IPTC-19855-Abstract

Liquid Film Mode for Prediction and Identification of Liquid Loading in

Vertical Gas Wells

Arnold Landjobo Pagou and Xiaodong Wu, China University of Petroleum Beijing

Copyright 2020, International Petroleum Technology Conference

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Abstract
Characterized as the reversal flow of liquid film into the wellbore, liquid loading is a genuine issue
for gas wells as it diminishes the gas production rate. In the event that fluid rate accumulating in the
wellbore is excessively high, the gas production rate will decrease fundamentally and for severe instances
of accumulation, the operating organization will relinquish the well which will cause immense budgetary
misfortunes. Subsequently, so as to maintain a strategic distance from the latter occurring, it is proper for
the working organization to anticipate and recognize the liquid loading status of the gas wells in order to
utilize viable apparatuses and pathways to avert it. Therefore, to counteract those misfortunes, the forecast
of the liquid reversal point is obligatory.
Several researchers studied and established models to predict the loading phenomenon. After thoroughly
review those studies, conclusions made on the different models are controversy and their results are
conservatives. This paper presents a model where the hypothesis relies on fluid film reversal. The model
considers the change from annular flow (fluid film encompassing the gas core) to slug or churn flow to be
the grounds of liquid film backflow. Subsequently, from the review of previous literature on vertical wells, it
is obvious that the film thickness is more sensitive to the tubing inner diameter, the tubing pressure gradient,
the changes of fluid properties, the film and gas gravitational forces. Therefore, it is more rational for the
critical gas flow rate to be dependent on those parameters. Subsequently, the momentum balances of both
the liquid and gas phase were developed, and a derivation of an expression of the gas void fraction leading to
the derivation of the dimensionless liquid film thickness and thus the critical film thickness were obtained.
As a result of this modeling, a simplistic practical critical gas velocity and critical gas flow rate correlation
which at the same time combines and incorporates the parameters influencing the loading phenomenon are
viable for any profundity of the well.
So as to assess the adequacy of this model, evaluation has been performed between the model and some
well-known model such as Turner et al. (1969) model, Li et al. (2001) model, Belfroid et al. (2008) model
and Liu et al. (2018) model on some of the vertical gas wells of the North-West Xinjiang gas field. The
outcome of this evaluation provides an overall 95% prediction and identification precision, outclassing the
2 IPTC-19855-Abstract

models quoted above. Thus, the model is the most appropriate to classify and foresee liquid backflow and
accumulation in gas wells.
Key Words: Liquid loading, Liquid film reversal, Dimensionless critical film thickness, Conservation of
momentum balance equation, Critical gas velocity and flow rate

Introduction
Portrayed as the flow reversal of liquids towards the wellbore, liquid loading is considered as major issue
for wells delivering petroleum gas as it diminishes and even stops gas production. When the liquid loading
phenomenon occurs in gas wells, the fluid accumulating in the wellbore will initiate a persistent increment
of the formation backpressure, thus generating a diminution of gas production rate. In the event that the
aggregating fluid attains an important volume, the gas production will stop, and if the gathered fluid is not
removed on schedule, the well will be flooded and abandoned causing a huge financial loss to the producing
company. Consequently, identifying and predicting liquid loading earlier could be an advantage as it would
sanction us to take felicitous actions to evade or lessen that unbeneficial outcome. From the 60s till present
days, researchers have been ceaselessly building models and enhancing subsisting ones to anticipate and
distinguish liquid loading in gas wells. Those models which are essentially predicated on the critical gas
carrying velocity speed and flow rate are partitioned into two sets of models: fluid film and liquid drop.

Droplet reversal model

The driblet model is predicated on the droplet reverse flow theory, which means the droplets flow reversal
from the gas stream is the origin of liquid backflow and accumulation. The widespread model is Turner et
al. (1969). They set up their model under the consideration that the droplets while reaching their terminal
velocities and becoming immobile, are submitted to the drag force, the buoyant force and gravity force. By
using Newton’s law upon their free body diagram and by applying the Hinze (1955) model of critical Weber
number ranged between 20 to 30, they formulated their critical gas velocity model. After testing their model
on field data, they readjusted their model by an increment of 20% upward to match the field data.
At the commencement of the ’90s, numerous scientists adjusted Turner et al. (1969) model. Coleman et
al. (1991) studied an astronomically immense number of low-pressure gas wells undergoing liquid loading
and developed a model originating from Turner et al. (1969) theory. Upon validation of the Turner et al.
(1969) model against the data from the low-pressure wells, they concluded that the 20% augmentation
recommended by Turner et al. (1969) was dispensable. Later, Nosseir et al. (2000) built their model based on
the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow regimes which were governed by the Reynolds number. As their
predecessors considered the liquid drops to be spherical in shapes, Li et al. (2001) assumed the droplets to
be ellipsoidal and after applying the Newton’s law upon the forces acting on the stationary droplet (the drag
force, the buoyant force, and the gravity force), assuming the critical Weber number to be ranging between
20 and 30, assuming the drag coefficient to be equal to 1, then established their model. Concerning the
wells’ inclination angle influence upon liquid backflow and accumulation, Belfroid et al. (2008) conducted
several experiments on liquid loading in inclined tubing and developed a relationship by combining Turner
et al. (1969) model and Fiedler and Auracher (2004) model. Zhou and Yuan (2010) considered the influence
of driblets amalgamation on liquid loading and established a model founded on the concentration of the
droplets. Wang et al. (2015) established a correlation predicated on the Weber number influence on the
loading phenomenon.
In spite of the fact that the droplet model has been demonstrated by few researchers to be the root of
fluid reversal and accumulation in gas wells, on the other side, few others recognized fluid film reversal
model to be the basis of the loading phenomenon. Alamu (2012) after completing several experimentations,
concluded that the change from annular to slug or churn flow is the reason of liquid loading.
IPTC-19855-Abstract 3

Fluid film reversal model

The fluid film theory is built on the fact that fluid film located at the tubing inner wall will flow toward the
wellbore when its thickness will be critical, thus, initiating the liquid loading phenomenon. Few researchers
have directed researches and have been able to demonstrate that the variation of flow regime (annular to
slug or churn flow) marks the beginning of the fluid reversal and accumulation.
Barnea (1986, 1987) demonstrated that the instability of fluid film and the obstruction of the gas stream
by the film produces a change from annular flow to slug or churn flow, therefore causing liquid loading.
Consequently, he established his model by assuming the film thickness to be uniform all around the inner
pipe. van ’t Westende et al. (2007) while conducting water-air flow experiment to simulate the liquid loading
based on liquid drop backflow, inadvertently found that the loading phenomenon was initiated by the flow
reversal of the film bonded to the tubing wall rather than the flow reversal of droplets. Shortly after, Veeken
et al. (2010) made the same observation while simulating the loading phenomenon on OLGA (transient flow
simulator). Afterward, several researchers developed models for both vertical and inclined gas wells. Van’t
Westende (2008),Guner (2012), Alsaadi (2013), Li et al. (2014) and Luo et al. (2014) inspired by Barnea
(1986, 1987) model developed a model for vertical and inclined wells which theory is based on the non-
uniform film thickness all around the tubing inner wall and a no shear stress at the wall when the loading
phenomenon takes place. After performing several experiments, they concluded that from 0° (horizontal)
to 60°, as the film gets slowly thicker until reaching its maximum value at 60°, the critical gas velocity
slowly increase till reaching its maximum value at 60°; then from 60° to 90°, as it rapidly gets thinner, the
critical flow rate rapidly decrease. Furthermore, Luo et al. (2014), Li et al. (2014) and Fan et al. (2018)
after numerous experiment on film flow reversal, found that beside the existence of the interdependency
between the gravity and the pressure gradient influencing the loading phenomenon, the wall shear stress
is zero when the loading phenomenon occurs. Furthermore, Luo et al. (2014) found that when the loading
phenomenon occurs, the frictional pressure gradient at the wall is zero in vertical wells as confirmed later by
Liu et al. (2018).Hence, they developed a model based on that interdependency and their relatives’ findings.
Afterward, Riza et al. (2016) assumed the disappearance of annular flow regime to be the starting point
of loading phenomenon, then developed a model that predicts the flow regime transition and locates the
loading point.Later, Chen et al. (2016) after establishing the fluid film and gas core force balances, built
a model for any well deviating from vertical which finally combines a correction term to the Turner et al.
(1969) model. Wang et al. (2018), after several experiments on the effect of pressure gradient and gravity
force, found that there is an interconnection between these two forces influencing the loading phenomenon.
They then developed a loading mechanism characterizing the loading phenomenon in vertical and inclined
well after analyzing the bottom pipe film thickness and the gas-liquid interfacial friction factor. As a result
of this investigation, a coefficient considering the impact of fluid properties on the critical gas flow rate
was developed. Finally, Liu et al. (2018) after several experimentations on the loading phenomenon in
inclined and vertical wells, found that besides the fact that fluid gravity force is closely related to the loading
phenomenon, there is zero frictional pressure gradient at the wall when the phenomenon occurs in vertical
gas wells. They did not only assumed the shear stress at the wall to be zero when the loading phenomenon
occurs, but also assumed a uniform film thickness around the inner pipe as Barnea (1986, 1987) did for
every well inclination (0 to 90°), then after applying the force balance and the Navier-Stokes equation on
the fluid film exclusively, developed a critical gas velocity for vertical wells which is function of the liquid
flow rate, the film gravity, the gas Reynold number, the pipe inner diameter and the film viscosity. They then
adapted the correlation to fit inclined well by incorporating Fiedler and Auracher (2004) correlation in it.
This paper presents a correlation that predicts and identifies fluid backflow an accumulation in vertical
gas wells. Validation of this model is performed with data from the North-West Xinjiang gas field.
4 IPTC-19855-Abstract

Model development
The model developed in this section is founded on the fluid film reversal. It is assumed that the change of
flow regime from annular flow (gas core surrounded by the liquid film) to churn or slug flow generates
the loading phenomenon.
In a further development, assumptions over the droplets rate inside the gas core as long as the bubbles
rate in the liquid film to be negligible are adopted and implemented. The gas core radius, as well as the
liquid film thickness, are assumed to be uniform during the upward flow. Finally, the gas core is supposed
to be compressible and the fluid film incompressible, and both flowing at a steady state. Gas-liquid system
shear stresses are displayed in figure 1.

Figure 1—Representation of vertical well upward annular two-phase flow

By applying these assumptions on the gas core equation of motion developed by Barnea (1986), the
following expression is obtained:
(1)
Similarly, the equation of motion for the liquid film established by Barnea (1986) model is expressed
as follows:

(2)

In an occasion where fluid film obstructs the stream of gas, the gas core energy driving the film to the
wellhead is overbalanced by the film gravity force. At that moment, not only the frictional pressure gradient
at the wall is negligible compared to the film gravity force and the pressure driving the gas to the surface
but also the liquid film wall shear stress vanishes. Therefore, we have the following expressions as follows:
(3)

(4)

Eq. (2) characterizing the film balance is then rewritten as follows:

(5)
IPTC-19855-Abstract 5

The momentum balance of the gas-liquid system is obtained by the addition of Eq. (1) to Eq. (5) and
is expressed as follows:
(6)
The geometry of the flow allows us to express the gas stream area (Ac) and the fluid film area (Ac) in
terms of the gas void fraction (ɛ)and tubing diameter (D)as:
(7)

(8)
After Eq. (7) and Eq. (8) are substituted into Eq. (6), the following correlation is obtained:
(9)
From Eq. (9), a simplistic expression of the gas void fraction is determined as:

(10)

The interfacial friction factor correlated by Fore et al. (2000) is ratified for calculation consistency and
is expressed as follows:

(11)

Hewitt and Nicholls (1969) researches on the annular two-phase flow measurement of the liquid film
width found the height of waves to be 4 to 6 times higher than the average film width (δ), and proposed
a correlation to evaluate it as follows:
(12)
Development of Eq. (12) lead to the second-order polynomial equation expressed as Eq. (13) below.

(13)

For vertical gas wells (α=900°) at ReG ≤ 2300, the effective root of this polynomial equation leads to the
dimensionless critical film thickness (δ/D) correlation as follows:

(14)

For vertical gas wells (α=900°) at ReG > 2300, the dimensionless critical film thickness (δ/D)is as follows:

(15)

The gas core perimeter Si and the film perimeter Sl are expressed as follows:
(16)
(17)
At the time the liquid film flow reversal takes place, the gas core reaches its critical superficial liquid film
dragging velocity and also contributes entirely to the interfacial shear stress. Subsequently, the interfacial
shear stress at this moment is expressed as follows:
(18)
6 IPTC-19855-Abstract

The substitution of Eq. (8), Eq. (16) and Eq. (18) into Eq. (5) leads to the determination of the critical
gas velocity expressed as follows:

(19)

As a final point of this section, the critical gas dragging flow rate is expressed as follows:
(20)

Case analysis
Data from 18 gas wells were collected in the North-West Xinjiang gas field to authenticate the efficiency
of the model introduced in this paper. These data consist of wellhead and wellbore pressure ranging
respectively from 3MPa to 27.2 MPa and from 16.1 MPa to 43. 6MPa, well depth ranging between 4359
m and 5100 m, gas production rates varying from 14706 m3/d and 149000 m3/d and tubing diameters of
62 mm each. Still, from these data, 12 non-loading gas wells and 6 loading gas wells were reported among
them. The summary of those data is reported in table 1.

Table 1—Data from 18 gas wells of the North-West Xinjiang gas field.

Actual gas Wellhead Wellbore Gas wells

Liquid flow
Well Number production temperature pressure Well depth (m) accumulating
rate (m3/d)
(m3/d) (°C) (MPa) state

1 14706 0.3 27 30.1 4700 Loading

2 19701 0.1 25.4 21.9 4000 Loading
3 16251 0.6 32.1 30.2 4500 Loading
4 17667 0.1 28.5 35.9 4500 Loading
5 17481 0.2 30.3 30.3 4500 Loading
6 19600 0.9 31.9 27.3 5100 Loading
7 34902 0.02 37.1 33.8 4500 Non-loading
8 19175 0.2 22.2 16.1 4600 Non-loading
9 81000 0.2 41.9 35.4 5000 Non-loading
10 149000 0.1 64.4 36.4 5000 Non-loading
11 118000 0.2 52.5 39.6 4900 Non-loading
12 76800 0.1 32.6 28.1 5100 Non-loading
13 80000 0 35.7 33.7 5000 Non-loading
14 110100 0.9 62.6 43.6 5000 Non-loading
15 17685 0.5 28.1 32.5 4600 Non-loading
16 44541 0 31.4 30.8 4500 Non-loading
17 45600 0.9 39.2 37.3 5000 Non-loading
18 50034 0.02 37.8 38.3 4350 Non-loading

Liquid loading evaluation method

To assess the loading status in those given wells, comparisons are carried out between the current gas flow
rate (Q) and the computed critical gas flow rate (Qcr).Therefore, a gas well is identified as:

• unloading if the difference ΔQ of the critical gas flow rate to the actual gas flow rate is equal or
less than zero (Qcr − Q ≤ 0);
IPTC-19855-Abstract 7

• loading-up if ΔQ is greater than zero (ΔQ> 0).

From those respective results of ΔQ, the following interpretations are drawn out:

• For ΔQ =-x, with "x″ a real number, the gas will be experiencing loading phenomenon when the
actual gas flow rate will decrease by x (m3/d);
• For ΔQ ≤-0.5 ×104 m3/d, the loading phenomenon will take place soon;

• For 0 ≤ ΔQ ≤-0.5 ×104 m3/d, the loading phenomenon has just occurred in the gas well.

• For ΔQ=x, with "x″ a real number, the loading phenomenon has started at the time the gas flow
rate value was Q + x (m3/d).
The graphical representations of those gas wells loading status are sorted on a graph where the upright
axis represents the actual gas flow rate and the horizontal axis depicts the computed critical gas flow rate.
From the graph, the dots representing the unloading gas wells should be located above the datum line
(45°line)for accurate predictions. If any of those dots fall on the upper side of the datum line and touches
it, the corresponding gas well will soon experience the loading phenomenon if no solutions are employed
to counter or mitigate it on those wells. As for the dots plotted on the graph representing the loading wells,
an accurate prediction should locate them below the datum line. For any dots positioned below the datum
line and touching it, the loading phenomenon has just begun on those wells, and an immediate action of
pressurization of those wells will eliminate the loading phenomenon and the wells will produce again at a
high rate for a long period.

Results and discussions

The evaluation of the model accuracy is done on 18 gas wells data acquired from the North-West Xinjiang
gas field. Furthermore, comparisons of the accuracy results of the model evaluated in this paper were carried
against those obtained by Turner et al. (1969), Li et al. (2001), Belfroid et al. (2008)and Liu et al. (2018)
model on this gas field. The numerical conclusions are inscribed in table 2 and table 3, and their graphic
representations are shown in fig.2 to fig 6.

Table 2—Models critical gas flow rate.

Turner et Belfroid et Liu et al.

Li et al. (2001) New model
Actual gas production al. (1969) al. (2008) (2018) critical
Well No. critical flow critical flow
Rate (104 m3/d) critical flow critical flow flow rate
rate (104 m /d)
3 rate (104 m3/d)
rate(104 m3/d) rate (104 m3/d) (104 m3/d)

1 1.47 7.36 2.79 7.36 3.57 2.43

2 1.97 6.51 2.47 6.51 1.39 1.99
3 1.63 7.39 2.80 7.39 3.50 2.51
4 1.77 7.79 2.95 7.79 3.83 2.31
5 1.75 7.37 2.79 7.37 3.40 2.10
6 1.96 7.06 2.68 7.06 3.47 2.26
7 3.49 9.68 3.67 9.68 2.92 1.91
8 1.92 5.73 2.17 5.73 2.39 1.65
9 8.10 7.73 2.93 7.73 2.71 1.48
10 14.90 7.79 2.95 7.79 3.27 1.30
11 11.80 8.02 3.04 8.02 3.12 1.40
12 7.68 7.30 2.77 7.30 3.49 1.42
13 8.00 7.66 2.90 7.66 3.65 1.27
8 IPTC-19855-Abstract

Turner et Belfroid et Liu et al.

Li et al. (2001) New model
Actual gas production al. (1969) al. (2008) (2018) critical
Well No. critical flow critical flow
Rate (104 m3/d) critical flow critical flow flow rate
rate (104 m 3/d) rate (104 m3/d)
rate(104 m3/d) rate (104 m3/d) (104 m3/d)

14 11.01 8.20 3.10 8.20 3.86 2.43

15 1.77 7.53 2.85 7.53 3.51 2.10
16 4.45 7.36 2.79 7.36 3.36 1.76
17 4.56 7.78 2.95 7.78 3.79 1.96
18 5.00 7.90 2.99 7.90 3.78 1.95

Table 3—Summary of the predictions and identifications.

Turner et Belfroid et
Li et al. (2001) Liu et al. (2018) New model Field
Well al. (1969) al. (2008)
Test
No. ΔQ ΔQ ΔQ ΔQ ΔQ
PR PR PR PR PR status
(104) (104) (104) (104) (104)

1 5.89 L 1.32 L 5.89 L 2.10 L 0.96 L L

2 5.77 L 1.17 L 5.77 L 1.88 L 0.89 L L
3 4.54 L 0.50 L 4.54 L −0.58 UL 0.02 L L
4 6.02 L 1.18 L 6.02 L 2.07 L 0.55 L L
5 5.62 L 1.04 L 5.62 L 1.65 L 0.35 L L
6 5.10 L 0.72 L 5.10 L 1.51 L 0.30 L L
7 6.19 L 0.18 L 6.19 L −0.57 UL −1.58 UL UL
8 3.81 L 0.25 L 3.81 L 0.47 L −0.27 UL UL
9 −0.37 UL −5.17 UL −0.37 UL −5.39 UL −6.62 UL UL
10 −7.11 UL −11.95 UL −7.11 UL −11.63 UL −13.60 UL UL
11 −3.78 UL −8.76 UL −3.78 UL −8.68 UL −10.40 UL UL
12 −0.38 UL −4.91 UL −0.38 UL −4.19 UL −6.26 UL UL
13 −0.34 UL −5.10 UL −0.34 UL −4.35 UL −6.73 UL UL
14 −2.81 UL −7.91 UL −2.81 UL −7.15 UL −8.58 UL UL
15 5.76 L 1.08 L 5.76 L 1.74 L 0.33 L UL
16 2.91 L −1.66 UL 2.91 L −1.09 UL −2.70 UL UL
17 3.22 L −1.61 UL 3.22 L −0.77 UL −2.60 UL UL
18 2.90 L -2.01 UL 2.90 L -1.22 UL -3.05 UL UL

UL: Unloading; L: Loading; PR: Prediction results.

IPTC-19855-Abstract 9

Figure 2—Turner et al. (1969) prediction results.

Figure 3—Li et al. (2001) prediction results.

10 IPTC-19855-Abstract

Figure 4—Belfroid et al. (2008) prediction results.

Figure 5—Liu et al. (2018) prediction results.

IPTC-19855-Abstract 11

Figure 6—New model prediction results.

Figure 7—Non-loading gas wells models prediction and identification accuracy.

12 IPTC-19855-Abstract

Figure 8—Loading gas wells models prediction and identification accuracy.

The prediction accuracy results obtained after analysis of table 2, table 3 and fig.2 to fig.8 are 67%, 83%,
67%, 83% and 95% respectively for Turner et al. (1969), Li et al. (2001), Belfroid et al. (2008), Liu et al.
(2018)and the new model.
Given that Belfroid et al. (2008) model is an association of the correction angle term of Fiedler and
Auracher (2004) model with the Turner et al. (1969) model, thus, as we are investigating vertical wells,
the correction angle term is equal to one. Subsequently, we obtain the same prediction and identification
results for Turner et al. (1969) model and Belfroid et al. (2008) model. The accuracy results provided by
these models are the lowest among all the others. They were able to identify and predict all the 6 gas
wells experiencing the loading phenomenon but have only been able to predict and identify 6 gas wells
from the 12 non-loading wells. They obtained the poorest overall prediction accuracy result because they
adopted the reversal of spherical droplets from the gas stream theory to be the reason for liquid back-flow
an accumulation.
Even though Liu et al. (2018) model and Li et al. (2001) model overall identification and prediction
correctness are identical, on the other hand, their identification and prediction accuracies for non-loading
and loading gas wells are different. Their prediction results for the loading wells are respectively five out
of six and six out of six. As for the non-loading gas wells, they respectively identified and predicted ten out
of twelve and nine out of twelve. The inaccuracies in Li et al. (2001)model are because they assumed the
backflow of ellipsoidal droplets from the gas to be the feature causing liquid loading. Regarding Liu et al.
2018 model inaccurate results, in spite of the fact that they adopted the liquid film reversal model, they did
not consider the influence of gas void fraction when computing the critical gas velocity correlation.
As for the new model presented in this paper, it obtains the highest overall accuracy result of 95%. It
identifies and predicts eleven unloading gas wells out of twelve and all the loading gas wells (six out of six).
By analyzing fig.6, well No.8 is resting perfectly on the upper side of the datum line and also from table
3, ΔQ= -2700. These translate an upcoming loading phenomenon in well No.8 when its actual gas flow
rate will lessen by 2700 m3/d. Therefore, the installation of a liquid drainage tool or the implementation
IPTC-19855-Abstract 13

of an enhance gas recovery method must be done on that "near to loading-up" well and for the loading
wells No.3, No.4, No.5, and No.6 as well, which have recently begun to load-up. The methods mentioned
above are compulsory to obtain a long term gas production and to avoid any monetary losses due to well
abandonment. Table 4 summarizes results and discussions in this section.

Table 4—Summary of the prediction and identification of the models.

Turner et Belfroid et
Li et al. (2001) Liu et al. (2018) Model
al. (1969) al. (2008)

Non-loading wells 6/12 9/12 6/12 10/12 11/12

Loading-up wells 6/6 6/6 6/6 5/6 6/6
Overall
67% 83% 67% 83% 95%
prediction (%)

Conclusions
From the modeling performed and the analysis done in this paper, the subsequent closures are drawn:
1. The determination of the equation of motion for the gas and liquid phase has led to a precise correlation
of gas void fraction, the critical dimensionless fluid film width and thus the critical fluid film width.
Consequently, the modeling of an oversimplified and reasonable critical gas flow rate and gas velocity
for any well deepness has been conceived.
2. From the models assessed in this study, the new model has given the best identification and prediction
preciseness of 95% outclassing Turner et al. (1969) model, Li et al. (2001) model, Belfroid et al.
(2008) model, and Liu et al. (2018) model.
3. The modeling introduced is definitely the most suitable and convenient for the identification and
forecast of fluid backflow and accumulation in vertical gas wells.

SI Metric Conversion Factors

Nomenclature
g Gravitational acceleration, m/S2;
δ Critical film thickness, m;
D Tubing inner diameter, m;
ρl Liquid film density, Kg/m3;
ρg Gas density, Kg/m3;
α Inclination angle;
ε Gas void fraction;
14 IPTC-19855-Abstract

Total pressure gradient, Pa/m;

Frictional pressure gradient, Pa/m;

Gas core pressure gradient, Pa/m;

Dimensionless critical film thickness;

νcr Critical gas velocity, m/S;
Qcr Critical gas flow rate, m3/d;
A Tubing area, m2;
P Pressure, MPa
T Gas temperature, K;
Z Gas compressibility factor.

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