (Sanskrit of Asuras) based on their own grammar
from the Asura Sanskrit language. The common people of the Asura community spoke Proto-
Iranian that was naturally evolved from Asura Sanskrit. It appears that the early Asuras or
Danavas had settled in the west of the Amu Darya River around 14000-13500 BCE when Indra
killed Vritrasura. According to Vedic legends, Sarama Devashuni met Panis, a business clan of
Asuras on the banks of the Rasa River. Most probably, the Rasa River was the Amu Darya
River. Druhyus (mentioned as Druj demon in Vendidad), Arattas, Bahlikas, and Gandharas
(Druhyu dynasty) conquered Afghanistan and established their kingdoms around 11200 BCE.
The Asuras had no other option but to migrate further westwards and settled in Azerbaijan
and Iran around 11000 BCE.

There were three Zoroasters in Asuraveda, i.e., the Avestan tradition of ancient Persia. The
first Zoroaster was known as Spitama Zarathushtra, the first prophet who received the
message from Ahura (Asura) Mazda. The second Zoroaster was Asho Zarathushtra who
recompiled Avesta. The third Zoroaster was a senior contemporary of Cyrus (1199-1190 BCE)
who revived Zoroastrianism also known as Magism. Ancient Greek sources also refer to two
Zoroasters (Spitama Zarathushtra and Asho Zarathushtra). Hermodorus (10th century BCE)
believed that Zoroaster II lived more than 5000 years before the date of the Trojan War (1842
BCE). Eudoxus also placed Zoroaster II 6000 years before the lifetime of Plato (11th century
BCE). Accordingly, Asho Zarathushtra (Zoroaster II) lived a few centuries before 7000 BCE. He
not only recompiled Asuraveda, i.e., Avesta but also authored certain sections of Avesta. He
had transformed the religion of Asuras into Monotheism and founded the basic tenets of
Zoroastrian philosophy. This is how an Asuraveda, written in Asura Sanskrit, has been
transformed into Avesta and monotheism around 7500 BCE.

The chronological history of ancient Persia begins from 14000-13500 BCE when the Asuras
migrated from India to the west of the Amu Darya River. Rishi Kashyap of Devayuga (14000
BCE) had many wives named Aditi, Danu, Ira, etc. The progeny of “Danu” came to be known

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as “Danava”, the progeny of “Ira” as “Airya” and the progeny of “Aditi” as Aditya. Tvashta or
Vishvakarma and his wife Danu had a son named Vritrasura. He politically challenged Indra,
son of Aditi, with the support of Airyas and Danavas. When Danavas lost to Devas and
Vtritrasura was killed by Indra, the Airyas migrated from the region of Sarasvati River to the
region of the Caspian Sea and the Danavas migrated to the region of Anatolia and Greece.
The area of Azerbaijan, Northern Iran, Turkmenistan, and the region in the west of the Amu
Darya River came to be known as “Airyanem Vaejah”. During the period 14000-11200 BCE,
The Adityas, the Rudras, and the Vasus came to be known as Devas and the Danavas, the
Airyas, and the Daityas (progeny of Diti) came to be known as Asuras.

During the period 12000-11300 BCE, the Asuras emerged as powerful kings in the west and
expanded their kingdom up to the region of Sapta Sindhu. The Asuras compiled their own
Veda known as “Asuraveda” to counter the Vedas of Devas. Shambara, the Asura king posed
a great challenge to Indra (a descendant of Indra I and husband of Shachi) around 11300 BCE.
Finally, Indra defeated Shambara and conquered back Sapta Sindhu region and Afghanistan.
Around 11170 BCE, Amavasu, son of Pururava reigned up to the land of Arattas (the region
between Kabul and Kandahar) as mentioned in Baudhayana Shrautasutra. Thereafter,
Druhyus, Arattas, Bahlikas, and Gandharas conquered Afghanistan and extended their
kingdoms. Thus, “Airyanem Vaejah”, the sacred land of Airyas and Asuras had been reduced
to the west of the Caspian Sea. This may be the reason why the traditional Persian sources
identify Azerbaijan as “Airyanem Vaejah”.

The first chapter of the Avestan Book of Vendidad gives the Avestan geography and
enumerates the following sixteen perfect lands of Asuras created by Ahur Mazda.

Avesta Old Persian/Pahlavi Place

1 Airyanem Vaejah Airan Vej Originally from Azerbaijan to Amu
Darya River. Later, it was limited to
Azerbaijan and North Iran.
2 Sughdha Suguda Sogdiana (Samarkand)
3 Mouru Margu Margiana or Merv (Turkmenistan)
4 Bakhdhi Bakhtri Balkh (Bactria), North Afghanistan
5 Nisaim Nisaya Near Jalalabad, Afghanistan
6 Haroyu Haraiva Hari Rud (Herat), Afghanistan
7 Vaekeretam Kapul Kabul, Afghanistan
8 Urvam Urva Khorezm, Afghanistan
9 Vehrkana Varkana Hyrcania, Gurgan, Northeast Iran
10 Harahvaitim Harauvati Aracosia, Afghanistan
11 Hetumantem Hetumant Helmand, Afghanistan
12 Rakham Ragha Ragai?
13 Chakhrem Kakhra Ghazni area?

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 14 Varenem Varena Zaranj, Sistan?
15 Hapta Hindu Hindava Sapta Sindhu region from the Indus
River to Sarasvati River.
16 Ranghaya Rangha Baluchistan?

The geography of these sixteen perfect lands indicates that the Asuras dominated the region
from Azerbaijan to the Sapta Sindhu region around 12000-11300 BCE. Indra defeated
Shambara and conquered back the Sapta Sindhu region and restricted the region of Asuras
up to the Amu Darya River. Avesta refers to the Amu Darya River as the Daitya River. Devas
called the Amu Darya River, Rasa River where Sarama Devashuni, a messenger of Indra met
Panis, the businessmen of Asuras.

Ahura Mazda and Yima, son of Vivanghat or Yama, son of Vivasvan (11270-11170 BCE)

Chapter 2 of Vendidad indicates that the chronological history of ancient Persia begins with
Ahur Mazda, Yima, son of Vivanghat, Spitama Zarathushtra, and the catastrophic flood. Yima,
son of Vivanghat was none other than the Yama, son of Vivasvan mentioned in Rigveda and
Atharvaveda. Vivasvan had two sons, Manu and Yama. There were two Yamas in Vedic
history. Yama, the first was the son of Surya (one of 12 Adityas) and Saranyu and flourished
during the Devayuga (14000 BCE). Yama, the second was the son of Vivasvan and brother of
Vaivasvata Manu and lived around 11270-11170 BCE. During the time of Indra and Shambara
(11300 BCE), Vivasvan was the king of Saurashtra. Indra defeated the Asura king Shambara
and conquered back the Sapta Sidhu region around 11300 BCE. Manu, son of Vivasvan
succeeded his father in Saurashtra around 11250 BCE.

Avesta indicates that Yama or Yima, son of Vivasvan (younger brother of Vaivasvata Manu)
became the king of the land of Asuras and Vanguhi Daitya was his contemporary. Ahura
Mazda asks Yima, to receive his law and bring it to men. However, Yima refuses owing to his
attachment to the religion of his ancestors and so Ahura Mazda charges him with a different
mission: to rule over and nourish the earth, to see that the living things prosper. This Yima
accepts, and Ahura Mazda presents him with a golden seal and a dagger inlaid with gold.
Ahura Mazda warns Yima that there will come a harsh winter storm followed by melted snow
and advises Yima to construct a Vara in the form of a multi-level cavern to save humanity,
flora, and fauna from the massive flood. The flood during the reign of Yima mentioned in
Avesta is the same catastrophic flood that occurred around 11200 BCE in the region of Sapta
Sindhu and Saurashtra during the reign of Manu.

Apart from the blow of a massive flood in the Sapta Sindhu region, the ongoing terrible war
between Devas and Asuras was destined for the major victory of Devas. According to Brahma
Purana, the Devas traveled to the Gautami River and they prayed to Shiva. Shiva produced
Manyu to lead Devas in the war against Asuras. There is a Manyu Sukta in Rigveda. Bhagavata

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Purana refers to Shiva as Manyu. Manyu was also one of eleven Rudras of Devayuga. Avesta
mentions that Angra Manyu is the daevanam Daevo and he sent the demon Buiti to kill
Zarathushtra. Later, Angra Manyu himself attacked Zarathushtra. Angra Manyu appeared first
and Paitisha appears last. Paitisha was referred to as Daevotama.

According to Vendidad, Angra Mainyu, the main adversary of Zarathushtra unleashed

innumerable sicknesses on Asuras. Devas gained victory in the war and possibly expanded
their kingdom up to the east coast of the Caspian Sea. Consequently, the land of Airyanem
Vaejah had reduced to the west coast of the Caspian Sea. At this time, Ahura Mazda gave the
knowledge of Asuraveda to Spitama Zarathushtra in Airyanem Vaejah (Azer Baijan and North
Iran). Ahura Mazda calls himself an Atharvan which indicates that Ahura Mazda belonged to
the lineage of Rishi Atharva (a descendant of Rishi Angirasa). Atar was the son of Ahura
Mazda. With Airyaman's assistance, Ahura Mazda brought 10,000 plants to the earth to cure
the people wounded in the war. Pourušaspa was the father of Spitama Zarathushtra and his
mother was Dugdōw. His great-grandfather was Haēčataspa. After the lifetime of Ahura
Mazda and Zarathushtra, Keyumar or Gayomart of the Pishdadian dynasty founded their
kingdom in Azerbaijan and North Iran according to Bundashin and Firdausi’s Shahnama. The
genealogical chronology of the Pishdadian Kings of Ancient Persia:

In CE
Ahura Mazda, Yima, son of Vivanghat, Angra ~11200 BCE
Manyu, Spitama Zarathushtra, and Vanguhi Daitya
The Pishdadian Dynasty
Keyumar or Gayomart 11000 BCE
Mashya 10950 BCE
Siyamak 10900 BCE
Fravak 10850 BCE
Hushang Taz 10800 BCE
Yanghad Virafshang 10750 BCE
Vivanghau Zaingav 10700 BCE

Yima Khshaeta or Jamshid (10700-10600 BCE)

Yima, son of Vivanghat, and Yima Khshaeta / Jamshid were two different persons. Yima, son
of Vivanghat was a contemporary of Ahura Mazda and flourished around ~11200 BCE whereas
Jamshid was a descendant of the Pishdadian dynasty and flourished around ~10700 BCE.
Jamshid was a legendary king of ancient Persia. The Persian tradition credits him with the
invention of many things like weapons, weaving of cotton cloths, natural silk, wool, medicine,
music, wine, perfumes, etc. Jamshid also divided people into four groups like the four varna
system of ancient India.

10
Jamshid introduced a solar calendar of 12 months that commenced from the spring equinox
and Farvardin was the first month. He was the first Persian emperor who celebrated Nowruz
on New Year’s Day, i.e., the day of the spring equinox. This is the reason why the first day of
the month of Farvardin is called Jamshidi Nowruz even today.

Azi Dahak and his descendants (10600-9000 BCE) and the Beginning of Younger Dryas
(10600-10000 BCE)

Jamshid was a great warrior. He reconquered the lost land of “Airyas”, i.e., “Airyanem Vaejah”
and possibly expanded his kingdom up to the Daitya River, i.e., Amu Darya River. His capital
was Persepolis which has been referred to as Takht-e-Jamshid. At that time, Azhi Dahaka, or
Zahhak, a serpent king of Devas was ruling in the region of Amu Darya River. Avesta indicates
that Angra Mainyu created a serpent named Zahhak, son of Ahirman in the Daitya River who
killed Jamshid and became the king of the land of “Airyanem Vaejah”.

Dahaka or Zahhak has been derived from Takshak (Takshak – Dashak – Dahak – Zahhak & Ahi
Takshak – Azhi Dahak), a Naga (Serpent) King of the Vedic era. Adi Shesha Naga, Vasuki, and
Takshaka were the sons of Rishi Kashyap and Kadru. Nagas were the progeny of Mother
Kadru. Baudhayana Grihya Sutra (3.10.6) mentions Naga devas like Dhritarashtra, Takshaka,
Tarkshya, Ahira, etc., in the context of the Sarpa-Bali, a Vedic ritual. Vendidad refers to Ahira
Naga as Ahriman who was the father of Arezura. Ahi Takshak or Ahi Dahak or Zahhak was a
descendant of Ahira Naga or Ahriman.

Jamshid lived for 100 years (or 116 years and six months). Azhi Dahak and his brother Spitiyura
attacked Jamshid and killed him. Azhi Dahak took over the reins of the land of “Airyanem
Vaejah” and reigned for 1000 years. Arguably, Azhi Dahak and his descendants reigned for
1000 years over a vast kingdom consisting of Afghanistan, Iran, and Azerbaijan. Since the
progenitor of Nagas was Kashyap, Azhi Dahak Kings named the Caspian Sea after “Kashyap”
(Kaspi) like the Nagas named Kashmir valley as Kashyap-Meru.

Interestingly, Vendidad indicates the return of the ice age after the death of Jamshid.
Vendidad mentions:

“The first of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Airyanem
Vaejah, by the good river Daitya. Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he
counter-created the serpent in the river and winter, a work of the Deavas.”

“There are ten winter months there, two summer months; and those are cold for the waters,
cold for the earth, cold for the trees. Winter falls there, with the worst of all plagues.”

“The sixteenth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the land
by the floods of the Rangha, where people live who have no chiefs. Thereupon came Angra

11
Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created winter, a work of the Daevas.” [Vendidad
1.2 - 1.4, 1.19]
The Vendidad and other texts also inform us that before the Jamshidi era, the weather in the
land of “Airyanem Vaejah” was fair and equitable, with the spring equinox heralding the start
of spring and a renewal after the winter. But there was a sudden climate chill (Vendidad 2.22-
25) after the Jamshidi era. There are seven months of summer and five of winter up to the
Jamshidi era but Vendidad blames Devas for creating winter and the Asuras experienced ten
winter months and two summer months in a year after the Jamshidi era. Even those two
months of summer were also cold. The Avestan sources indicate the age of Younger Dryas
which lasted for 600 or 700 years. This mini-ice age began around 10700 BCE and ended
around 10000 BCE.

Traetaona or Fereydun of the Pishdadian Dynasty (~9000 BCE)

Ancient Persian tradition counts 700 years of the reign of Jamshid. It appears that Jamshid
lived for 100 years and the period of Younger Dryas lasted for 600 years. Therefore, the reign
of 1000 years of the descendants of Azhi Dahak must be counted from the end of Younger
Dryas, i.e., 10000 BCE. Accordingly, the time of Fereydun may be fixed around 9000 BCE.

Fereydun was a descendant of Jamshid. He waged a decisive war against the Naga king Zahhak
(a descendant of Azhi Dahak I) and defeated and imprisoned him in the Alborz mountains.
Afterward, Fereydun became the king of a vast kingdom. He introduced the Jamshidi or
Shahenshahi calendar of a 120-year cycle starting from the Spring equinox. At the time of
Fereydun, the Spring equinox used to occur in the solar month of Leo. This may be the reason
why the Parsi community in India celebrates the new year or Nowruz in the month of Leo
(July/August) in modern times.

Fereydun married Arnavaz and Shahmaz. Fereydun had three sons, Iraj from Arnavaz and
Salm & Tur from Shahmaz. He divided his kingdom into three parts. Iraj became the king of
the Iran & Iraq region, Salm became the king of Rum (west of Iraq up to Egypt) and Tur became
the king of Turan, i.e., the Turkmenistan region. Since the kingdom given to Iraj was the best,
Salm and Tur conspired against Iraj and killed him. Manuchehr, son of Iraj’s daughter and
Pashang, avenged his grandfather’s murder and became the king of Iran. Nowzar was the son
of Manuchehr. He had two sons, Tous and Gostaham. Tous founded the city of Tous which
became the residence of Kayanian King Vishtaspa, a contemporary of Zoroaster II (~7500 BCE)
who was the first to accept Zoroastrianism.

The Persian History from Fereydun (~9000 BCE) to Garshasp (~7800 BCE)

Avestan sources, Asadi’s Garshaspnama, Tarik-e-Sistan, and Firdowsi’s Shahnama narrate the
history of Garshasp. Tabakat-i-Nasiri indicates the duration of 1276 years between Fereydun
and Garshasp. It is generally recorded that Fereydun (and his descendants?) reigned for 500

12
years and his son (descendant?) Tur became the king of Turan. Garshasp was born 700 years
after Tur and probably lived for 76 years. This may be the reason why the author of Tabakat-
i-Nasiri says that there is a difference of 1276 years (500+700+76) between Fereydun and
Garshasp.

According to Avesta, Kərəsāspa or Garshasp was a son of Trita (a Vedic deity) and belonged
to the Sama family. He has been described as a slayer of Azhi Sruvara (a king of Nagas) and
Gandharva (a king of Gandhara). He once stopped on a hill to cook his midday meal. The hill
was the curved back of a sleeping dragon - Azhi Sruvara (a descendant of Takshak/Zahhak).
The dragon woke up from sleep and overturn the Garshasp's kettle. Garshasp tried to run
away from the hill but he returned and killed Azhi Sruvara. Garshasp also fought with a
Gandharva in the sea and killed him.
Asadī’s Garshaspnama begins with Garshasp’s ancestors. Jamshid is overthrown by Zahhak
and flees to Kurang, the king of Zabolistan (Sistan), and falls in love with the king’s daughter.
This liaison gives birth to Tur. Jamshid flees again, and Kurang accepts Tur as his heir. Tur is
succeeded by his son Sedasp, who begets Ṭovorg. His son is Sam, who begets Etret, who
begets Garshasp.

Garshasp is born 700 years after Tur, and Zahhak is still king of Iran. Zahhak pays a visit to
Zabolistan, where his eye is caught by the boy Garshasp, whom he challenges to slay a terrible
dragon. The child does so willingly. In the meanwhile, the king of India is overthrown by his
relative, Bahu, who renounces his loyalty to Zahhak. Zahhak orders Garshasp to subdue the
rebel. Garshasp defeats Bahu, the king of India, and restores his loyalty to Zahhak. Garshasp
proceeds to Sarandiv. Garshasp meets a Brahman whom he interrogates at great length on
philosophical and religious questions. Garshasp then visits the islands of India and admires
their supernatural marvels, again described at great length. The hero returns home and pays
homage to Zahhak. He then goes off to woo the daughter of the king of Rum. The king of
Kabul defeats Etret in battle, but Garshasp kills him and restores his father. He builds the town
of Sistan and receives Zahhak there as his guest. Garshasp travels west and defeats the king
of Qayravan. He meets a “Greek Brahman” and engages once again in philosophical discourse.
He returns home, his father dies, and Garshasp becomes king of Zabolistan. He adopts
Nareman, the son of his brother Kurang, as his son (in Tariḵ-e- Sistan, this Kurang is Garshasp’s
son and Nareman his grandson). Fereydun defeats Zahhak and becomes king of Iran, and
Garshasp declares his allegiance to Fereydun. Garshasp and his nephew visit Turan and then
make war on the king of China. Eventually, they defeat him and lead him captive to Fereydun.
Nareman has a son, Sam, who is to be the father of Zal and grandfather of Rostam. Garshasp
fights the king of Tanger and kills another dragon. He then returns home and becomes the
king of Zabolistan. Garshasp was the founder of the city of Sakasthan/Sistan.

According to Shahnama, Garshasp became the ruler of Greater Persia and reigned for more
than 50 years. Nareman was the son of Garshasp. Sam was the son of Nareman and Zal was

13
the son of Sam. Rustam was the son of Zal. Faramarz was the son of Rustam. Tarikh-e-Sistan
records that Garshasp flourished 4000 years before the lifetime of Muhammad.

It appears that Muslim historians could not follow the chronological history of ancient Persia
and mixed up the historical events related to certain legendary kings of Persia. They
mistakenly narrated Fereydun, Jamshid, and Garshasp as contemporaries.

The Kayanian Dynasty (~7700-7500 BCE)

The Kayanian dynasty was the successor of the Pishdadian dynasty. Kay Kubad, the founder
of the Kayanian dynasty was a descendant of Manuchehr and his grandson Tous. After the
death of Garshasp around 7700 BCE, Afrasiab, the king of Turan decided to invade Persia
because there was no one to succeed to the throne. The Persians turned to Zal, the father of
Rostam, to save them. Together with his son, Zal prepared to face Afrasiab’s forces. Zal
dispatched his son Rostam to Mount Alberz, where the young Kai Kubad was staying. Rostam
found the future king Kai Kubad, brought him back to the army, and together they defeated
Afrasiab’s army. After returning to Turan, Afrasiab decided to make peace with Kai Kobad.
Thus, Kay Kubad founded the rule of the Kayanian dynasty over Persia around 7700-7600 BCE.
Avesta (Zamyad Yasht 19.71, and Farvardin Yasht 13.132) mentions many Kayanian kings like
Kavi Aipivohu, Kavi Usadha, Kavi Arshan, Kavi Pisina, Kavi Byarshan, and Kavi Syavarshan, etc.
but they might have flourished before Kay Kubad. The chronology of the Kayanian dynasty:

In CE
Kay Kubad (the founder of the Kayanian dynasty)
Kay Kāvus, son of Kay Kubad (He had a flying
chariot)
Siyavash, son of Kay Kavus
Kay Khusrow (Kay Husroy), son of Siyavash ~7700-7500 BCE
Kay Lohrasp, father of Vistaspa
Kay Vishtaspa - the patron of Zarathushtra II
Kay Wahman, son of Esfandiyar (son of Vishtaspa)
Humay Chehrzad, wife of Wahman 7500-7400 BCE
Kay Darab I, son of Wahman
Darab II, son of Darab I

Zarathushtra II and Kavi Vishtaspa (~7600-7500 BCE)

According to Greek sources, Zarathushtra II lived before 7000 BCE. Avesta indicates that
Zarathushtra II was a contemporary of Vishtaspa. He recompiled Asuraveda as Avesta and
founded the basic tenets of Monotheism. Traditionally, Asuraveda of ancient Persians had
many deities and the religion was polytheist but Zarathushtra II founded a new religion based

14
on Monotheism which came to be known as Zoroastrianism. King Vishtaspa was the first who
converted to Zoroastrianism and declared Zoroastrianism as the state religion.

Turanian King Arjasp, a descendant of Afrasiab did not accept the new religion. When Vishtasp
imprisoned his son Esfandiyar and went to Sistan, Arjasp invades Persia taking advantage of
the absence of Vishtasp and kills Lohrasp, the father of Vishtasp. Considering the situation,
the minister of Vishtasp releases Esfandiyar. Finally, Esfandiyar defeats and kills Arjasp.
Wahman, son of Esfandiyar succeeded his grandfather in Persia. He died when his wife Humay
Chehrzad was pregnant. She became the queen of Persia and reigned for 32 years. Kay Darab
I succeeds his mother. Darab II was the son of Kay Darab I. Sasan was the son of Darab II.

The introduction of Zoroastrianism as the state religion by the Kayanian King Vishtaspa led to
a major conflict between Iranians and Turanians and also a division in the society of ancient
Persians. The political power of Persia gradually declined after the reign of King Vishtaspa.

The Yasht (13.143 & 144) lists the names of individuals who were the first "hearers and
teachers" of Zarathushtra's teachings. In addition to specific names, it also mentions all the
righteous people in the five nations, i.e., Airyanem Vaeja (Airyanam Dakhyunam in the Yasht)
as well as four neighbouring lands. These four lands neighbouring Airyana Vaeja
are Tuirya, Sairima, Saini, and Dahi (Airyanam, Tuiryanam, Dahinam, Sairimanam, and
Saininam).

Dionysus and the First Greek Invasion of Persia and India (~7400 BCE)

As brought out above, the chronological history of ancient Persia begins with Ahura Mazda
and Yama, son of Vivasvan (~11200 BCE), the king of the land of Airyas. A catastrophic flood
that occurred around ~11200 BCE and the political conflict between Devas and Asuras (Angra
Manyu and Spitama Zarathushtra) caused a major setback to the political power of the land
of Airyanem Vaejah. At that time, the Nagas, descendants of Rishi Kashyap were dominating
over the region of Jammu and Kashmir, and the Takshak Nagas, descendants of Ahira Naga or
Ahriman had captured the region from Takshashila to the Amu Darya River. This aggression
of Nagas led to a multigenerational political conflict between the Pishdadian Kings and the
Takshak Naga kings from 11200 BCE to 10700 BCE. Ahi Takshak or Azhi Dahak, a Naga king
killed Jamshid around 10600 BCE and expanded his kingdom up to the Caspian Sea and Iran.
Thus, the Takshak Naga kings reigned over the land of Airyanem Vaejah for more than 1000
years.

Finally, Fereydun, a descendant of Jamshid re-established the rule of the Pishdadian dynasty
and pushed the Takshak Nagas to the east of the Afghanistan border. After the decline of the
Takshak Nagas, the Sakas or Scythians and the Turanians (descendants of Tur, son of
Fereydun) started having marital relations. Garshasp, a Scythian king of Zabolistan and the
descendant of a Turanian king founded the city of Sistan and reigned over Persia. The conflict
between Iranians and Turanians began when Tur killed his brother Iraj. When the Kayanian
King Vishtasp introduced Zoroastrianism as the state religion, the conflict between Iranians

15
and Turanians reached a zenith around 7500 BCE. Thus, the political power of Iranians and
Turanians had been gradually weakened and the Persian society became a divided house
around 7400 BCE.

Ancient Persian sources indicate that the Greeks invaded Persia during the reign of the
Kayanian King Darab II but some Muslim historians have mistakenly speculated that Iskandar
(Alexander) invaded during the reign of Darab II and created a chronological problem in the
history of ancient Persia. This is the reason why modern historians have identified Darab II
with Darius III of the Achaemenid dynasty but declared him to be the last king of the
mythological Kayanian dynasty. Firstly, the Kayanian dynasty was not a contemporary of the
Achaemenid dynasty. The Kayanians flourished during the period of Zoroaster II who lived
before 7000 BCE as recorded by Greek historians/scholars whereas the Achaemenids
flourished around 1199-994 BCE. Secondly, there is no ancient Persian and Greek literary
evidence or epigraphic evidence to establish the identity of Darab II with Darius III. Thirdly,
the Sasanian kings of Persia claimed themselves to be descendants of Sasan, the son of Darab
II. Darius III had no son named Sasan. Moreover, it is a fact that the Sasanian dynasty has no
links with the Achaemenid dynasty.

Dionysus II led the Greek invasion of Persia during the reign of the Kayanian king Darab II
around ~7400 BCE and also conquered India (Afghanistan region), and founded a city of Nysa
(Jalalabad) near Kabul. Greek historians refer to three Greek invasions on India led by
Dionysus II (~7400 BCE), Heracles II (1926-1852 BCE), and Alexander (994-982 BCE). Dionysus
II or Bacchus or Liber Pater flourished 6451 years or 6042 years before Alexander (994-982
BCE) around ~7400 BCE. Arrian indicates that Dionysus II and his successors kept their control
over India and Persia for 300 years.

Out-of-India Migrations During the Period ~7400-7100 BCE

This 300-year period (~7400-7100 BCE) of the first Greek occupation of India and Persia not
only established a route from the east to the west but also witnessed migrations out of India.
When Dionysus II conquered the region of Afghanistan, he was impressed with the warrior
attributes of Indian tribes like the Sakas (Scythians), the Bahlikas (Bactrians), the Yavanas, the
Shuras, etc. These warrior tribes of India served in the army of Dionysus II and his successors.
They migrated toward the West and came to be known as Cimmerians, Hittites, Hurrians, etc.

The Cimmerians of the Black Sea region

The Hindu-Kush range of hills was well known as “Meru” or “Sumeru” to the ancient Greeks
because Dionysus I, one of the Olympian gods was born and brought up on the hills of Meru.
The ancient Greeks called the people living close to Sumeru “Sumerioi” and the people living
Trans Indus River “Indoi”. The word “Sumerioi” has been transformed into “Kimmerioi” in
Greek and “Cimmerii” in Latin at the time of Homer who referred to them in his poetic work
“Iliad”.

16
The Sakas of the Vedic era were the earliest settlers of the Afghanistan region of India. The
Sakas were the equestrian tribe of India who used to breed Equus sivalensis (Shivalik Horse
having 34 ribs) and also Equus caballus later. Rigveda refers to “Ashva”, the Shivalik horse
having 34 ribs. Possibly, Equus sivalensis (the Shivalik horse) was the unicorn horse that was
found only in India. Greek scholars like Ctesias and Aristotle mention that the unicorn horse
originated in India. Archaeologists have established that Equus sivalensis became extinct
around 8000 BCE but further research is needed to establish whether Equus sivalensis was a
unicorn or not. The Sakas had names ending with “Ashva” which was pronounced as “Asp”
like Garshasp in the Avestan language.

The Sakas split into two tribes geographically known as the Scythians (the tribe of Sistan or
Sakasthan) and the Bactrians (the tribe of Bactria or Bahlika) though they had a common
culture. The ancient Greeks collectively called them “Kimmerioi” or Cimmerians. They
migrated from Afghanistan and settled in the east of the Black Sea. Thus, the so-called
Cimmerians were originally the Scythians.

The Black-headed People of Sumer (Sumerians) in Mesopotamia

The catastrophic flood in the Sindh region of India around 11200 BCE led to the migration of
the agrarian people from Sindh to the region of the Persian Gulf which laid the foundation for
the Mesopotamian civilization. The region of the Persian Gulf was above sea level at that time
and very fertile for agriculture. The Persian Gulf was submerged by sea during the MWP 1C
around 6200 BCE and the agrarian people migrated from the Persian Gulf and settled in lower
Mesopotamia. Uruk, Eridug, Ur, etc. were the important cities of lower Mesopotamian
civilization.

It appears that the shepherd people migrated from the Sumeru Mountain region of India and
settled at Babylon during the period of Younger Dryas, i.e., 10700-10000 BCE, and came to be
known as Sumerians and mixed up with the people of lower Mesopotamia. The people of
Sumer were referred to as the black-headed people. There are numerous references to the
people of Sumer in Mesopotamian sources:

“Let Aratta pack nuggets of gold in leather sacks, placing alongside it the kugmea ore; package
up precious metals, and load the packs on the donkeys of the mountains; and then may the
Junior Enlil of Sumer have them build for me, ….” (108-133) ETCSL translation: t.1.8.2.3

“At such a time, may the lands of Šubur and Ḫamazi, the many-tongued, and Sumer, the great
mountain of me of magnificence, and Akkad, the land possessing all that is befitting, and the
Martu land, resting in security -- the whole universe, the well-guarded people -- may they all
address Enlil together in a single language! ….” (134-155) ETCSL translation: t.1.8.2.3

“This is what my master has spoken, this is what he has said. My king who from his birth has
been fitted {for lordship} {(1 ms. has instead:) for the crown}, the lord of Unug, the saĝkal
snake living in Sumer, who pulverises {mountains} {(2 mss. have instead:) heads} like flour,
the stag of the tall mountains, ….” (179-207) ETCSL translation: t.1.8.2.3

17
“Divine Enki who is king in Eridu tore up for me the old reeds, drained off the water
completely. For fifty years I built, for fifty years I was successful. Then the Martu peoples,
who know no agriculture, arose in all Sumer and Akkad. But the wall of Unug extended out
across the desert like a bird net…” (357-387) ETCSL translation: t.1.8.2.2

“Since Ninlil had given me her joyful blessing in the Land, and had caused me to be heard in
the assembly, I, Šulgi, the faithful shepherd of Sumer, praised her in the Ĝa-ĝiš-šua, in her
temple where lawsuits are decided justly, in her august temple befitting her ladyship, in her
shrine imbued with terrible awesomeness, a place admired by all the foreign countries, within
….” (7-13) ETCSL translation: t.2.4.2.25.

“E-ninnu was decorated most alluringly among Sumer's buildings.” (578-590) ETCSL
translation: t.2.1.7.

“The house of Enki in Eridug….. O ……, shrine where destiny is determined, ……, foundation,
raised with a ziqqurat, ……, settlement of Enlil, your ……, your right and your left are Sumer
and Akkad.” (25-33) ETCSL translation: t.4.80.1.

The above references indicate that the people of Sumer in Mesopotamia were later entrants
and different from the people of lower Mesopotamia. Modern historians are still clueless
about the Sumerians’ origin but identified lower Mesopotamia as Sumer. A shepherd tribe of
India living close to the Sumeru Mountain region in Afghanistan-Pakistan migrated to the
Persian Gulf region. The language of the Shepherd people was called “Sumer” because they
originally belonged to the Sumeru Mountain region. The city of Sumer was located on the
right side and the city of Akkad was located on the left side of the house of Enki in Eridug as
indicated in the Temple Hymns. The people of Sumer were referred to as the black-headed
people who knew no agriculture.

Dumuzid or Tammuz was an ancient Mesopotamian god of the shepherd people of Sumer
and an antediluvian king of the city of Pautibiblon (ancient name of Babylon) or Bad-tibira.
Dumuzid’s wife was the goddess Inanna (also known as Ishtar) and his sister was
Geshtinanna. In the Sumerian poem, Inanna Prefers the Farmer, the Shepherd Dumuzid
competes against the farmer Enkidu for Inanna's hand in marriage.

The famous story of Inanna’s descent into and return from the ancient Mesopotamian
underworld (Persian Gulf region), ruled by her older sister Ereshkigal tells us that the seven
judges of the underworld deem her guilty and strike her dead. Three days later, Ninshubur
pleads with all the gods to bring Inanna back. All of them refuse her, except Enki, who sends
two sexless beings to rescue Inanna. They escort Inanna out of the underworld, but the Galla,
the guardians of the underworld, drag her husband Dumuzid down to the underworld as her
replacement. Dumuzid is eventually permitted to return to heaven for half the year, while his
sister Geshtinanna remains in the underworld for the other half, resulting in the cycle of the
seasons. Interestingly, the hot, dry summers of Mesopotamia and the cycle of seasons were
believed to be caused by Dumuzid's yearly death which indicates the end of Younger Dryas,

18
i.e., mini-ice age around 10000-9900 BCE. A month in the mid-summer was also named after
Dumuzid or Tammuz.

There were two individuals named as Dumuzid in the history of the Sumerians of
Mesopotamia. Dumuzid, the Shepherd was an antediluvian king and flourished around 10000-
9900 BCE whereas Dumuzid, the Fisherman was a postdiluvian king and lived around 6100
BCE. It is also a fact that Gilgamesh I or Bilgames, the hero of the “Epic of Gilgamesh” written
in the Akkadian language, and Gilgamesh II mentioned in the Sumerian poem “Gilgamesh and
Aga” were two different individuals. Gilgamesh I was a contemporary of Inanna or Ishtar and
flourished around 10000-9900 BCE whereas Gilgamesh II was a postdiluvian king,
contemporary of King Aga, and flourished around 6100 BCE.

According to the legend of the Bull of Heaven given in the Epic of Gilgamesh, Ishtar (Inanna)
asks Gilgamesh I to become her consort. When he disdainfully refuses, she unleashed a bull
of unsurpassed strength to kill him. Enkidu, a friend of Gilgamesh I, was a strong man and
dwelt with the shepherd people of Sumer. He used to slew the lions which troubled the
shepherds. Gilgamesh I, with the assistance of his friend Enkidu, overcame and slew the bull,
but Ishtar gave the credit for the slaying to Gilgamesh, who by this act, emerged as a hero and
eventually became the king. In fact, the cylinder seals of Sumer and Akkad depicted the scene
of Gilgamesh in conflict with the Bull and Enkidu in conflict with the lion. The image of the
Bull is often represented with one horn. Undoubtedly, the Bull of Heaven, or the Bull with one
horn was a Unicorn which was also founded depicted in Indus seals. It has already been
explained above that the Unicorn was Equus sivalensis (Shivalik horse) which was found only
in India and became extinct before 8000 BCE as proven by the archaeologists.

According to Greek legends, Euechoros or Seuechoros (also as Sacchoras or Sevekhoros, etc.),

the king of Babylon was the grandfather of Gilgamos. Berossus mentions that Euechous was
the first king of Chaldea and Assyria. Arguably, "Seuechoros" "Euechoros" or “Euechous” must
be identified with Enmerkar. The legend of Enmerkar, the lord of Aratta, and Inanna, the
goddess of Aratta tells us that Enmerkar wants to decorate his city with Lapis Lazuli, precious
stones, gold, and silver that are found only in the mountains close to the city of Aratta. Inanna
advises Enmerkar to send a messenger with a challenge to Aratta. The king of Aratta refuses
but wants to enter into a contest with Enmerkar. The king of Aratta sends a challenge with
three puzzles to solve but the messenger complains that the messages have become too long
and difficult to remember. Enmerkar invents writing, which throws the lord of Aratta into
despair. The land of Aratta suffers famine and drought. Inanna confirms her predilection for
Enmerkar but also tells him to establish peaceful trade with Aratta from now on. The legends
of Lugalbanda indicate that Lugalbanda will be Enmerker’s successor.

Chronologically, Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, Inanna, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, and Gilgamesh I

were contemporaries and the antediluvians who lived around 10000-9900 BCE. The reference
to severe famine and drought in the land of Aratta and the creation of the cycle of seasons
after the death of Dumuzid indicates the last century of Younger Dryas, i.e., 10000-9900 BCE.

19
It may also be noted that the Sumerian Kings list prepared during the time of the third dynasty
of Ur erroneously mentions Enmerker and Lugalbanda as the postdiluvian kings of Uruk.
Dumuzid II, the Fisherman, and Gilgamesh II were the postdiluvian kings of Uruk whereas
Dumuzid I, the Shepherd, and Gilgamesh I were the antediluvian kings of Pautibiblon or
Babylon. According to Berossus and Greek legends, Enmerkar was the first antediluvian king
of Pautibiblon (old Babylon) or Chaldea. The author of the Sumerian King list could not
chronologically differentiate between Dumuzid I and Dumuzid II and assumed that Enmerkar
was a postdiluvian king of Uruk.

In reality, ten antediluvian kings including Dumuzid I, the shepherd, Enmerker, Lugalbanda,
and Gigamesh I reigned around 10200-9900 BCE and the Persian Gulf was flooded by sea
water during the time of the last antediluvian king Zisudra around 9900 BCE. After this
massive flood in the region of the Persian Gulf, the city of Kish emerged as the center of
power. The kings of Kish reigned over Mesopotamia from 9900 BCE to 6200 BCE. Aga, the last
King of Kish was a contemporary of Gilgamesh II, the king of Uruk.

Faithful Christian historians have irrationally attempted to identify Ziusudra, the last
antediluvian king, and Enmerker with Noah and Nimrod mentioned in Bible respectively.
Firstly, Ziusudra was alive at the time of the death of Gilgamesh as indicated in the Sumerian
text “The Death of Gilgamesh”. Secondly, Enmerkar was the grandfather of Gilgamesh
whereas Nimrod was the grandson of Noah. Thirdly, the flood that occurred during the
lifetime of Gilgamesh and Ziusudra was in fact, flooding of the Persian Gulf by sea water
whereas the Biblical flood was a river flood. Moreover, Enmerker, Gilgamesh, and Ziusudra
(10000-9900 BCE) lived thousands of years before the Biblical flood (3708 BCE). Some
historians have wrongly identified Utnapishtim, a senior contemporary of Gilgamesh and an
ancestor of Enkidu with Ziusudra. Utnapishtim was tasked by the God Enki to build a giant
boat in anticipation of a great flood whereas Ziusudra was the last antediluvian king who
survived the flood and moved to Mount Dilmun (hills in Kerman/Shiraz Province of Iran).

The Assyrians and the Akkadians originated from the people of Sumer. The Assyrians
considered Assur or Ansar as a supreme god though they worshipped all Mesopotamian gods.
The chronology of Sumeria/Babylon from 10000 BCE to the Achaemenid Empire has already
been discussed in Chapter 5.

The Elamites

As already discussed above, the Asuras and the Devas were in a major conflict during the
Rigvedic era and the Asuras migrated and settled in Northern Iran. A group of Asuras migrated
further to the Zagros mountains and settled there. Humbaba or Humban, the head of the
Asuras was guarding the Cedar Forest in the Zagros mountains. Once Gilgamesh and his friend
Enkidu ventured into the Cedar Forest and fought against Humbaba and killed him. The
Sumerians referred to Humbaba as a monster because he was an Asura. Since Humbaba or
Humban was a contemporary of Gilgamesh, he can be dated around 10000-9900 BCE. The

20
descendants of Humbaba or Humban founded a civilization and came to be known as Elamites
and Humban became their God.

The Hittites

Dionysus II invaded and conquered Anatolia, Persia, and India around ~7400 BCE and founded
the city of Nysa (Jalalabad) near Kabul. At that time, Yavanas and Nishadas were the residents
of the city of Nysa. According to ancient Greek legends, Meru or Sumeru has been a mountain
in India, and Dionysos I (~11000 BCE) was born and brought up at Meru. A nymph named
“Nysa” or Nishada was his nursemaid. The Nishadas of Afghanistan, the progeny of Nishada
became close associates of the Greeks when Dionysus II (~7400 BCE) came to the Meru region
and founded the city of Nysa. The Yavanas of India were also the original residents of Nysa. It
appears that the Nishadas and the Yavanas migrated and settled in western Anatolia and
came to be known as Hittites. The Hittites called themselves “Nesi” and their language “Nesili
or Nesumnili”.

The Hittites were the inhabitants of “the land of Hatti” and neighbours to the Assyrian Empire.
North-central Anatolia was called “the land of Hatti” in ancient times but the chronological
history of early Hittites from 7000 BCE to 3000 BCE is not known and needs further research.
The Hittites were ruling in Hatti or Hattusa in the 3 rd Millennium BCE. A tablet written in the
cuneiform script gives the details of a treaty between the Hittite King Hattusilis and the
Egyptian King Ramesses II (2405-2339 BCE). This tablet records that Hattusilis was the son of
Mursulis and the grandson of Suppililiumas whereas User-maat-Re (Ramesses II) was the son
of Men-maat-Re and the grandson of Men-pehti-Re. The Hittite King Mursulis I invaded and
sacked Babylon in 2420-2418 BCE. I have already discussed this date of the fall of Babylon
based on the Venus Tablet of King Ammisaduqa in Chapter 6. The chronology of later Hittites
is as follows:

In CE
1. Labarna I 2500-2475 BCE
2. Hattusulis I 2475-2450 BCE
3. Suppililiumas I (father of Mursulis I) 2450-2433 BCE
4. Mursulis I 2433-2413 BCE
5. Hattusulis II 2413-2380 BCE
6. Zidanta I
7. Ammuna 2360-2005 BCE
8. Huzziya I
9. Telipinus
10. Alluwamna
11. Hantili I
12. Tahurwali
13. Zidanta II
14. Huzziya II

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 15. Muwatalli I
16. Tudhaliya I
17. Arnuwanda I
18. Hattusulis III
19. Tudhaliya II
20. Tudhaliya III
21. Suppililiumas II (contemporary of 2005-1983 BCE
Egyptian King Akhenaten [2034-1980 BCE)
22. Arnuwanda II
23. Mursulis II 1982-1800 BCE
24. Muwatalli II
25. Mursulis III
26. Hattusulis IV
27. Tudhaliya IV
28. Kurunta
29. Arnuwanda III
30. Suppililiumas III

The Hurrians or Mitannis

The 300-year Greek occupation of Afghanistan, India around ~7400-7100 BCE has also
witnessed the migration of the Shuras from Afghanistan to Anatolia. The Shuras were the
original inhabitants of the Ghor region which is located in the western Hindu Kush in central
Afghanistan. The word “Ghor” is derived from the Sanskrit word Shura (Shura-Zhora-Ghora-
Ghor). The Shuras had a surname of “Suri”. The migrated Shuras in Anatolia came to be known
as “Hurrians” (Shura – Hura -Hurrian). According to the Sumerian literature, Lugalbanda falls
ill during the military expedition against the Aratta (the kingdom close to Kabul) and is left in
a cave on “Mount Hurum”. Undoubtedly, the hills in the Ghor region were referred to as
Mount Hurum in Sumerian literature. The people who migrated from Mount Hurum to
Anatolia came to be known as Hurrians.

Though the people of the city of Nysa, i.e., the Nishadas and the Yavanas, and the people of
Mount Hurum, i.e., the Shuras became the allies of the Greeks, they belonged to the tradition
of Devas and not Asuras. This was the reason why the Hittites and the Hurrians (Mitannis)
invoked Vedic gods like Indra, Mithra, Varuna, Naasatya, etc., in the treaty signed between
Suppiluliuma (the king of Hittites) and Shattiwaza (the King of Mitannis). Some historians have
incorrectly argued that the Hittites and the Hurrians borrowed the goddess Ishtar from
Babylon. In reality, the people of Sumer, the Hittites, and the Hurrians originally belonged to
the kingdom of Aratta and the Sumeru Mountain region, and the goddess Ishtar was also from
the city of Aratta. This was the reason why the Sumerians, Assyrians, Hittites, and Hurrians
worshipped the goddess Ishtar.

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The chronological history of early Hurrians from 7000 BCE to 3000 BCE is not known and needs
further research. The famous treaty between the Mitanni King Artatama II and the Hittite King
Suppililiumas II (2005-1983 BCE) must be the sheet anchor of the chronology of the later
Hurrians or Mitanni kings.

In CE
1. Kirta
2. Shuttarna I
3. Parshatatar 2200-2000 BCE
4. Shaushtatar
5. Artatama I
6. Shuttarna II (Daughter marries
Egyptian King Amenhotep III)
7. Artashumara
8. Tushratta
9. Artatama II (contemporary of 2000-1985 BCE
Ashur Ubbalit I)
10. Shuttama III 1985-1900 BCE
11. Shattiwaza
12. Shattuara I
13. Wasashatta
14. Shattuara II

Interestingly, the treaty between the Hittites and the Mitannis signed around 1990 BCE
invokes the Vedic deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins). The Hittites and the
Hurrians originally belonged to the city of Nysa founded by Dionysus II and Mount Hurum
(Shura) of Afghanistan respectively and both communities belonged to the Vedic Deva
tradition and not the Asura tradition. This was the reason why they invoked Vedic gods in
their treaty.

The Kikkuli text of Horse training written around 2000 BCE refers to the Sanskrit names of
numerals. The Hittites, Hurrians, and Cimmerians who migrated out of India around 7000 BCE,
spoke Prakrit, a corrupted dialect of Sanskrit and they were the real founders of the Indo-
European family of languages in the West.

The Aratta-Saka-Bahlika Kingdom of India, i.e., the so-called Indus Valley Civilisation

Sumerian texts refer to three major sea trade centers of copper, namely, Dilmun, Meluha,
and Makkan. Many historians have mistakenly identified Bahrain as Dilmun and the Indus
region of India as Meluha without any evidence. Dilmun region was close to the Persian Gulf
and had hills having copper ore. Bahrain region is close to the Persian Gulf but it has neither
hills nor copper ore. Ziusudra, the last antediluvian Sumerian king moved to the hills of Dilmun

23
when the Persian Gulf was flooded by seawater. Therefore, the Kerman province of Iran close
to Bandar Abbas must be identified as Dilmun.

Ancient Sumerian sources indicate that Meluha was located towards the East and it was the
land of the Black Mountains. The texts related to Assyrian king Ashurbanipal indicate that
Meluha was located close to Africa and Egypt. Later Assyrian and Hellenistic sources indicate
that Meluha and Makkan were the kingdoms adjacent to Egypt. According to an inscription,
King Sargon of Akkad referred to ships coming from Meluha, Makkan, and Dilmun. Gudea of
Lagash referred to Meluhans who came to Sumer to sell gold dust, Carnelian, etc. The
inscription of Gudea cylinder A (IX:19) mentions that “Makkan and Meluha will come down
from their mountains to attend.” The inscription of Gudea cylinder B (XIV) mentions that
Gudea procured blocks of Lapis Lazuli and bright carnelian from Meluha. Enki and Ninhursag’s
legend mentions, “May the foreign land of Meluhha load precious desirable cornelian,
perfect mes wood and beautiful aba wood into large ships for you". Rimush, the second king
of the Akkadian Empire fought against the Meluhans in the area of Elam. A tablet from the
period of Shulgi mentions a colony of Meluhans in Sumer.

Arguably, the Al-Hajar mountain range of Oman and the Jabal Haraz mountain range of Yemen
was in the east of Sumeria and indeed the land of the Black Mountains having copper ore.
Therefore, Meluha, the land of the Black Mountains, and adjacent to Egypt, can only be
identified with Oman and Yemen and not the Indus region. Socotra island of Yemen is a very
special place of biodiversity. A survey conducted by Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh
indicates that 307 out of 825 plant species on Socotra are endemic, i.e., they are found
nowhere else on Earth. Therefore, the source for perfect mes wood and beautiful aba wood
was only one place, i.e., Socotra, Yemen. Moreover, the Meluhans of the mountain region of
Oman and Yemen used to import Lapis Lazuli, Carnelian, etc. from Afghanistan and traded
with the Sumeria. Thus, the region of Oman and Yemen must be identified as Meluha and not
the Indus region.

Makkan was also a source of copper in ancient times. Possibly, the name of the city of Makka
(Mecca) is derived from Makkan. The Sarat-al-Hejaj range of hills was probably called Makkan.
The Makkan was also adjacent to Egypt as recorded in the Assyrian texts.

Many historians argue that the so-called Indus Valley civilization was Meluha because
Sumeria had trade relations with the Indus region. There is sufficient evidence and also Indus
seals found in archaeological sites of Sumeria indicate that the Indus region traded with
Sumeria. Persians, the immediate western neighbours of India had never referred to the
name “Meluha”. The region of Afghanistan and Baluchistan located on the west side of the
Indus region had been dominated by Takshak Nagas around 11200-10200 BCE. Thereafter,
the Arattas started dominating from 10200 BCE onwards. This is the reason why the Sumerian
legends of Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, etc., refer to India as the land of Arattas. The shepherd
people of Sumer originally belonged to the region of Sumeru, closely located with the land of
Arattas. Enmerker, the son of the sun god Utu wanted to take control over the hills of the

24
Hindu Kush and the land of Arattas for Lapis Lazuli, precious stones, gold, silver, etc. with the
help of Inanna or Ishtar, sister of the lord of Aratta. Though the military expedition of
Enmerker and Lugalbanda led to friction between Sumer and Aratta, Inanna, sister of the king
of Aratta helped Sumer to have healthy trade relations with Aratta. Eventually, Inanna or
Ishtar attained the status of a goddess in Sumer because the kings of Sumer and the kings of
Aratta had a common origin.

The Arattas were well-known as horse breeders during the Vedic and post-Vedic periods. As
already discussed, the Ashva or horse mentioned in Rigveda was a Shivalik horse having only
34 ribs. The legend of Inanna and Gilgamesh informs us that Inanna brought the Bull of
Heaven from Aratta to Sumer and unleashed the bull on Gilgamesh. The bull of heaven
depicted on Sumerian cylinder seals or tablets resembles with the unicorn depicted on the
Indus seals. This unicorn has the body of a bull and the elongated neck of a horse having one
horn. This may be the reason why the Sumerians referred to the unicorn as bull whereas the
Indians of the Vedic period referred to the unicorn as Ashva or horse.

Ancient Greeks also knew about Indian unicorns. Ctesias described Indian unicorns: "wild
asses, a fleet of foot, having on the forehead a horn a cubit and a half in length, coloured
white, red and black; from the horn were made drinking cups which were a preventive of
poisoning." Aristotle also mentioned one-horned animals: “the oryx, a kind of antelope; and
the so-called "Indian ass”. Pliny the Elder's Natural History mentions the oryx and an Indian
ox as one-horned beasts. He called the Indian ass "a very ferocious beast, similar in the rest
of its body to a horse, with the head of a deer, the feet of an elephant, the tail of a boar, a
deep, bellowing voice, and a single black horn, two cubits in length, standing out in the middle
of its forehead." Pliny added that "it cannot be taken alive." Aelian, quoting Ctesias, added
that India produces one-horned horses. Strabo said that in India there were one-horned
horses with stag-like heads.

The same unicorn of India is depicted on most of the seals found in the archaeological sites
of the so-called Indus Valley Civilization. The Arattas and the Scythians of the Afghanistan and
Baluchistan region were the founders of this powerful kingdom. Since they were the breeders
of unicorn horses before extinction around 8000 BCE, the Arattas and the Scythians (Sakas)
adopted unicorns as their power symbol. Therefore, the so-called Indius Valley Civilisation
was indeed an integral part of Indian civilization and it must be called the “Aratta-Saka-Bahlika
kingdom” of India.

The Arattas and the Scythians shared a common culture and jointly dominated the region of
Afghanistan and Baluchistan from 10200 BCE onwards. At that time, the Nagas of the Ahi
Takshak lineage were ruling over the kingdom of Takshashila kingdom. Gradually, the
Turanians of the Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan region and the Scythians of southwestern
Afghanistan developed close relations and militarily supported each other and entered
marital relations. This growing comradery between the Scythians and the Turanians created
friction between the Arattas and the Scythians. Garshasp, the Scythian-Turanian founded the

25
city of Sakasthan (Sistan), the capital of Zabolistan, and reigned over Greater Persia around
~7800-7700 BCE with the support of Turanians. The Persian sources indicate that the king of
Kabul and Gandhar (a King of Aratta) defeated Etret, the father of Garsgasp which led to a
military conflict between the Scythians and the Arattas. Garshasp killed the king of Gandhar
and Kabul. To avoid further conflicts with the kings of Gandhar, seemingly, Garshasp became
an ally of the Naga king of the Takshashila region of India. He defeated Bahu, a king of India
by the order of the king of Takshashila. Thereafter, Garshasp went off to woo the daughter of
the king of Rum, i.e., the Romaka kingdom of Sindh and Rajasthan region.

The Kayanian dynasty re-establishes their rule in Persia after the death of Garshasp around
7700 BCE. The invasion of Dionysus II on Persia around 7400 BCE led to the fall of the Kayanian
dynasty of Persia. The 300-year Greek occupation of India and Persia (~7400-7100 BCE)
witnessed the first migration of the Scythians to the east of the Black Sea, and the ancient
Greeks called them “Cimmerians”.

Before exploring the chronological outline of the Aratta-Saka-Bahlika kingdom of India, it

would be pertinent to understand the origin of the various communities of Afghanistan.
According to ancient Indian literary sources, Vedic king Druhyu’s descendant Aratta was the
progenitor of the Arattas, Druhyu’s other descendant Gandhara was the progenitor of the
Gandharas, Vedic Kuru king Pratipa’s son Bahlika was the progenitor of Bahlikas (Bactrians)
and the Scythians have been the original inhabitants of the Afghanistan-Baluchistan region
on the west of the Indus River since the Vedic period. Apart from the Scythians, other lower-
order communities like Yavanas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Tusharas, Nishadas, Shuras, etc., have
also been living in this region since the Vedic period. Since the Arattas and the Bahlikas had
been intermixed with the lower-order communities, the people of India living east of the
Indus River considered them as “Mlechchas” and generally avoided engaging them socially.

After the Greek occupation of 300 years (~7400-7100 BCE), the Arattas, Bahlikas, and Sakas
(Scythians) realized the strength of their unity and became allies. The Scythians reigned over
Zabolistan (southwestern Afghanistan and Balochistan) and Northern Iran (Persia) and the
Arattas and Bahlikas ruled over the rest of Afghanistan and Turan (Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan region). Thus, a powerful and vast kingdom of the Arattas and the Scythians came
into existence after 7000 BCE which has been erroneously named by modern historians as
“Indus Valley Civilisation”. They adopted Unicorn as their royal power symbol.

Around 6000 BCE, the Aratta-Saka-Bahlika kings started expanding their kingdom in the east
of the Indus River. At that time, the Kekayas, Madras, and Sauviras were ruling over the
Pakistan region on the east of the Indus River and the Ikshvaku kings of Ayodhya were ruling
over northern and central India. Raghu, one of the greatest kings of Ayodhya (~5800-5700
BCE) led a military expedition to teach a lesson to the Mlechcha kings (Aratta and Scythian
kings). Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsa gives a detailed account of this expedition. Indian kings
generally avoided a military conflict with the Mlechcha kings but when they started crossing
the Indus River and taking over control over the land of Kekaya and Sauvira janapadas, King

26
Raghu of Ayodhya decided to lead a military expedition to the Afghanistan region. Raghu
crossed the Indus River and defeated and subjugated the Aratta-Saka-Bahlika kingdom up to
the Vakshu (Oxus) River. Raghu also crossed the Oxus River and defeated the Kambojas.

After this comprehensive victory of King Raghu, Kekaya and Sauvira Janapadas became
permanent allies of Ayodhya. King of Kekaya married off his daughter Kaikeyi to Dasharatha,
the grandson of King Raghu. Dasharatha flourished during the Ramayana era (5677-5600 BCE)
and he was the father of Sri Rama (5674-5604 BCE). Bharata was born to Kaikeyi. Bharata had
two sons, Pushkala and Taksha who inherited the kingdom of Kekaya (central Pakistan region)
Pushkala founded the city of Pushkalavati on the banks of the Swat River and Taksha built the
city of Takshashila.

After 5000 BCE, taking advantage of the declining power of the Ikshvaku dynasty of Ayodhya,
the Aratta-Saka-Bahlika kings started expanding their kingdom up to the Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, and Saurashtra regions of India. The Aratta-Saka-Bahlika kings reigned over this
vast kingdom (from Northern Iran to the region of Saurashtra, Rajasthan, and Haryana from
5000 BCE to 3200 BCE. The archaeological sites of the so-called Indus Valley or Harappan
Civilisation found in this region belonged to the Aratta-Saka-Bahlika kingdom which was an
integral part of ancient Indian civilization.

The archaeological studies indicate that the Aratta-Saka-Bahlika kingdom of northwestern

India can be divided into three distinct phases: Early Aratta-Saka-Bahlika Kingdom [Early
Harappan] phase (5000-4000 BCE), Mature Aratta-Saka-Bahlika Kingdom [Mature Harappan]
phase (4000-32000 BCE) and Late Aratta-Saka-Bahlika Kingdom [Late Harappan] phase (3200-
2600 BCE). The Aratta-Saka-Bahlikas of northwestern India traditionally used
Gandhari/Bahlika (Bactrian) Prakrit language and a logo-syllabic script (the so-called Indus
script), constructed brick-built houses and planned cities for the first time in India under the
influence of the Sumerians whereas the rest of India traditionally used a phonetic script
(archaic Brahmi) and generally preferred to live in the wooden houses till the Mahabharata
era (3200-3100 BCE). After 3000 BCE, the rest of India also started constructing brick-built
houses under the influence of the Aratta-Saka-Bahlikas.

During the period 3300-3200 BCE, King Shantanu and his son Bhishma of the Kuru-Bharata
dynasty of India expanded their kingdom up to the Indus River and ended the Mlechcha
(Aratta-Saka-Bahlika) occupation of northwestern India. Thus, the Aratta-Saka-Bahlika
kingdom declined and the Gandharas and the Madras reestablished their kingdoms. The King
of Gandhara married off his daughter Gandhari to King Dhritarashtra and the King of Madra
married off his daughter Madri to King Pandu of the Kuru-Bharata dynasty.

According to the Indian historical epic “Mahabharata”, King Yudhishthira performed Rajasuya
Yajna around 3188 BCE. In the process of Rajasūya Yajña, Arjuna, brother of King Yudhishthira
marched north and subjugated the kings of Simhapura, Paurava, Kāshmiraka, Traigartas,
Dārva, Kokanada, Abhisāra, Uraga, Bāhlīka, Darada, Kāmboja, Paramakāmboja, Loha, Rishika,

27
Śvetaparvata, Hāṭaka kingdom close to Mānasa lake, Uttara-Harivarṣa, and Uttara-Kurus.
Nakula, another brother of King Yudhishthira marched in the western direction and
subjugated the kings of Uttara-Jyotiṣa, Vṛndātaka-Pura, Dvārapālas, Rāmaṭhas, Hunas,
Hārahūṇas, Madras, Mleccḥas, Pahlavas, and Barbaras. The Aratta king sent gifts to King
Yudhishthira on the occasion of Rajasuya and accepted his authority.
Mahābhārata indicates that Balarāma visited a big city on the banks of the Sarasvati River.
This city is not named in the Mahābhārata but it had a big marketplace of international trade
where Balarāma purchased horses, chariots, jewels, etc. Most probably, this big city was
indeed the archaeological site of Chanhudaro in Sindh, Pakistan because Mahābhārata
mentions that Sarasvati turned east at one location after the visit of Balarāma to the unnamed
city. The satellite map of the Post-Vedic Sarasvati River shows that Sarasvati turned east after
the city of Chanhudaro. The archaeological study reveals that the city of Chanhudaro perished
around 3000-2500 BCE because the Sarasvati had completely dried up by 2500 BCE.

As indicated in the Mahabharata, the entire northwestern India came under the control of
the Pandavas of the Kuru-Bharata dynasty in the 32nd century BCE. The use of phonetic scripts
like Kharoshthi and Brahmi became popular after the decline of the Aratta-Saka-Bahlika
kingdom and the logo syllabic script (the so-called Indus script) became extinct. The second
Greek invasion of Afghanistan, India by Heracles in the 19th century BCE led to the
introduction of the Greek Script and the eventual evolution of the Bactrian script from the
Greek script in which the Rabatak inscription of Kushana King Kanishka has been written.

The royal families of Arattas left Afghanistan and settled in the south of the Vindhyas after
the second Greek invasion of India in the 19th century and came to be known as Rattas,
Rathikas, Rashtrakutas, etc. The Ashokan inscriptions refer to the Rattas. According to
Yadavaprakasha, Aratta Desha was situated to the south of the Vindhyas.

Out-of-India Migrations of the Scythians (~4000 BCE)

The period of the Aratta-Saka-Bahlika kingdom of northwestern India (~4000 BCE) witnessed
numerous out-of-India migrations. The Scythian traders of India were the first who migrated
to the Black Sea region and the Eurasian steppe became their domain. Herodotus gave a
detailed account of the Scythians and he had gathered during his trip to the Black Sea region,
which took him as far east as the city of Olbia and the Dneiper River (called the Borysthenes
by the Greeks). Herodotus described the Scythians in his book “Histories”:

“The one thing of which I speak is the contrivance whereby they make it impossible for the
enemy who invades them to escape destruction, while they are entirely out of his reach unless
it pleases them to engage with him. Having neither cities nor forts, and carrying their
dwellings with them wherever they go: accustomed, moreover, one and all of them, to shoot
from horseback: and living not by husbandry but on their cattle, their wagons the only houses
that they possess, how can they fail of being unconquerable, and unassailable even?” Book
IV, chapter 46

28
“In their dress and mode of living the Massagetae resemble the Scythians. They fight both on
horseback and on foot, neither method is strange to them: they use bows and lances, but
their favourite weapon is the battle-axe. Their arms are all either gold or bronze. For their
spearpoints, and arrowheads, and their battle-axes, they make use of bronze; for headgear,
belts, and girdles, of gold. So too with the caparison of their horses, they give them
breastplates of bronze but employ gold about the reins, the bit, and the cheek-plates. They
use neither iron nor silver, having none in their country; but they have bronze and gold in
abundance.” Book I, chapter 215

Herodotus described the burial customs of the Royal Scythians: “The tombs of their kings are
in the land of the Gerrhi, who dwell at the point where the Borysthenes is first navigable.
Here, when the king dies, they dig a grave, which is square in shape, and of great size. When
it is ready, they take the king’s corpse, and having opened the belly, and cleaned out the
inside, fill the cavity with a preparation of chopped cypress, frankincense, parsley-seed, and
anise-seed, after which they sew up the opening, enclose the body in wax, and placing it on a
wagon, carry it about through all the different tribes … the body of the dead king is laid in a
grave prepared for it, stretched upon a mattress; spears are fixed in the ground on either side
of the corpse, and beams stretched across above it to form a roof, which is covered with a
thatching of twigs. In the open space around the body of the king they bury one of his concu-
bines, first killing her by strangling, and also his cup-bearer, his cook, his groom, his lackey,
his messenger, some of his horses, firstlings of all his other possessions, and some golden
cups; for they use neither silver nor bronze. After this they set to work, and raise a vast mound
above the grave, all of them vying with each other and seeking to make it as tall as possible.”
Book IV, chapter 71

“To wash, they make a booth by fixing in the ground three sticks inclined towards one
another and stretching around them woolen felts, which they arrange so as to fit as close as
possible: inside the booth, a dish is placed upon the ground, into which they put a number of
red-hot stones and then add some hemp-seed … immediately it smokes, and gives out such a
vapor as no Grecian vapor-bath can exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy.” Book IV,
chapters 73 and 75

“People who dwell at the foot of lofty mountains, who are said to be all—both men and
women—bald from their birth, to have flat noses and very long chins…. Each of them dwells
under a tree, and they cover the tree in winter with a cloth of thick white felt. They are called
Agrippaeans.” Book IV, chapter 23

Herodotus reports in detail about the origin of the Scythians: “According to the account which
the Scythians themselves give; they are the youngest of all nations. Their tradition is as
follows. A certain Targitaus was the first man who ever lived in their country, which before
his time was a desert without inhabitants. He was a child- I do not believe the tale, but it is
told nevertheless- of Jove and a daughter of the Borysthenes. Targitaus, thus descended,
begat three sons, Leipoxais, Arpoxais, and Colaxais, who was the youngest born of the three.

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While they still ruled the land, there fell from the sky four implements, all of gold- a plough,
a yoke, a battle-axe, and a drinking cup. The eldest of the brothers perceived them first, and
approached to pick them up; when lo! as he came near, the gold took fire and blazed. He,
therefore, went his way, and the second coming forward made the attempt, but the same
thing happened again. The gold rejected both the eldest and the second brother. Last of all
the youngest brother approached, and immediately the flames were extinguished; so, he
picked up the gold and carried it to his home. Then the two elders agreed together and made
the whole kingdom over to the youngest born. From Leipoxais sprang the Scythians of the
race called Auchatae; from Arpoxais, the middle brother, those known as the Catiari and
Traspians; from Colaxais, the youngest, the Royal Scythians, or Paralatae. All together they
are named Scoloti, after one of their kings: the Greeks, however, call them Scythians…. Such
is the account which the Scythians give of their origin. They add that from the time of
Targitaus, their first king, to the invasion of their country by Darius, is a period of one
thousand years, neither less nor more.”

“The Greeks who dwell about the Pontus tell a different story. According to Hercules, when
he was carrying off the cows of Geryon, arrived in the region which is now inhabited by the
Scyths, but which was then a desert. Geryon lived outside the Pontus, on an island called by
the Greeks Erytheia, near Gades, which is beyond the Pillars of Hercules upon the Ocean. Now
some say that the Ocean begins in the east, and runs the whole way round the world, but
they give no proof that this is really so. Hercules came from thence into the region now called
Scythia, and, being overtaken by storm and frost, drew his lion's skin about him, and fell fast
asleep. While he slept, his mares, which he had loosed from his chariot to graze, by some
wonderful chance disappeared. On waking, he went in quest of them, and, after wandering
over the whole country, came at last to the district called "the Woodland," where he found
in a cave a strange being, between a maiden and a serpent, whose form from the waist
upwards was like that of a woman, while all below was like a snake. He looked at her
wonderingly; but nevertheless inquired, whether she had chanced to see his strayed mares
anywhere. She answered him, "Yes, and they were now in her keeping; but never would she
consent to give them back, unless he took her for his mistress." So Hercules, to get his mares
back, agreed; but afterward, she put him off and delayed restoring the mares, since she
wished to keep him with her as long as possible. He, on the other hand, was only anxious to
secure them and to get away. At last, when she gave them up, she said to him, "When thy
mares strayed hither, it was I who saved them for thee: now thou hast paid their salvage; for
lo! I bear in my womb three sons of thine. Tell me therefore when thy sons grow up, what
must I do with them? Wouldst thou wish that I should settle them here in this land, whereof
I am mistress, or shall I send them to thee?" Thus questioned, they say, Hercules answered,
"When the lads have grown to manhood, do thus, and assuredly thou wilt not err. Watch
them, and when thou seest one of them bend this bow as I now bend it, and gird himself with
this girdle thus, choose him to remain in the land. Those who fail in the trial, send away. Thus,
wilt thou at once please thyself and obey me. Hereupon he strung one of his bows- up to that
time he had carried two- and showed her how to fasten the belt. Then he gave both bow and

30
belt into her hands. Now the belt had a golden goblet attached to its clasp. So after he had
given them to her, he went his way; and the woman, when her children grew to manhood,
first gave them severally their names. One she called Agathyrsus, one Gelonus, and the other,
who was the youngest, Scythes. Then she remembered the instructions she had received from
Hercules, and, in obedience to his orders, she put her sons to the test. Two of them,
Agathyrsus and Gelonus, proving unequal to the task enjoined, their mother sent them out of
the land; Scythes, the youngest, succeeded, and so he was allowed to remain. From Scythes,
the son of Hercules were descended the after kings of Scythia; and from the circumstance of
the goblet which hung from the belt, the Scythians to this day wear goblets at their girdles.
This was the only thing that the mother of Scythes did for him. Such is the tale told by the
Greeks who dwell around the Pontus.”

“There is also another different story, now to be related, in which I am more inclined to put
faith than in any other. It is that the wandering Scythians once dwelt in Asia, and there warred
with the Massagetae, but with ill success; they, therefore, quitted their homes, crossed the
Araxes, and entered the land of Cimmeria. For the land which is now inhabited by the Scyths
was formerly the country of the Cimmerians. On their coming, the natives, who heard how
numerous the invading army was, held a council. At this meeting, opinion was divided, and
both parties stiffly maintained their own view; but the counsel of the Royal tribe was the
braver. For the others urged that the best thing to be done was to leave the country and avoid
a contest with so vast a host; but the Royal tribe advised remaining and fighting for the soil
to the last.”

“Above the mart of the Borysthenites, which is situated in the very center of the whole sea-
coast of Scythia, the first people who inhabit the land are the Callipedae, a Greco-Scythic race.
Next to them, as you go inland, dwell the people called the Alazonians. These two nations in
other respects resemble the Scythians in their usages, but sow and eat corn, also onions,
garlic, lentils, and millet. Beyond the Alazonians reside Scythian cultivators, who grow corn,
not for their own use, but for sale. Still higher up are the Neuri. Northwards of the Neuri the
continent, as far as it is known to us, is uninhabited. These are the nations along the course
of the river Hypanis, west of the Borysthenes. Across the Borysthenes, the first country after
you leave the coast is Hylaea (the Woodland). Above this dwell the Scythian Husbandmen,
whom the Greeks living near the Hypanis call Borysthenites, while they call themselves
Olbiopolites. These Husbandmen extend eastward a distance of three days' journey to a river
bearing the name of Panticapes, while northward the country is theirs for eleven days' sail up
the course of the Borysthenes. Further inland there is a vast tract that is uninhabited. Above
this desolate region dwell the Cannibals, who are a people apart, much unlike the Scythians.
Above them the country becomes an utter desert; not a single tribe, so far as we know,
inhabits it.”

“Crossing the Panticapes, and proceeding eastward of the Husbandmen, we come upon the
wandering Scythians, who neither plough nor sow. Their country, and the whole of this region,

31
except Hylaea, is quite bare of trees. They extend towards the east a distance of fourteen'
days' journey, occupying a tract that reaches to the river Gerrhus. On the opposite side of the
Gerrhus is the Royal district, as it is called: here dwells the largest and bravest of the Scythian
tribes, which looks upon all the other tribes in the light of slaves. Its country reaches on the
south to Taurica, on the east to the trench dug by the sons of the blind slaves, the mart upon
the Palus Maeotis, called Cremni (the Cliffs), and in part to the river Tanais. North of the
country of the Royal Scythians is the Melanchaeni (Black-Robes), a people of quite a different
race from the Scythians. Beyond them lie marshes and a region without inhabitants, so far as
our knowledge reaches. When one crosses the Tanais, one is no longer in Scythia; the first
region on the crossing is that of the Sauromatae, who, beginning at the upper end of the Palus
Maeotis, stretch northward a distance of fifteen days' journey, inhabiting a country which is
entirely bare of trees, whether wild or cultivated. Above them, possessing the second region,
dwell the Budini, whose territory is thickly wooded with trees of every kind. Beyond the
Budini, as one goes northward, first there is a desert, seven days' journey across; after which,
if one inclines somewhat to the east, the Thyssagetae are reached, a numerous nation quite
distinct from any other, and living by the chase. Adjoining them, and within the limits of the
same region, are the people who bear the name of Iyrcae; they also support themselves by
hunting, which they practice in the following manner. The hunter climbs a tree, the whole
country abounding in wood, and there sets himself in ambush; he has a dog at hand, and a
horse, trained to lie down upon its belly, and thus make itself low; the hunter keeps watch,
and when he sees his game, let fly an arrow; then mounting his horse, he gives the beast
chase, his dog following hard all the while. Beyond these people, a little to the east dwells a
distinct tribe of Scyths, who revolted once from the Royal Scythians and migrated into these
parts...As far as their country, the tract of land whereof I have been speaking is all a smooth
plain, and the soil deep; beyond you enter a region that is rugged and stony.” Book IV

The detailed account of the Scythians given by Herodotus as quoted above is a treasure for
historians. Herodotus clearly states that “In their dress and mode of living the Massagetae
resemble the Scythians.” He apparently places the Massagetae (Book I, chapter 204) on a
“vast plain” to the east of the Caspian Sea. Herodotus also says that “The wandering
Scythians once dwelt in Asia, and there warred with the Massagetae.” Moreover, the word
“Scythian” is derived from the “Sakasthan” a capital city of the Sakas founded by Garshasp in
southwestern Afghanistan. Therefore, Herodotus unambiguously indicates that the Scythians
originally dwelt in Asia, i.e., the Afghanistan region of India, and an army of one royal family
of the Scythians warred with the Massagetae, i.e., Bahlikas and Kambojas and migrated to the
Black Sea region around 4000 BCE. The Cimmerians of the Black Sea region, who migrated
from the Sumeru region of India around 7000 BCE, surrendered to this army of the Scythians.

The out-of-India migration of the Scythians in large numbers around 4000 BCE led to a genetic
admixture which is often named “steppe ancestry” and the foundation of the so-called
Yamnaya culture and subsequent cultures. The Scythian kingdom at Thrace, Bulgaria was well

32
established during the time of Egyptian King Sesostris (3706-3658 BCE). Herodotus says that
Sesostris traversed the continent until at last he passed over to Europe from Asia and subdued
the Scythians and also the Thracians. The Scythians were well-known as great warriors and
invincible in the war but Egyptian King Sesotris was the first who defeated them around ~3690
BCE.

Graeco-Roman authors named a Scythian king as Idanthyrsos or Tanausis. Arrian mentions in

his book “Anabasis of Alexander” that “This Megasthenes says, moreover, that the Indians
waged war on no men, nor other men on the Indians, but on the other hand that Sesostris
the Egyptian, after subduing the most of Asia, and after invading Europe with an army, yet
returned; and Indathyrsos the Scythian who started from Scythia subdued many tribes of
Asia, and invaded Egypt victoriously, but Semiramis the Assyrian queen tried to invade India,
but died before she could carry out her purposes.” The Scythian King Indathyrsos I mentioned
by Arrian was seemingly a junior contemporary of the Egyptian King Sesostris. The Scythians
of the Black Sea region had regrouped under the leadership of Indathyrsos I and invaded Egypt
to take revenge. After the defeat, the Egyptian king gave his daughter Scota to a Scythian
prince. The progeny of Scota came to be known as Scots who settled in Scotland. Since the
Scots were the descendants of a Scythian prince, they adopted the Unicorn horse as their
royal power symbol, and even today, they consider the unicorn as the national animal of
Scotland.

Interestingly, Al Beruni also records that Aphrodisos, an Indian King ruled over Egypt about
900 years after the deluge (3708 BCE), i.e., 2808 BCE. He indicates that the Indian King was
the first who introduced the chariots drawn by two horses. The Greek and Persian historians
unambiguously record that a King of Sakas (Scythians) of India invaded Egypt victoriously and
established their rule around 2808 BCE about 900 years after the deluge (3708 BCE). Indians
were the first who used the war chariots drawn by two horses during the Mahabharata war
(3162 BCE) and the Scythians participated in the war. Thus, Aphrodisos, an Indian King used
war chariots and conquered Egypt around 2808 BCE and his dynasty known as “Hyksos”
reigned for more than 500 years.

Graeco-Roman authors refer to several early Scythian kings such as Išpakaia, Bartatua,
and Madyes. Scythian King Madyes led the Scythians into defeating the Medes. Thereafter,
Idanthyrsos II fought against the army of the Achaemenid Empire when Darius II invaded
Scythia in 1174 BCE. Herodotus writes: “After the taking of Babylon, an expedition was led by
Darius into Scythia. Asia abounding in men, and vast sums flowing into the treasury, the desire
seized him to exact vengeance from the Scyths, who had once in days gone by invaded Media,
defeated those who met them in the field, and so begun the quarrel. During the space of
eight-and-twenty years, as I have before mentioned, the Scyths continued lords of the whole
of Upper Asia. They entered Asia in pursuit of the Cimmerians and overthrew the empire of
the Medes, who till they came possessed the sovereignty. On their return to their homes after
the long absence of twenty-eight years, a task awaited them little less troublesome than their

33
struggle with the Medes. They found an army of no small size prepared to oppose their
entrance. For the Scythian women, when they saw that time went on, and their husbands did
not come back, had intermarried with their slaves.”

Though Darius II could not succeed in his mission, the Scythians have been gradually evolved
into different ethnic groups. Many have been described as descendants of the Scythians.
These include the Ostrogoths, Avars, Franks, Khazars, Rus, Hungarians, Poles, Gaels, Picts,
Scots, Irish, etc.

The Romas (Gypsies)

Romas or Romakas originated in the Sindh-Punjab region of northern India and migrated out
of India around 4000-3500 BCE. They settled first at Antakya, Syria, and spread to Iraq, Jordan,
Lebanon, and Palestine and came to be known as Dom people. Gradually, they migrated out
of Palestine to Europe. Since the region of Palestine was under the control of Egyptian Kings
at that time, the Europeans called them “Gypsies” (the people came from Egypt).

The Mahabharata text of India refers to Romas and the city of Antaarkhy (Antakya) which
indicates that the Romas had migrated out of India before the Mahabharata era (the 32 nd
century BCE).

The Tokharians

Tusharas or Tokharians were the original inhabitants of Bahlika or Bactria. Tushara means
snow in Sanskrit. Since these people lived in the snowy mountains of Bactria and Uttarakuru
of India, they came to be known as Tusharas. They migrated out of India around 4000-3500
BCE and settled in the region of Xinjiang, Mongolia, and South Siberia. They spoke the Bactrian
Prakrit language and used the Bahlika script (the so-called Indus Script). The Tokharins also
settled and mixed with the Chinese population. In all probability, the Chinese script evolved
out of the Bahlika script (Indus Script). Recent research indicates that 35000 words of the
Chinese language are derived from Sanskrit.

How Out-of-India Migrations Transmitted Indian Knowledge to the Western Civilizations

Apart from the language, culture, and trade relations of Indian civilization with the Western
civilizations, the Out-of-India migrations from the 7th Millennium BCE to the 4th Millenium BCE
have transmitted Indian knowledge to the West. In fact, India taught basic sciences like
Mathematics and Astronomy to the world. In the 7th Millenium BCE, Mayasura wrote Surya
Siddhanta on 22nd Feb 6778 BCE when all planets, Sun and Moon were in conjunction in Aries.
He introduced many advanced astronomical concepts like the Jovian cycle of 12 years and a
cycle of 60 years, the seven-day week, the epicycle theory, and mean positions of the planets,
etc. Maya’s Surya Siddhanta not only influenced the traditional Paitamaha Siddhanta in India
but also became popular in the West. Following the concepts of Surya Siddhanta, the Yavanas
(Greeks) evolved their own Siddhanta which came to be known as “Yavana Siddhanta”. The
Yavanas also claimed the origin of their Siddhanta from Maya’s Surya Siddhanta. Yavana king

34
Minaraja’s Vriddha Yavana Jatakam mentions that the Yavana Siddhanta evolved from
Mayasura’s Surya Siddhanta. The famous text “Yavana Jatakam” written by Sphujidhvaja
indicates its Indian origins. European historians have concocted that Yavana Jatakam is a
Sanskrit translation of a lost Greek text.

The Yavanas and the Persian Zoroastrians used to follow the Thema Mundi for astrological
calculations. This is the reason why Thema Mundi, the earliest horoscope of ancient Greeks
has Cancer in the ascendant. The vernal equinox was at Cancer in the 7 th millennium BCE.

The ancient Yavana Siddhanta or the Ionian astronomy (Hellenistic astronomy) was certainly
influenced by Maya’s Surya Siddhanta. Later, the Ionians learned the 19-year lunisolar cycle
from the Romaka Siddhanta of India which was transmitted by the Romas. It appears that the
Turanian and the Scythian astronomers also started following the basics of Surya Siddhanta.
They believe that the beginning of the year was fixed and that took place on the day of
Hurmuz of Farwardin whilst the Sun stood at the point of the vernal equinox in the middle of
Heaven. This occurred at the beginning of the 7th millennium BCE. The Turanian/Persian
astrologers also believe that Cancer is the horoscope of the world. Thus, the epoch of Maya’s
Surya Siddhanta (6778 BCE) became an astrological epoch of the creation of the world.

Before the 7th millennium BCE, Anatolia and Greece followed the reckoning of years from the
autumnal equinox whereas the Persian Zoroastrians followed the reckoning of years from the
vernal equinox. Under the influence of Surya Siddhanta, a new calendar came into practice in
the West that commenced from the winter solstice. Maya had introduced the Surya Siddhanta
calendar from the epoch of 22nd Feb 6778 BCE, Sunday when Sun was at the winter solstice
and all planets were in conjunction in Aries. The followers of the winter solstice calendar
started worshipping Sun (Mithra) as the supreme god. Thus, Mithraism gradually emerged as
the popular religion in Anatolia and Eastern Europe, and the first day of the week, i.e., Sunday
became the sacred day of worship. Later, the Christians inherited the traditions of Mithraism.

Seemingly, the ancient Turks (Turanians) of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan had followed the
Jovian cycle of 12 years under the influence of Maya’s Surya Siddhanta (6778 BCE). Abul Fazal
refers to the Turkish era also known as the Uighuri era that commenced in the unknown past.
The Turkish people started using the cycle of 12 years from the unknown epoch of the Turkish
era. Ulugh Beg also referred to the same era but the epoch was not known to him. The Turkish
astronomers had forgotten the epoch of the Turkish era but continued to follow the cycle of

35
12 years. Seemingly, the Turks were the first who introduced the cycle of the twelve animals
and the Chinese borrowed it from them. Though the epoch of the Turkish era is not known
Abu Rayhan says that the Turks add nine to the incomplete Syro-Macedonian years to their
era and divide it by 12: and in whatever animal the remainder terminates, counting from the
Sign of the Mouse, the year is named therefrom. Abul Fazal also says that if 7 years are added
to the imperfect years of the Maliki era, divided by 12, whatever remains is the year of the
animal reckoning from Mouse.

Colonel HS Jarrett who translated “Ain-i-Akbari” of Abul Fazal into English in 1891 mentions
that according to the Jesuits, the cycle of 12 years began in February 2397 BCE. But Abul Fazal
indicates that the epoch of the Turkish era might have commenced before the epoch of
Adam’s era (6168 BCE). In all probability, the Turkish cycle of 12 years commenced in 6777
BCE. If we add 9 years to the epoch of the Syro-Macedonian era (972 BCE), the first year of
the 12-year cycle was 981 BCE. Similarly, if we add 7 years to the epoch of the Maliki era (416
CE), the first year of the 12-year cycle was 423 CE. Thus, we can conclusively establish that
the epoch of the Turkish cycle of twelve animals commenced in 6777 BCE and the ancient
Turks borrowed the cycle of 12 years from Maya’s Surya Siddhanta.

Interestingly, Abul Fazal refers to the epoch of an astrological era of Creation that reckoned
when all planets were in Aries. This astrological era was undoubtedly the epoch of Maya’s
Surya Siddhanta, i.e., 22nd Feb 6778 BCE. Abul Fazal also says that according to the calculation
of astrologers, a total of 184696 years have elapsed from that time to the present (933 BCE).
It may be noted that Abul Fazal refers to the astronomical epoch of the Deluge (3763-3762
BCE) as calculated by Abu Ma’shar and says that a total of 4696 years have elapsed from then.

Seemingly, the ancient Turkish astronomers might have counted roughly 3000 years from the
epoch of the planetary conjunction in Aries to the epoch of Deluge. It appears that the ancient
Turkish astronomers had multiplied 3000 years by 60 and assumed that 180000 astronomical
years have been elapsed by the time of Deluge (~3778 BCE). Since there was a divergence of
opinion about the traditional date of Deluge, Abu Ma’shar calculated his date of Deluge based
on the traditional astronomical inputs. If we add 3000 years (instead of 180000 astronomical
years) to the epoch of the Deluge, the epoch of the planetary conjunction in Aries can be
conclusively fixed around 6778 BCE. Ancient Turkish astronomy was certainly influenced by
Maya’s Surya Siddhanta. According to Varahamihira’s Panchasiddhantika, a Yuga of Surya
Siddhanta consisted of 180000 years.

The Alexandrian Astronomy

It appears that some of the Egyptian astronomers knew the Indian cycle of 95 years. The cycle
of 95 years was invented by ancient Indians at the time of Shatapatha Brahmana (~8800 BCE).
Romaka Siddhanta of India also propounded the cycle of 95 years and the cycle of 2850 years
(95x30). Before 940 BCE, the traditional Egyptian astronomers opposed the intercalary
scheme in the calendar. This was the reason why the Egyptian kings had to take an oath that
they will never allow intercalary days or months in the calendar.

36
The Christian Alexandrian astronomers like Theophilus and Cyrill followed this cycle for the
calculation of Easter dates. The Christian monk Dionysus Exiguous used this cycle to calculate
Easter dates in 171 CE. It appears that ancient Yavana astronomers of Bactria and Gandhara
further divided the 95-year cycle into 5 smaller cycles of 19 years. Interestingly, Burmese
Buddhists also used this 19-year cycle in the first millennium BCE. The Yavanas of Bactria
transmitted the knowledge of the 19-year cycle to Greece. Thus, Meton of Athens used a
calendar of 19-year cycles in 1092 BCE for the first time in Greece. Interestingly, the Callippic
cycle of 76 years contains four Metonic cycles whereas the Paschal cycle of 532 years contains
28 Metonic cycles. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Vedic cycle of 95 years was the
origin of all Western cycles.

The Babylonian Astronomy

The similarities between Indian astronomy and Babylonian astronomy are well-known to the
world. Western scholars have speculated about the Babylonian influence on Indian
astronomy because they are ignorant of the true chronology of India and Babylonia. In exact
terms, we must refer to Babylonian astronomy as Chaldean Astronomy because the
Chaldeans were the founders of Babylonian astronomy. Berosus (1000-925 BCE) mentions
that the Chaldeans were the founders of Babylonian civilization.

The Greek geographer Strabo of Amasia (742 BCE- 635 BCE) calls Babylonian astronomers
Chaldeans. He says, “In Babylon, a settlement is set apart for local philosophers, the
Chaldeans, as they are called, who are concerned mostly with astronomy; but some of these,
who are not approved of by the others, profess to be writers of horoscopes. There is also a
tribe of the Chaldeans, and a territory inhabited by them, in the neighborhood of the Arabs
and of the Persian Gulf, as it is called. There are also several tribes of the Chaldean
astronomers. For example, some are called Orcheni (from Uruk), others Borsippeni (from
Borsippa) and several others by different names, as though divided into different sects, who
hold to various dogmas about the same subjects. And the mathematicians make mention of
some of these men; as, for example, Cidenas (Kidinnu), Naburianus, and Sudines.”

Ancient Babylonian astronomy also used 30 divisions of the lunar month; 360 divisions of the
civil year; 360 divisions of the circle; the length of the year and the solar zodiac like ancient
Indian astronomy. Babylonian planetary tables also have close similarities with the Siddhantas
of Indian astronomy. Dr. Kak has already logically established that the key ideas of Babylonian
astronomy are already present in Vedic texts. The migrated Romas from India to Iraq and Syria
introduced advanced astronomy to the Babylonians.

Let us focus on the inputs from archaeo-astronomy and the Astro-historiography of

Babylonia. The earliest clay tablets of Babylonia having verifiable dates are found in Ur. These
tablets belong to the third dynasty of Ur (3056-2931 BCE). EAE Tablet no. 20 & 21 refer to two
lunar eclipses that occurred on the 14th day of the month. One lunar eclipse occurred on 18th
May 2975 BCE and another lunar eclipse occurred on 25th Jan 2932 BCE after 42 years. The

37
reference to a lunar eclipse on the 14th day unambiguously indicates that the Chaldeans of Ur
followed the Amanta lunisolar calendar.

The dates given in the Venus Tablet of King Ammisaduqa indicate that the lunar calendar was
changed by the first dynasty of Babylon. Berosus says that the Arabian dynasty has replaced
the Chaldean Kings of Ur. The first dynasty of Babylon followed a lunar month that
commenced on the 5th day after the new moon. One tablet refers to a lunar eclipse on the
10th day and another tablet refers to a solar eclipse on the 26th day. Evidently, it indicates that
the Babylonian kings of Arabian lineage preferred to begin the lunar month when the crescent
of the moon is visible. It appears that the Babylonian astronomers had modified and
introduced a new lunisolar calendar that reckoned from Sukla Panchami or the 5 th day of the
bright half of the month around 2800-2700 BCE under the influence of the Arabian tradition.
The Chaldean astronomers had again restored their ancient lunisolar calendar and reckoned
the lunar month from New Moon during the reign of Kassite and Assyrian Kings of Babylon.

The Chaldeans of Babylonia also had advanced knowledge of planetary revolutions. They
particularly studied the cycle of Venus and Mercury. Cidenas was the celebrated Chaldean
mathematician and astronomer who lived around 1070-990 BCE. He mentions that Mercury
also has a similar orbit to Venus but it travels in a lower circle, with a revolution nine days
quicker, shining sometimes before sunrise and sometimes after sunset. Pliny the Elder records
that according to Cidenas (Kidinnu) and Sosigenes, Mercury never be more than 22 degrees
away from the sun. Cidenas also discovered that 251 synodic months are identical to 269
anomalistic months.

Berosus, a Chaldean priest and astronomer, lived around 1000-925 BCE. He wrote the history
of Babylonia. According to him, the first ten Chaldean kings of Babylonia reigned for 432000
years before the great flood. Chaldean astronomers of Babylonia learned the concept of Yuga
(432000 years) from the Romas or Dom people. Unfortunately, the original work of Berosus
is not available. Armenian translations mention that Berosus covered the total history of
2150000 years. Greek sources indicate only 150000 years. Pliny the Elder says that Berosus
gave the history of 490000 years whereas Africanus indicates the figure of 480000 years.

Ancient Indians followed a Yuga of 5 years during the early Vedic period. Gradually, they
evolved a Yuga of 1200 years. Ancient Indian astronomers regularly updated their siddhantas
to achieve accurate astronomical calculations. During the period of Dvapara Yuga (5577-3177
BCE), ancient Indian astronomers had evolved a concept of a Yuga having a length of 432000
years. They multiplied the Yuga of 1200 years by 360. Thus, Indian astronomy started
following a Yuga of 432000 years and a Kalpa of 4320000000 years. The traditional Kaliyuga
began around 3177 BCE or 3173 BCE but later Indian astronomers fixed the epoch of Kaliyuga
on 18th Feb 3102 BCE or 3101 BCE considering the conjunction of the Sun, Moon, and five
planets in Revati Nakshatra.

Historians have mistakenly fixed the date of Aryabhata around 499 CE. In reality, Aryabhata
was born in 3173 BCE 3600 years (60 x 60) after 6773 BCE and he wrote Aryabhatiyam in 3150

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BCE. The distortion in the dating of Aryabhata led to wild speculation that Aryabhata might
have borrowed planetary data from Babylonians. Dr. Abhyankar speculates that the concepts
of Bhaganas used by Aryabhata were probably derived from the Babylonian planetary data.
Abhyankar says that the Babylonians had 44528/3600 synodic lunar months in one year and
Aryabhata calculated these synodic lunar months in terms of the Mahayuga, which comes to
53433600 synodic lunar months in a Mahayuga. The earliest Babylonian record of planetary
data is the Venus Tablet of King Ammisaduqa. As I have already explained that this tablet gives
the dates around 2473-2453 BCE. The Mahayuga concept had already evolved before the
Mahabharata War (3162 BCE). Therefore, Indian planetary data based on the concept of
Mahayuga is undoubtedly older than Babylonian planetary data and Aryabhatiyam of
Aryabhata is ~700 years older than the Venus Tablet of King Ammisaduqa.

Assyrians and Babylonians had a similar lunisolar calendar and intercalary methods since
ancient times. Interestingly, the Assyrian calendar begins from the epoch of 5410 BCE when
the city of Assur and the temple of Ashur were founded. The Yazidis of Iraq had adopted the
same Assyrian epoch (5410 BCE) for their calendar.

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