Sequences and Summations

2.4

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 Definition of Sequences
A sequence is an ordered list of elements created by a function from a
subset of the set of integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2, …} or the
set {1, 2, 3, …}) to a set S. We use the notation an to denote the
image of the integer n. We call an a term of the sequence.

• Notation:{an} is used to represent the sequence.

{an} represents the ordered list a1, a2, a3, ... .

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 Sequences - Example
• If an = 2n, find {an}
– a0 = 0
– a1 = 2
– a2 = 4
– a3 = 6
– Therefore, {an} = {0, 2, 4, 6, …..}

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 Sequences – Example (2)
• Consider the sequence {an}, where an = 1/n
– If the list of the terms of this sequence, beginning with
a1, namely, a1, a2, a3, a4, … , then we obtain-

– {1, 1/2 , 1/3 , 1/4 , …..}

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 Arithmetic Progression
An arithmetic progression is a sequence of the form
a, a + d, a + 2d, … , a + nd, …
where the initial term a, the common difference d are real numbers
and n is the term number.
We can also use an explicit formula: an = a + nd
• If a = 5 and d = 2, find the first 5 terms of {an}.
– {an} = {5, 7, 9, 11, 13}
• We can also find the values of a and d from a sequence
since a will always be the first element of the sequence
and d is the difference between any two consecutive
terms.
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 Geometric Progression
A geometric progression is a sequence of the form
a, ar, ar2, … , arn, …
where the initial term a and the common ratio to the nth power, rn are
real numbers.
We can also use an explicit formula: an = arn
• If a = 4 and r = 3, find the first 5 terms of {an}.
– {an} = {4, 12, 36, 108, 324}
• We can also find the values of a and r from a sequence
since a will always be the first element of the sequence
and r can be obtained by dividing a term by the previous
term.
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 Recurrence Relation

An equation that expresses {an} in terms of one or more previous

terms of the sequence. Initial conditions are required to specify terms
that precede the first term where the relation takes effect.
• Example: an = an-1 + {2an-2} for n ≥ 2 where a0 = 2, a1 = 5
• Here, we are looking at a recurrence equation in which
the function starts at a2 since we have initial conditions
for a0 and a1. Here, a2 will be decided based on the
previous two terms of the sequence.
We need:
– a2 = a1 + 2a0 = 5 + 4 = 9 1. Equation
– Similarly, a3 = a2 + 2a1 = 9 + 10 = 19 2. Starting point
– The sequence is: {2, 5, 9, 19} 3. Initial conditions
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 Recurrence Relation - Example
• Example: Let an be the sequence that satisfies the
recurrence relation an = an-1 + 6 for n ≥ 1.
• If a0 = 2, find a1, a2, a3
Explicit Formula:
– a1 = a0 + 6 = 2 + 6 = 8 an = a + dn
– Similarly, a2 = a1 + 6 = = 8 + 6 = 14 an = 2 + 6n
– Similarly, a3 = a2 + 6 = = 14 + 6 = 20 a100 = 2 + 6.100 = 602
• If a0 = -7, find a1, a2, a3
– a1 = a0 + 6 = (-7) + 6 = -1
– Similarly, a2 = a1 + 6 = = (-1) + 6 = 5 Explicit Formula:
an = (-7) + 6n
– Similarly, a3 = a2 + 6 = = 5 + 6 = 11

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 Fibonacci Sequence
• 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, …….
• The Fibonacci sequence, f0, f1, f2, … , is defined by the
initial conditions f0 = 0, f1 = 1, and the recurrence
relation:
fn = fn−1 + fn−2 for n = 2, 3, 4, … .

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 Solving Recurrence Relations
• Finding a non-recursive formula to calculate an is called
solving the recurrence relations. The solution is called the
closed formula.
• We have seen similar solutions previously in arithmetic
and geometric progressions by explicit formula but all
mathematical sequences are not arithmetic or geometric.
So, wee need another method.
– One such method is called iteration involving substitution.

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 Solving Recurrence Relations (Iteration)

• Let an be the sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation

an = an-1 + 3 for n ≥ 1 where a0 = 2.

a0 = 2
a1 = 2 + 3
a2 = (2 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 2(3)
a3 = (2 + 3 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 3(3)
a4 = (2 + 3 + 3 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 4(3)
⋮
an = 2 + 3n

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 Solving Recurrence Relations (Iteration)

• Another example of Iteration

• Using the recurrence equation, we can substitute to obtain
terms:
an = an-1 + 3
= (an-2 + 3) + 3 = an-2 + 2(3)
= (an-3 + 3) + 3 + 3 = an-3 + 3(3)
= an-n + n(3)
= a0 + 3n
= 2 + 3n

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