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CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION BIOLOGY 5090 CAIE

O’LEVELS EXAMINATION

SHORT STUFFS
This document will cover all of the
central and peripheral nervous
system, the eye and brain structure
of the human body.
Samin Kamrul
Biology 5090

CONTROL AND
CO-ORDINATION
[Document subtitle]

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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE BRAIN
The human body is adapted for many functions as learning,
remembering. However, if the body didn’t have a central processing
unit for their actions, the body would have no motive. The brain is
responsible for all of the actions done by a body.

The following shows a diagram of a brain dissected sideways:

1.The first visible part of the organ is the cerebrum. The cerebrum is
divided into two hemispheres. The cerebrum is responsible for all the
voluntary actions done by a human body. The cerebrum also
connects hearing and seeing with muscle movement. The right
hemisphere is responsible for imagination, intelligence, intuition,
insight, and left-hand control. The left hemisphere is responsible for
analytic thought, logic, language, reasoning, and right-hand control.
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2.The corpus callosum contains commissural fibres that connect the
right hemisphere with the left hemisphere, transporting information.
3. Ventricles are hollow cavities of the brain, that contain the
cerebrospinal fluid, which circulates within the brain and spinal cord.
There are all together four ventricles in the human brain, that
constitute the ventricular system, along with the cerebral aqueduct.
4.The the thalamus works to send neuronal transmissions to the brain
for the regulation of the Circadian rhythm in order to suppress the
body’s response to sensation such as sound during sleep.
5.The midbrain deals with the visual information coming from the eye
via the optic nerve. It also deals with auditory information, and eye
movement.
6.The cerebellum controls all muscular actions and functions in the
body. It instructs the body to contract or relax muscles, and assists in
muscular co-ordination.
7.The medulla oblongata controls all the involuntary actions in the
human body that cannot be done willingly. It is done in unconscious
will of ourselves to keep the body alive. These actions include
respiratory rhythm, heartbeat, and metabolism.
8.The hypothalamus is responsible for ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
regulation in the body. It is secreted to conserve water when the body
requires water. Less ADH secreted means more water is excreted, and
vice versa.
9.The pituitary gland is probably the most important part of the brain,
as it secretes or instructs other hormonal glands to secrete vital
hormones for the body.
Additionally, the brain stem connects the spinal cord with the brain,
and the pons is related to breathing. A section of the lower
pons stimulates and controls the intensity of breathing, and a section
of the upper pons decreases the depth and frequency of breaths.

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1.2 THE EYE STRUCTURE

To be blind is not miserable; not to be able to bear blindness, that is miserable.

The following quote implies that blindness is something unbearable.

So just by imagining, the human eye has some vital functions. Below
is a labelled dissected eye:

1. While most of the focusing of light is done by the cornea, the lens
allows the eye to focus on either near or distant objects. Ciliary
muscles surround the lens, relaxing to flatten it to image distant
objects and contracting to thicken the lens to image close-up objects.
2.The iris is a contractile ring that contains radial and circular
muscles, which control the opening and closing of the pupil,
determining the amount of light passing,
3.The fluid beneath the cornea has a composition similar to that of
blood plasma. The aqueous humor helps to shape the cornea and
provides nourishment to the eye.
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4.Conjunctiva is a thin, transparent and mucous layer helps lubricate
the eye.
5.The cornea is a transparent, refractive layer covering the iris and
pupil. It refracts most of the light into the eye.
6.Pupil is a black hole/opening which allows light into the eye, which
forms an image of the outside surrounding.
7.The suspensory ligaments hold the lens into place and position,
ensuring the lens can refract light properly.
8.The ciliary body is a circular band of muscle that is connected and
sits immediately behind the iris. Produces aqueous humor which fills
the posterior and anterior chambers and provides nutrition for
avascular tissues in the eye such as the cornea.
9.The sclera is the immediate white part of the eye which protects the
eye from mechanical damage.
10.The vitreous humour is a transparent, jelly like structure which
supports the eye structure and refracts light to the retina
11.The choroid is a black-pigmented layer of the eye that contains
blood vessels, nourishing the eye structure. The black pigmented
layer prevents total internal reflection of light.
12.The retina layer contains rod cells and cone cells that help form an
image from the refracted light it receives. The image formed is
inverse, the image is flipped by the midbrain.
13.The fovea or yellow spot contains the most amount of rod cells,
and the most accurate image is formed.
14. The blind spot is where there are no cone cells or rod cells and the
optic nerve is connected with the eye.
15. The optic nerve carries visual information from the eye to the
midbrain.

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Rod cells and cone cells:
There are two kinds of photoreceptors: the rods and cones
1. Rod cells contain visual purple, the pigment concerned with vision
in dim light. Light causes bleaching of visual purple which is involved
in light detection. In bright light all the visual purple gets bleached. So
when a person enters a dark room from a bright place, it takes some
place to see the room more properly in dark room.
2.Cone cells are less sensitive to light than rods and so are inefficient
in dim light. They are concerned with bright light and colorful vision.
The three cells, red, green, and blue cones take in light of different
wavelengths, allowing us to see different colors.

ACCOMODATION:

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1.3 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN ANIMALS:

The nervous system of a mammal comprises:
1.The central nervous system (CNS) comprising of the brain and the
spinal cord.
2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprising of the cranial
nerves from the brain, and the spinal nerves from the spinal nerves
from the spinal cord and the sense organs.

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The sense organs receive stimuli, they are called receptors. The
receptors keep the CNS informed of any change in the surroundings.
They send nerve impulses which are electric in nature to the central
nervous system via nerves.
A nerve impulse is transmitted within a fraction of a second to the
central nervous system. The central nervous system sends nerve
impulses to the muscles or glands. The muscles or glands will carry
out the necessary action.

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The Structure of Neurones:
1.The sensory neurons transmit impulses from the sense organs to
the central nervous system.
2.The motor neurons transmits impulses from the central nervous
system to the glands or muscles.
3.The intermediate or relay neuron is situated within the central
nervous system that transmit impulses from the sensory neuron to
the motor neuron.
SENSORY NEURON:

The following picture shows the structure of a sensory neuron. At

first, we can see dendrites on the sense organ, from where it will
sense stimulus and the stimulus will be sent as impulses via the
dendrite to the soma. The dendron carries the impulse towards the
cell body in the neuron.
The other part is known as the axon, which carries impulses away
from the cell body and towards the central nervous system. The fatty
layer over the axon and dendron is known as the myelin sheath,
which insulates the impulse from going out of path. The cell body has
a nucleus which instructs the neuron of it’s function and keeps it
alive.
MOTOR NEURONE:

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The motor neuron’s main work is to transmit neurons from the central
nervous system to the effector muscles and glands. The cell body is
larger compared to than that of the sensory neuron, and multiple
dendrites which connect to several other sensory neurons. The motor
neuron has a long and thin axon, and no dendron because there is no
cell body intervention in the neuron.
The nodes of Ranvier allow for ions to diffuse in and out of the
neuron, propagating the electrical signal down the axon. Since the
nodes are spaced out, they allow for saltatory conduction, where the
signal rapidly jumps from node to node. The result is efficient
electrical communication throughout the body's nervous system. The
axon terminal at the effector glands/muscles transmits the impulse to
the effector, and the effector gland takes action.
INTERMEDIATE/RELAY NEURON:

The relay neuron is found within the central nervous system,

connecting the sensory neuron and motor neuron in a neural
pathway. It contains a cell body, dendrites, an axon, and synaptic
endings which connect with other motor neurons.

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NEURAL PATHWAY:
The following shows the entire neural pathway taken by an impulse:

STRUCTURE OF AXON:

In the PNS, supporting cells called Schwann cells form an electrically-

insulating layer around axons called the myelin sheath; 80% of the
myelin sheath consists of lipids. The gaps between adjacent Schwann
cells are called nodes of Ranvier. The myelin sheath increases the
speed at which nerve impulses travel along the axon by allowing
nerve impulses to jump from node to node.

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SYNAPSE:
A synapse is a junction between two neurons or a neuron and an
effector.
At a synapse, impulses from the axon of one neuron are transmitted
to the dendrites of another neuron or to effector cells. Nerve impulses
are transmitted across the tiny space of a synapse by chemicals
called neurotransmitters.

1.4 REFLEX ACTIONS:

Reflex actions are involuntary responses to a specific stimulus. They
cannot be consciously controlled. The pathway by which nerve
impulses travel during reflex actions is called a reflex arc.

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1. The central canal is a fluid-filled space in the spinal cord that has a
protective function and allows for nutrient transport.
2.The grey matter consists of the brain’s neuronal cell bodies.
The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle
control, and sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory,
emotions, speech, decision making, and self-control.
3. The white matter is composed of bundles, which connect various
grey matter areas (the locations of nerve cell bodies) of the brain to
each other, and carry nerve impulses between neurons.
4. The ventral root is through which the motor neuron passes to the
effectors.
5. The dorsal root is which through the sensory neuron passes to the
spinal cord.

REFLEX ACTIONS:
A reflex action is a simple behavior pattern in animals involving a
rapid, automatic response for a stimulus.
The following explains a reflex action:

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1.5 ENDOCRINAL SYSTEM

A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and carried
by the blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target
organs. Hormones are active in minute quantities and are destroyed
by the liver and excreted by the kidneys. They affect cellular
metabolism and coordinate the growth, development and activity of
an organism.
Glands are classified into two groups: exocrine glands and endocrine
glands. Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their products via
ducts. Examples include sweat glands and salivary glands. Endocrine
glands are glands that secrete their products directly into the
bloodstream. Examples include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
adrenal gland and the gonads.
Some glands are both exocrine and endocrine. An example would be
the pancreas, which secretes pancreatic juice via the pancreatic duct,
and insulin and glucagon from the islets of Langerhans into the
bloodstream.

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1.The hypothalamus is the base of the brain. It secretes and regulates

the anti-diuretic hormone in the blood to regulate water in the body.
2. The pituitary gland is involved in several functions of the body
including:
• Growth hormone production
• Production of hormones that act on other endocrine glands
• Production of hormones that act on the muscles and the kidneys
• Endocrine function regulation
• Storage of hormones produced by the hypothalamus

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3.The thyroid and parathyroid glands produce thyroxin, which is
secreted throughout the body. Thyroxin plays a big role in a human’s
growth and development, and in protein synthesis of the body.
4.The thymus gland is very active from before birth until puberty, and
it functions as both a lymphatic organ and an endocrine organ (an
organ of the endocrine system that produces hormones).
5. The islets of Langerhans in the pancreas are areas in the pancreas
that contain groups of endocrine cells. These cells produce the
hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin and glucagon are
antagonistic hormones that participate in homeostatic control of
blood glucose level by negative feedback mechanism. When blood
glucose level exceeds the normal level, more insulin is released and
acts to lower the glucose level. When blood glucose level falls below
the normal level, more glucagon is released and acts to increase the
glucose level.
6. The adrenal glands produce adrenaline and aldosterone.
Adrenaline puts the body in a state of excitement, preparing the body
for a fight/flight response. The body’s blood pressure rises and
senses become heightened.

7. Testes is the male reproductive gland which produces

testosterone, which help form the secondary sexual characteristics.
The following are also done:
• The development of the penis and testes
• The deepening of the voice during puberty
• The appearance of facial and pubic hair starting at puberty; later
in life, it may play a role in balding
• Muscle size and strength
• Bone growth and strength
• Sex drive (libido)
• Sperm production
8. Ovary produces progesterone and estrogen. Estrogen helps
develop the secondary sexual characteristics, and the progesterone
smoothens the endometrium lining of the uterus

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PANCREAS AS AN ENDOCRINAL GLAND:
1. The islets of Langerhans in the pancreas are areas in the pancreas
that contain groups of endocrine cells.
2. These cells produce the hormones insulin and glucagon.
3. Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones that participate in
homeostatic control of blood glucose level by negative feedback
mechanism.
4. When blood glucose level exceeds the normal level, more insulin is
released and acts to lower the glucose level.
5. When blood glucose level falls below the normal level, more
glucagon is released and acts to increase the glucose level.
6. Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration by:
(a) Stimulating body cells to increase glucose uptake by increasing
permeability of plasma membranes to glucose
(b) Stimulating the liver and muscle cells to store glucose in the form
of glycogen
(c) Decreasing production of glucose from glycogen breakdown in the
liver
(d) Decreasing the conversion of fatty acids and amino acids to
glucose in the liver
7. Glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by stimulating
liver cells to: (a) Convert glycogen to glucose
(b) Convert amino acids and fatty acids to glucose
(c) Convert lactic acid into glucose

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DIABETES MELLITIS:
Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which the body does not produce
sufficient insulin or does not respond to insulin. The excess glucose
cannot be completely reabsorbed by the kidneys and are excreted in
the urine.
Symptoms include: (a) A persistent high blood glucose concentration
(b) Presence of glucose in the urine (c) Excessive urination, excessive
thirst and weight loss TOPIC 11 Co-ordination and Response in
Humans 81
Diabetes can cause: (a) Poor immune response – increased
susceptibility to infections (b) Damaged blood vessels leading to
vision loss and a decreased sensation in the limbs (c) Kidney failure
and heart failure
Diabetic individuals can control their disease by receiving regular
injections and controlling their carbohydrate intake.

ADRENALINE:
Adrenaline is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands located
above the kidneys. It is responsible for the ‘fight-or-flight response’
triggered by stress (emotional or physical threats to the organism). In
response to stress, the adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline into the
blood.
The adrenaline travels to target organs, causing:
(a) Increased conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and
skeletal muscles
(b) Increased glucose release into blood by liver cells
(c) Increased metabolic rate, causing more energy to be released in
cellular respiration
(d) Increased heart rate and volume of blood pumped per unit time,
increasing oxygen and glucose supply to muscle cells
(e) Dilated bronchioles and increased breathing rate and depth,
allowing more oxygen to be taken in for cellular respiration

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(f) Decreased blood supply to the digestive system, the kidneys and
the skin as vasoconstriction occurs in several body parts, diverting
blood supply to the heart, brain and skeletal muscles
(g) Vasodilation occurring in other body parts, increasing blood
supply to these organs
(h) Dilated pupils, enhancing vision (i) Contracted hair erector
muscles, producing ‘goose pimples

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