UNIT 5 Sequences and

Series
___________________________________________

Overview

In this unit you will investigate the behaviour of sequences of numbers. In particular, you
will explore arithmetic and geometric sequences. These sequences provide us with the
tools for modeling several real world situations, especially in business.
You will also learn how to expand binomials of the form (a + b) n , where n is a
nonnegative integer, by using the Binomial Theorem and Pascal’s triangle.

Unit Objectives

After you have completed this unit, you should be able to

1. describe sequences using recursive definitions and general terms,

2. solve problems involving arithmetic and geometric sequences,
3. use the Binomial Theorem to expand (a + b) n , where n is a nonnegative integer.

1
Sequences

From an early age most of us learn how to count. Counting involves the sequence of numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … . In mathematics, the word ‘sequence’ is used in the same way as it is in
ordinary English. A sequence is just a collection of numbers that is ordered so that there is a
first member, second member, third member and so on. The members of the sequence are
called terms. For instance, in the sequence,

4, 7, 10, 13, ……, …………. (*)

4 is the first term, 7 is the second term, and so on.

We can describe sequence (*) by writing

a1 = 4
a2 = 7
a 3 = 10
and so on.

Suppose we want to find additional terms of sequence (*). First, we need to find a pattern that
the sequence follows. Notice that to get a particular term we add 3 to the preceding term. We
can describe this pattern by the following recursive definition,

an = an-1 + 3 where a1 = 4 and n = 1, 2, 3, !

This definition will generate all the terms of the sequence. Look

a 2 = a1 + 3
= 4+3
=7
and a 3 = a 2 + 3
= 7+3
= 10.

We can continue in this way and get all the terms of the sequence. The condition a1 = 4 is
called an initial condition. This condition is needed to give us a starting point for our
sequence.

Try to write down four more terms of the sequence. The entire sequence (*) can now be
represented as {a n }.

Now suppose we want to find the 500th term of the sequence, that is, find a500 . If we use the
recursive definition then we would need to know a 499 and, to know a 499 we would need to
know a 498 , and so on. This would not be a very efficient way of finding a500 . Do you agree?

2
A more useful way of describing a sequence is by finding a general term. In the case of
sequence (*), the general term is

an = 3n + 1, n = 1, 2, 3, !.
See
a1 = 3(1) + 1 = 4
a 2 = 3(2) + 1 = 7,
and so on. You should write down four more terms of the sequence.

Now we can find a500 more easily:

a500 = 3(500) + 1 = 1501.

When using the general term we can represent sequence (*) as {3n + 1} or {a n }.

Example Find the first three terms and the twenty fifth term of the following sequences
{a n } where
n +1
(i) a n =
n+3

(ii) a n = 4 + (-1) n

Solution

(i) Observe that

1+1 2 1
a1 = = =
1+ 3 4 2
2 +1 3
a2 = =
2+3 5
3 +1 4 2
a3 = = =
3+3 6 3
25 + 1 26 13
and a 25 = = = .
25 + 3 28 14
(ii) Here
a1 = 4 + (-1)1 = 4 - 1 = 3
a 2 = 4 + (-1) 2 = 4 + 1 = 5
a3 = 4 + (-1) 3 = 4 - 1 = 3
and a 25 = 4 + (-1) 25 = 4 - 1 = 3.

This sequence is called an oscillating sequence. Can you see why?

3
Sigma Notation

One convenient way of writing the sums of the terms of a sequence is by using the sigma
notation. The Greek upper case sigma, å , is synonymous with the words ‘the sum of’. It is
also called the summation operator. If {a n } is a sequence, then

åa i =1
i = a1 + a 2 + a3 + ! + a n ,

where i is called the index, 1 is the lower limit, and n is the upper limit of the summation.

Example Find the following sums.

3 5
(i) åi
i =1
2
(ii) å (1 + j )
j =2

Solution

Here we let i take on the integer values from 1 to 3 to get

åi i =1
2
= 12 + 2 2 + 3 2

= 1+ 4 + 9
= 14.

In this case we let j take on the integer values from 2 to 5 to get

å (1 + j ) = (1 + 2) + (1 + 3) + (1 + 4) + (1 + 5)
j =2

= 3+ 4+5+6
= 18.
Remark Notice that (i) the index need not be i.
(ii) the lower limit need not start at 1.

The sigma notation has the following properties.

n n
1. å ca i = cå ai , where c is any constant.
i =1 i =1

n n n
2. å (ai ± bi ) = å ai ± å bi .
i =1 i =1 i =1

These properties follow from the associative and commutative properties of addition and, the
distributive property of multiplication over addition.

4
Activity Prove Properties 1 and 2 given above.

Exercises 5.1

You should write your answers in the spaces provided.

In exercises 1-5, write down the first five terms of the given sequences.

1. an = an-1 - 2, n ³ 2 ; a1 = 10

_____________________________________________________________

2. an = an-1 + an-2 , n ³ 3 ; a1 = 1, a2 = 2

_____________________________________________________________

3. an = 3n + 2

______________________________________________________________

n
4. a n =
n +1

_______________________________________________________________

5. a n = (-1) n 3 n - 2

_______________________________________________________________

In exercises 6-8, write down recursive definitions for the given sequences. Remember to
write the initial conditions.

6. 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, … _______________________________________

7. 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, … _______________________________________

8. 1, 2, 2, 4, 8, 32, 256, … _______________________________________

In exercises 9-11, write down the general term of the given sequences.

9. 5, 8, 11, 14, … _______________________________________

5
10. 12 , 14 , 18 , 161 , ! _______________________________________

11. –3, 2, - 53 , 3
2 ,… _______________________________________

In exercises 12-14, find the indicated sums.

4
12. å (i + 5)
i =1
__________________________________________________

3
13. å r (r - 1)
r = -1
__________________________________________________

6
14. å
j =4
1
j
________________________________________________________

Arithmetic Sequences (or Arithmetic Progressions (AP))

Consider the sequence whose terms are

3, 7, 11, 15, 19, ….

In order to generate the sequence, we add 4 to each preceding term.

3!
, 7,!
11, ! 19,"
15, !
+4 +4 +4 +4

The number 4 that we add is called the common difference, d, of the sequence. Sequences
{a n } in which consecutive terms have a common difference are called arithmetic sequences
(or arithmetic progressions). Observe that

d = ai +1 - ai .

In general, we can write an arithmetic sequence as

a1 , a1 + d , a1 + 2d , a1 + 3d , ! .

By following the pattern, we get the general term

6
 an = a1 + (n - 1)d .

So, once we know the first term a1 and the common difference d, we can generate all the
terms of the sequence.

Example Find the twenty-first term of the arithmetic sequence whose first three terms are
–4, 0 and 4.

Solution First, we observe that a1 = -1 and d = 0 - (-4) = 4 . Hence

a 21 = a1 + (n - 1)d
= -4 + 20(4)
= -4 + 80
= 76

Example The eighth term of an arithmetic sequence is 36 and the fifteenth term is 71.
Find the thirty-first term.

Solution Our aim is to first find a1 and d. Now we have a8 = 36 and a15 = 71. So

a1 + 7d = 36 .......... (1)
a1 + 14d = 71 .......... (2)

Now, subtracting equation (1) from equation (2) gives

7 d = 35
d = 5.
By putting d = 5 in equation (1), we get

a1 + 7(5) = 36
a1 + 35 = 36
a1 = 1.
Hence
a31 = a1 + (n - 1)d
= 1 + 30(5)
= 1 + 150
= 151.

The n th Partial sum of an Arithmetic Sequence

Consider the arithmetic sequence

7
 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, … .

The partial sums are given by

S1 = 3
S2 = 3 + 5 = 8
S 3 = 3 + 5 + 7 = 15
S 4 = 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 24
S 5 = 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 = 35

and so on. But what is the n th partial sum, S n ? The n th partial sum, S n , is given by either
of the following formulas.

n
1. S n = (a1 + a n )
2
n
2. S n = [2a1 + (n - 1)d ]
2

We will now prove that these formulas are actually true.

In general,
S n = a1 + a 2 + a3 + ! + a n-2 + a n -1 + a n
= a1 + [a1 + d ] + [a1 + 2d ] + ! + [a1 + (n - 1)d ].......... (1)

But we could also repeatedly subtract d from a n to get

S n = a n + a n -1 + a n -2 + ! + a3 + a 2 + a1
= a n + [a n - d ] + [a n - 2d ] + ! + [a n - (n - 1)d ].......... (2)

Adding equations (1) and (2) gives

2S n = (a1 + a n ) + (a1 + a n ) + (a1 + a n ) + % + (a1 + a n )

$!!!!!!!! !#!!!!!!!!! "
n times

= n(a1 + a n ).

n
Hence S n = (a1 + an ).
2
n
But we know that a n = a1 + (n - 1)d . Therefore, we also have S n = [2a1 + (n - 1)d ].
2

Activity Show that an = S n - S n-1 .

8
Example Find the sum of the first 100 odd integers.

Solution The odd integers form an arithmetic sequence, namely

1, 3, 5, 7, … ,

where a1 = 1 and d = 2. So

n
S100 = [2a1 + (n - 1)d ]
2
100
= [2(1) + 99(2)]
2
= 50(2 + 198)
= 50(200)
= 10 000.

Exercises 5.2

You should write your solutions in the spaces provided.

In exercises 1-3, find the nineteenth term and the sum of the first 20 terms of the given
arithmetic sequence.

1. 2, 5, 8, 11, …

2. –5, 0, 5, 10, …

3 5
3. 1, 2 , 2, 2 ,…

9
4. Kori is the sales manager at the Rixa Body Shop. He receives a salary of $325, 000 for
the first year. Kori is guaranteed a raise of $24, 000 per year.
(a) What will be Kori’s salary during the eight year of his employment?
(b) How much will the Rixa Body Shop have paid him by the end of the seventh
year?
(c) How long will Kori have to work with the Rixa Body Shop before he earns
$1, 000, 000 per year?

5. The sixth term of an arithmetic sequence is –13 and the eleventh term is –48. Find
(a) the twenty-third term,
(b) the sum of the first 50 terms.

10
6. Seats in n auditorium are arranged as follows: first row, 20 seats; second row, 35
seats; third row, 50 seats, and so on.
(i) What is the total number of seats in the auditorium if there are 25 rows?
(ii) How many seats are in the 15th row?

7. Find the sum of all even integers between 1 and 101 which are not multiples of 5.

11
8. In an arithmetic progression the first term is –2, and the common difference is 6.
How many terms must be taken to give a sum of 250?

9. In an arithmetic progression, the sum of the first nine terms is five times the sum of the
first three terms, and the first term is 11. Find the sum of the first eight terms.

12
Geometric Sequences (or Geometric Progressions (GP))

Consider the sequence whose terms are

2, 6, 18, 54, … .

In order to generate the sequence, we multiply each preceding term by 3.

2!
, 6,! 54," .
18,!
´3 ´3 ´3

The number 3 that we multiply by is called the common ratio, r, of the sequence. Sequences
in which consecutive terms have a common ratio are called geometric sequences (or
geometric progressions).

Observe that
ai +1
r= and r ¹ 0.
ai
In general, we can write a geometric sequence as

a1 , a1r , a1r 2 , a1r 3 , ! .

By following the pattern, we obtain the general term

a n = a1 r n -1 .

Example Find the tenth term of the following geometric sequence:

-1, 2, -4, 8, … .

2
Solution Here a1 = -1 and r = = -2. Hence
-1

a10 = a1 r n -1
= (-1)(-2) 9
= 512.

25
Example The third term of a geometric sequence is 25, and the seventh term is . Find
16
the fifteenth term.

Solution First we need to find a1 and r.We have

13
 a3 = 25, that is, a1 r 2 = 25 .......... (1)
25 25
a7 = , that is, a1 r 6 = ......... (2)
16 16

By dividing equation (2) by equation (1) we get

1
r4 =
16
1
r= .
2

1
By putting r = in equation (1), we get
2

2
æ1ö
a1 ç ÷ = 25
è2ø
a1
= 25
4
a1 = 100.

Hence
a15 = a1 r n -1
14
æ1ö
= 100ç ÷
è2ø
100
=
16384
25
= .
4096

The n th Partial Sum of a Geometric Sequence

Given the geometric sequence

a1 , a1r , a1r 2 , a1r 3 , ! ,

the n th partial sum, S n , is

S n = a1 + a1 r + a1 r 2 + ! + a1 r n -1 .

You should observe that S n can be written more compactly as

14
 n
S n = å ai r i -1 .
i =1

Please check that both expressions for S n are the same.

Now S n is given by the formula

æ1- r n ö
S n = a1 çç ÷÷ where r ¹ 1.
è 1- r ø

Why do we need the condition that r ¹ 1 ?

Let us now derive the formula for S n . We know that

S n = a1 + a1 r + a1 r 2 + ! + a1 r n - 2 + a1 r n -1 .......... (1)

By multiplying equation (1) by r, we get

rS n = a1 r + a1 r 2 + a1 r 3 + ! + a1 r n -1 + a1 r n .......... (2)

By subtracting equation (2) from equation (1), we get

S n - rS n = a1 - a1 r n
S n (1 - r ) = a1 (1 - r n )
æ1- r n ö
S n = a1 çç ÷÷.
è 1- r ø

10
Example Find å 3(0.2)
i =1
i -1
.

Solution First we will write out a few terms to get

10

å 3(0.2)
i =1
i -1
= 3 + 3(0.2) + 3(0.2) 2 + ! + 3(0.2) 9 .

Here a1 = 3, r = 0.2 and n = 10. Hence

15
 æ1- r n ö
S10 = a1 çç ÷÷
è 1- r ø
æ 1 - (0.2)10 ö
= 3çç ÷÷
è 1 - 0 .2 ø
= 3.75.

The Sum to Infinity of a Geometric Sequence

Consider the geometric sequence

1 1 1 1
1, , , , , ! .
2 4 8 16

Here we have the following partial sums.

Sn = 1
S 2 = 1.5
S 3 = 1.75
S 4 = 1.875

Write down S 5 , S 6 , S 7 and S 8 . You will notice that the partial sums get closer and closer to 2
as the values of n increase. We say 2 is the sum to infinity of the geometric sequence and
denote this as S ¥ = 2.

Can we get a formula for S ¥ ? Sure. Observe that if r < 1, then r n gets closer and closer to 0
as n gets larger and larger. We write r n ® 0 as n ® ¥ (try to convince yourself of this fact by
experimenting with some values of r and of n). Therefore,

æ 1 - 0 ö a1
S n ® a1 ç ÷= as n ® ¥.
è1- r ø 1- r

In other words, if r < 1, then

a1
S¥ = .
1- r

Remark 1. The absolute value function, x means “take the positive value”. For
example, −3 = 3 and 3 = 3 .
2. The sum
¥

åa r
i =1
i
i -1
= a1 r + a1 r 2 + a1 r 3 + !

is called an infinite geometric series.

16
 ¥
Example Find å 2(0.5)
n =1
n -1
.

Solution By writing out a few terms we get

å 2(0.5)
n =1
n -1
= 2 + 2(0.5) + 2(0.5) 2 + ! .

Here a1 = 2 and r = 0.5. Observe that r < 1. Hence

a1
S¥ =
1- r
2
=
1 - 0.5
= 4.

Example Write the repeating decimal 0.444… as a ratio of two integers.

Solution We can write 0.444… as the infinite geometric series

0.444... = 0.4 + 0.04 + 0.004 + 0.0004 + !

= 0.4 + 0.4(0.1) + 0.4(0.1) 2 + 0.4(0.1) 3 + ! .
Here a1 = 0.4 and r = 0.1. Hence

0.4
0.444... =
1 - 0.1
0.4
=
0.9
4
= .
9

Exercises 5.3

You should write your answers in the spaces provided.

In exercises 1-3, find the twelfth term and the sum of the first 10 terms of the given geometric
sequence.

1. 1, 3, 9, 27, …

17
 1
2. 4, 2, 1, 2 ,…

3. 6, -2, 23 , - 92 , !

In exercises 4-6, find the given sums.

9
4. å2
n =0
n

10
5. å 5( )
n =1
2 n
3

18
 ¥
6. å 3( )
n =0
1 n
4

7. Charlene’s salary in 2000 is US$50, 000 per annum. Each year thereafter she received
an increase of 12% of the previous year’s salary. Find her salary in 2011.

8. (i) Obtain the number of terms in the following geometric sequence: 12, 24, …, 1536.
(ii) Hence, obtain the sum of the geometric sequence.

19
In exercises 9-11, write the repeating decimals as a ratio of two integers.

9. 0.1111…

10. 0.282828…

20
11. 1.363636…

12. The terms 2 x - 1, x - 2, x - 4 are three consecutive terms of a geometric progression.

Find x. If x > 0 and x - 2 is the fifth term, find the common ratio of the series and the
sum to infinity of the series.

21
The Binomial Theorem

Do you remember the perfect square pattern? This pattern gave us an easy way to expand
(a + b) 2 without actually multiplying the two binomial terms. We have

(a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 .

But what about higher powers, for example, (a + b) 3 and (a + b) 4 ? Is there a pattern or
formula for expanding higher powers with multiplying the binomial terms?

Now consider the following expansions.

1. (a + b) 3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3

2. (a + b) 4 = a 4 + 4a 3b + 6a 2 b 2 + 4a 3b + b 4

Notice that there is a pattern. In expansion 1, the powers of a start at 3 and decrease to 0
while the powers of b start at 0 and increase to 3. Also sum of the powers in each term is
equal to 3. Verify that the same pattern holds for expansion 2. Given the pattern we would
expect that the terms in the expansion of (a + b) 5 to be of the form

a 5 , a 4 b, a 3b 2 , a 2 b 3 , ab 4 , b 5 .

But what are the coefficients of these terms? How do we find them? For smaller powers we
can use Pascal’s triangle. This triangle is shown below
The coefficients in the expansion of (a + b) n are

n=0 1
n =1 1 1
n=2 1 2 1
n=3 1 3 3 1
n=4 1 4 6 4 1
n=5 1 5 10 10 5 1

Can you write down two more rows? The pattern to obtain the row for n = 7 is shown below.

1 6! 15
! 20
! 15
! 6! 1
1+ 5 5+10 10+10 10+ 5 5+1

Using Pascal’s triangle, we get

(a + b) 5 = a 5 + 5a 4 b + 10a 3b 2 + 10a 2 b 3 + 5ab 4 + b 5

22
Now, suppose for some reason we want to expand (a + b)15 . It would not be very efficient to
use Pascal’s triangle to do this expansion. The ideal tool to use would be the Binomial
Theorem. Before we state the Binomial Theorem, some definitions are in order.

Definition If n is a positive integer, then the factorial of n, written n!, is given by

n != n(n - 1)(n - 2)(n - 3) ! 3 ´ 2 ´ 1

For example,
5!= 5 ´ 4 ´ 3 ´ 2 ´ 1 = 120 .

Remarks 1. We define 0! = 1.
2. The number of different arrangements of n distinct objects is n!.

Definition If n and r are non-negative integers with r £ n , then

n!
n
Cr =
r !(n - r )!

For example,
5! 5 ´ 4 ´ 3 ´ 2 ´1
5
C3 = = = 10 .
3!´ 2! 3 ´ 2 ´ 1 ´ 2 ´ 1

Or you could just use your calculator. Try it.

ænö
Remarks 1. Sometimes the notation çç ÷÷ is used to represent n C r .
èr ø

2. The number of ways to select r objects from n objects is n C r .

We are now able to state and prove the Binomial Theorem.

The Binomial Theorem

( x + y ) n = n C 0 x n + n C1 x n -1 y + n C 2 x n - 2 y 2 + ! + n C r x n - r y r + ! + n C n -1 xy n -1 + n C n y n

Observe that n C 0 = n C n = 1.

Example Use the Binomial Theorem to expand the following.

(i) (a + 3) 3
(
(ii) 1 - x )
2 5 æ 1ö
(iii) ç x 3 + ÷
xø
è

23
Solution (i)
(a + 3) 3 = 3C 0 a 3 + 3C1 a 2 (3) + 3C 2 a 3 2 + 3C 3 33 ( ) ( )
= a 3 + 3(3)a 2 + 3(9)a + 27
= a 3 + 9a 2 + 27 a + 27

(ii) Since we have a difference in this case, we write 1 - x 2 ( ) = [1 + (- x )] . So

5 2 5

(1 - x )2 5
( ) ( )(
= 5C0 15 + 5C1 14 - x 2 + 5C 2 13 - x 2) ( )( )2
( )(
+ 5C3 12 - x 2 )
3
+ 5C 4 (1) - x 2( )
4
(
+ 5C5 - x 2 )
5

= 1 - 5 x 2 + 10 x 4 - 10 x 6 + 5 x 8 - x10
(iii)

4 2 3 4
æ 3 1ö
ç x + ÷ = C0 x
xø
4 3
( ) 4
+ 4
C (x ) ç ÷ +
1
æ1ö
x
3 3 4
C2 (x ) æç 1x ö÷
3 2
+ 4
C (x )ç ÷
3
æ1ö
x
3 æ1ö
+ C4 ç ÷ 4

è è ø è ø è ø è xø
1
= x12 + 4 x 8 + 6 x 4 + 4 + 4
x

Let us now try another example.

8
æ x3 1 ö
Example In the expansion of çç - ÷÷ , find the coefficient of the term in x 4 .
è 2 xø

Solution Observe that the term in x 4 is

3 5
æ x3 ö æ 1ö æ x 9 öæ 1 ö
8
C5 çç ÷÷ ç - ÷ = 56çç ÷÷ç - 5 ÷
è 2ø è xø è 8 øè x ø
= -7 x 4

Hence the required coefficient is –7.

Exercises 5.4

You should write your answers in the spaces provided.

In exercises 1-6, use the Binomial Theorem to find the given expansions. Simplify your
answers.

1. ( x + 2 y) 4

2. (a - 3b) 6

24
 5
æ xö
3. ç1 - ÷
è 3ø

4
æ1 ö
4. ç + x 2 ÷
è2 ø

3
æ 1 ö
5. ç 2 - x 2 ÷
èx ø

5
æ 1ö
6. ç x 4 - ÷
è xø

25
 15
æ 2ö
7. Find the coefficient of x 18 in the expansion of ç x 2 + ÷ .
è xø

12
æ2 ö
8. A term in x occurs in the expansion of ç - x 2 ÷ . Determine its coefficient.
9

èx ø

8
æ 2 3x 3 ö
9. In the binomial expansion of çç - ÷ show that the ratio of the coefficients of the terms
èx 4 ÷ø
63
in x 4 and x - 4 is .
64

8
æ 2 3x 3 ö
10. In the expansion of çç - ÷ , find the coefficient of the term independent of x.
èx 4 ÷ø

26