FOREWORD

Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM), through the cooperation and

support of various road authorities and engineering institutions in Malaysia, publishes
A SETiES Of OffiCiAl documents on STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS, GUIDbLINES,
MANUAL and TECHNICAL NOTES which are related to road engineering. The
aim of such publication is to achieve quality and consistency in roa-d and highway
construction, operation and maintenance.

The cooperating bodies are:-

Public Works Department Malaysia (pWD)

Malaysian Highway Authority (MHA)
Department of krigation & Drainage (DID)
The Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM)
The Institution of Highways & Transportation (IHT Malaysian Branch)

The production of such documents is carried through several stages. At the Forum on
Technoiogy and Road Management organized by PWD/REAM in Novemb er I99J,
Technical Committee 6 - Drainage was formed with the intention to review Arahan
Teknik (Jalan) 15/97 - INTERMEDIATE GUIDE To DRAINAGE DESIGN oF
ROADS. Members of the committee were drawn from various government
departments and agencies, and from the private sector inciuding privitized road
operators, engineering consultants and drainage products manufacturers and
contactors.

Technical Committee 6 was divided into three sub-committees to review Arahan

Teknik (Jalan) 75/91 and subsequenrly produced 'GUIDELINES FoR ROAD
DRAINAGE DESIGN' consisting of the following volumes:

Volume I - Hydrological Analysis

Volume 2 - Hydraulic Design of Culverts
Volume 3 - Hydraulic Considerations in Bridge Design
Volume 4 - Surface Drainage
Voiume 5 - Subsoil Drainage

The drafts of all documents were presented at workshops during the Fourth and Fifth
Malaysian Road Conferences held in 2000 and 2002 respectively. The comments and
suggestions received from the workshop participants were reviewed and incorporated
in the finalized documents

ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA

46-4, Jalan Bola Tampar 13/14, Section 13,40100 Shah Alam, selangor, Malaysia
Tel: 603-5513 652r Fax:5513 6523 e-mail: ream@pojaring.my

-J-
 TABLE OT CONTENTS

pase

5.1 INTRODUCTION
...5-1
<) PROVISION AND LOCATION OF SUBSOIL
DRAINAGE...... ... 5.1
5.3 DESIGN OF SUBSOIL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS...
5.3.1. The Control of Seepage Flow in Rollins ..".,..5-2
or Mountainous Terrain .....
tuX
5'3'2 The conrrol of a High wut", ,"or"tr ar", ,".rt*. .
5.3.3 The Control of Water Entering the Subgrade
Through a
Pervious Road Surface........ . .
5-2
5.4 DESIGN FLOW CAPACITY
5.4.1 Field Trial Method.
5.4.2 Calculation Method

DETAILED SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION.........

5.5.1 Boring and Ground WaterLevel Measuremer;:........"..............5_g5-8

5 .5 .2 Standpipe .5_g ..
5.5.3 Piezomerer Standpipe
..5_g ."

DETERMINATION OF SOIL COEFFICIENT

OF' PERMEABILITY ....5-9
5.6.1 In-situ permeability Test
(a) Variabie Head in Soils... ........5_9
(b) PackerTesrinRock"......; ......5_10

3.t DESIGN OF FILTER MATERIAL.

5.7 .l . ..,,5-1]
Design Filter Marerial - standarJ C.rai"g"rd'Design
Grading . ...5_r7
5.7 .2
Fabrics
Synthetic Filter Clorh /
.....5_20
-tI 5.7.3
I
Examples of FilterDesign. ..."5_23

-l TYPES OF SUBSOIL DRAINS .....

I
I 5.8.1 Single Size Aggregates Filled Trench Lined ....5-27
with Synthetic Filter Cloth (See Fig. 5.15) ...
'I .. "....5-21
I
5.8.2 Subsoil Pipe and Single Size Aggregate Filled
I
Trench
Lined with Synthetic Filter Ctottr qsie Fig.
5.16) ....., 5-28
I
I
5,8.3 Porous / Perforated / Slotted pipe with
I
Design Filter Material (See Fig.5.17) ...
.5-28
s"8.4 Other Proprietary Types
1
I 5-28
I

5.9 DRAIN PIPE DESIGN

..5-29
I
I
t

;*--
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 5.1 Longitudinal Subsoil Drain used to cut off seepage and lower
.
the groundwater table ...... ' '5-3
Ftg.5.2 MultipleSubsoilDrain. ......: ....5-3

Fig. 5.3 Symmetrical Longitudinal Drains used to lower the water table . ........5-3
Fig. 5.4 Subsoil Drain for Multilanes Road "... '..5-4
Fig. 5.5 Sunsoil Drain to directly drain the base course ..... ..........5-4
Fig.5.6 Interception of Shallow Seepage .
Zone ........5-4
Fig. 5.7 Subsoil Drainage Layers for High Fill .. .."......5-5
Fig. 5.8 Standpipe Installation .........5-11
Fig. 5.9 Piezometer Standpipe Installation --""....5-I2
Fig. 5.10Nomograph for Estimating Coefficient of Permeability of Granular
Drainage and Filter Materials . '..5-13
Fig. 5.11 Particle Size Distribution for Concrete Sand B.S. 882
Filter Material Recommended for Clay Soils ..5-19
Fig. 5.l}Gradation of Filter Material ..5-24
Fig. 5.13 Filter and Slot Design for Example 2 ..... .........5-24
Fig. 5.14Filter Design for Example 3.. .

Fig. 5.15 Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with Synthetic Filter Cloth.. ........5-31
Fig. 5.16 Subsoil Pipe and Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with
Synthetic Filter Cloth . .5-31

Fig.5.17Porous /Perforated/ SlottedPipe withDesignFilterMaterial. ......5-32

Fig. 5.18Examples of Arrangement of Transversesubsoil Drain .....5-32
Fig. 5.19 Typical Pipe Outlet for Subsoil Drain .. ....5-33

LIST OF TABLES
Table 5.1 Normal Range of Permeability Coefficient of Typical Soils . . ... .. .5-7

TabIe 5.2 Insitu Permeability Test - (Variable Head). "..... "5-1'4

Table 5.3 Field Permeability Test - Packer Test . ... '5-15

Table 5.4 Measurement of W.L. for Standpipe/Piezometer Standpipe .........5-16

Table 5.5 The Particles Size Distribution for Concrete Sand MS 30 ....5-18
Table 5.6 Composition of Sand Fraction from 150 gm Samples ... ... ". .5-2I
Table 5.7 Physical Property Requirements ... ..5-22
 VOLUME 5, SUBSOILDRAINAGE

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Water control is a very important factor in highway

design and construction.
Although adequate surface drainage is the firsl step in
eniuring good internal
moisture control, a properly designed and incorporated
system is also essential.
,uu*it drarnage

Soil is a natural material made up of solid particles

and various sizes of pores,
such that water either remains in it or perlolates
through it. water retention
and movement within, constitute the two important
phases in soii moisture
relationship' Water movement takes place fy trr" action
capillary action, or by a combination of the two.
of gravity or of
Subsoil drainaie can r"duc"
the soil moisture by keeping the ground water table
well beneith the paved
surface.

The principal objective of subsoil drainage is to make

sure that a subgrade of
uniform bearing value and strength is maintained.

The principal ways in which changes in moisture

conrent can occur in the
subgrade of a road are:_

(a) by seepage of water into the subgrade from higher

lhe ground adjacent
to the road (a case of seepage flow in roriing or
*o"'rrtui".rous terrain);

(b) by a rise or fall in the level of the water table (a case of

high water
table in a flat terrain);

(c) by the percolation of water through the surface of the road

carriageway.

<) PROVISION AND LOCATION OF SUBSOIL DRAINAGE

The decision to install subsoil drainage should be

based on site conditions
existing at the time of construction. where position
oi ,t water table is
reasonably close to formation level (about im or less), "
the Engineer is
required to carry out soil classification tests, grading tests
and trial pits to
ascertain the level of the water table. The mosiapprolriut"
time for .uoylng
out the trial pits is during the wet months when ttre iater
table is usualy at iti
highest level and the subsoil at its wettest. It is the
responsibility of the
Engineer to determine the necessity and locations where
subsoil drainage is
rcquired' The Engineer then foliows the procedures specified
under Section
5.7 in order ro select and design firter material suitabi"
encountered.
f* ih;'^ryp"ffi"rr

5-1
5.3 DESIGN OF SUBSOIL DR.AINAGE SYSTEMS

Subsoil drainage is required for the following conditions:

(a) intercepting seepage water from outside sources and lowering it to

acceptable level before it reaches the road structures (see Fig. 5.1);

(b) the removal of stationary water in the soil to control and to lower the
ground water table and providing outlets (see Fig. 5.3 and Fig. 5.4);

(c) to drain the subgrade and pavement during and after the construction
period (see Fig. 5.5).

5.3.1 The Control of Seepage Flow in Rolling or Mountainous Terrain

There are two methods of dealing with the condition of seepage flow.
If the seepage zone is narrow and within 1m of the surface then the
usual procedure is to install an intercepting subsoil drain just in the
impermeable strata underlying the seepage zone as shown in Fig. 5.1.
If, however, the seepage zone is wide or the impermeable stratum is
deep, it is generally, impracticable to construct the drainage trench
sufficiently deep to intercept all the seepage water.

ln this case, therefore, the intercepting drain is usually located to keep

the leve1 of underground water table about 1m below formation level
(see Fig. 5.1).

Where roads are on sloping ground, longitudinal drains may not be

capable of intercepting all the seepage water. In such cases, it may be
necessary to install horizontal filter blankets as shown in Fig. 5.7.

5.3.2 The Control of a High Water Table in Flat Terrain

A high water table can be lowered by the installation of subsoil

drainage system. It is desirable that the water table should be
maintained at a depth not less than 1m below formation level (see Fig.
5.3). The actual spacing and depth of drains to achieve this
requirement will depend on the soil conditions and width of the road
formation. In the case of dual carriageways, drains may be necessary
under the central reserve as well as under the edges of the formation
(see Fig. 5.a).

5.3.3 The Control of Water Entering the Subgrade

Through a Pervious Road Surface

A completely impermeable road surface is difficult to reaiize in

practice and porous subbase has been installed to deal with water
percolating through the pavement surface.
 ORTGTNAL GROUND
[
\ J IPROPOSED CUT SLOPI
ORIGINAL WATER TABLI

t\l
-\l
.\.\'_\-i-
DRAWDOWN
CURVT

SUESOIL DRAJN

DRAWDOWN
CURVT

SUBSOIL DRAIN

FIG. 5.2 MUITIPIE SUBSOIL DRAIN

PROPOSTD CUT SLOPI

ORIGINAL WATTR
FORI/ATIONLEVEL \ I TABLI

p*o*00**;;;:l-Li:0HffilJof,Y-J[;--L
rMpERVr.us B',NDAR'

nG. 5.3
THE TATER TABIE

5-3
 v
1

NG. 5.4 SUBSOII DRAIN FOR MUTTII,ANES ROAI)

SHOULDER

SHOULDER

SUBBASE

o DESIGN FILTER
l'/ATERIAL

MINIMUM 150mm 0 SUBSOIL PlPt

FIG. 5.5 SIESOIT DRAIN TO DIRECTTY DRAIN TIIE BASE COT]RSE

ROADSIDI
DRAIN
WATIRTABLE

SETPAGE
ZONE

DESIGN FILTER MATERIAL

IMPIRVIOUS l/lNiMUM 150mm 0 SUBSOIL PIPE

STRATUM

NG" 5.6 IIVTERCEPTION OF SHATLOT SEEPAGE ZONE

54
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5.3.3 The Control of Water Entering the Subgrade

Through a Peryious Road Surface - (Cont'd)
(a) Porous Subbase
The purpose of the porous, granular subbase is to trap any water
infiltrating through the road surface and carry it to the open drains
provided beyond the road shoulders and so prevent the softening of
the subgrade. The porous subbase consists of i50mm to 300mm of
compacted porous rnateriai such as sand, gravel, etc., interposed
between the base course and the subgrade (see Fig. 5.5). The
subgrade, has to be properly cambered and free from depressions
and the porous subbase must cover the entire road formation and
connected to the roadside drain. Unless very careful attention is
given to the shaping and cambering of the subgrade, it is probable
that most of the water passing into the porous subbase would be
trapped in irregularities in the surface of the subgrade, and
consequently not entering the drain.

Besides acting as a drainage layer, the porous subbase increases the

thickness of the pavement design. It also prevents soft clay
working up into the base course of a flexible pavement founded on
a ciay subgrade. It is placed immediately after the preparation of
the formation, and will help to prevent the disturbance of the
subgrade by construction traffic. It is probable that the improved
performance of roads with porous subbase is due to the latter factor
rather than the possibie drainage, which the subbase effects.

5.4 DESIGN FLOW CAPACITY

Commonly, the design flow capacity of ground water drainage system is based
on empirical rule of thumb that have been developed by trial and error over a
period of years, or on rather tedious graphical techniques involving the use of
flow nets. The purpose of this section is to present a field trial and error
method and an approximate analytical method.

5.4.1 Field Trial Method

Where earthwork has reached formation level, a useful estimate of the
effect of installing drains to lower the level of the ground water at a
particular site (see Fig. 5.3) can be obtained by carrying out a simple
field trial. Two parallel trenches 500mm wide and about 20m long are
. dug along the line of the proposed drainage trenches for the road to a
depth of about 1m below the leve1 to which it is desired to lower the
ground water. A transverse line of boreholes at about 1.5m to 3m
intervals is sunk between the centre of the trenches and extended about
3m to 6m either side. Observations are made of the levels of the water
table in the boreholes before and after pumping the water out of the
trenches for a sufficient period of time to establish equilibrium
conditions. By plotting these results, an estimate can be made of the
drawdown effect of the drain trenches, and by this means it is possible
to establish the correct depth and spacing of the drains. The capacity
required for the drainpipes can be estimated from the rate of pumping
necessary to keep the trenches free of water.

5-6
 f

5.3.3 The Control of Water Entering the Subgrade

Through a Pervious Road Surface - (Cont'd)
(a) Porous Subbase
The purpose of the porous, granular subbase is to trap any water
infiltrating through the road surface and carry it to the open drains
provided beyond the road shoulders and so prevent the softening of
the subgrade. The porous subbase consists of 150mm to 300mm of
compacted porous material such as sand, gravel, etc., interposed
between the base course and the subgrade (see Fig. 5.5). The
subgrade. has to be properly cambered and free from depressions
and the porous subbase must cover the entire road formation and
connected to the roadside drain. Unless very careful attention is
given to the shaping and cambering of the subgrade, it is probable
that most of the water passing into the porous subbase would be
trapped in irregularities in the surface of the subgrade, and
consequentiy not entering the drain.

Besides acting as a drainage layer, the porous subbase increases the

thickness of the pavement design. It also prevents soft clay
working up into the base course of a flexible pavement founded on
a clay subgrade. It is placed immediately after the preparation of
the formation, and will help to prevent the disturbance of the
subgrade by construction traffic. It is probable that the improved
performance of roads with porous subbase is due to the latter factor
rather than the possible drainage, which the subbase effects.

5.4 DESIGN FLOW CAPACITY

Commonly, the design flow capacity of ground water drainage system is based
on empirical rule of thumb that have been developed by trial and effor over a
period of years, or on rather tedious graphical techniques involving the use of
flow nets. The purpose of this section is to present a field trial and error
methocl and an approximate analytical method.

5.4.I Field Trial Method

Where earthwork has reached formation level, a useful estimate of the
effect of installing drains to lower the level of the ground water at a
particular site (see Fig. 5.3) can be obtained by carrying out a simple
field trial. Two parallel trenches 500mm wide and about 20m long are
. dug along the line of the proposed drainage trenches for the road to a
depth of about 1m below the levei to which it is desired to lower the
ground water. A transverse line of boreholes at about 1.5m to 3m
intervals is sunk between the centre of the trenches and extended about
3m to 6m either side. Observations are made of the levels of the water
table in the boreholes before and after pumping the water out of the
trenches for a sufficient period of time to establish equilibrium
conditions. By plotting these results, an estimate can be made of the
drawdown effect of the drain trenches, and by this means it is possible
to establish the correct depth and spacing of the drains. The capacity
required for the drainpipes can be estimated from the rate of pumping
necessary to keep the trenches free of water.

5-6
s.4.2 Calculation Method

It is always desirabre to carry out design flow

carculations for the
following reasons:-

(a) to predict the reduction in the water

level due to the provision
of subsoil drainage;

(b) severe cases where project area

is of high water table or
excessive seepage.

Darcy's Law is commonly used

and application of the law
detailed subsurface investigatio"--.;; needs
determine the permeability
constant (k).

calculation of design flow is sometimes omitted in the design of

subsoil drainage. This is due to the
faci that sorvinJ rrr" d", equations
under complicated actual ground
conditions is difficult.

Darcy's Law:

a = kiA
where a = seepage volume (cu.cm/sec)
k = coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)
A = cross sectional area of seepage
layer (sq.cm)
i = hydraulic gradient

The application of Darcy's Law is

sufficient for most subsoil drainage
although it assumes raminar flow
anJ-.onstant viscosity of the water.
The use of Darcy's Law requir",
u i"r"rroination or tne permeability
constant (k) and the hydraulic gradient
(i) u"J tr,"r. *";;r"es are not
easily obtainable under
grouno conditions. so,,'" typical
values for (k) are shown foln]i_la1eo
in Table 5.1."

Table 5'1 - Normar Range of permeab'ity coefficient of rypicar so's

0.1 - 1.r 10-

Sandy Soil 0.1 r 10-'- 1x 10

Clayey Soil 0.1,r105-1x10-

Very low permeability
0.1 x 10-' or less

Source: Japan Road Association

5-l
5.5 DETAILEDSUBSURFACEINVESTIGATION

5.5.1 Boring and Ground Water Level Measurement

Boring and Ground Water Measurements should be done at the project
area to identify the underground conditions and level of water table.
For water ievel locations when earthworks have reached formation
level, drilling a hole by a small auger should be sufficient.
Measurement of the water table is a very important part of the
sub surface investisation.

The water level in every borehole is taken while drilling is in progress

at the following:-

(a) before work commences in the morning;

(b) after work finished in the evening but before water is added to
the borehole.

The depth of the borehole and the casting (if any) is measured when
each water level measurement is taken"

5.5.2 Standpipe
Standpipe of 19mm internal diameter rigid unplasticised P.V.C. tubing
can be installed in selected boreholes especially directed. (See Fig.
s.8).

The bottom of the standpipe is plugged and the lower 0.5m is

perforated with slots.

The perforated tubing is surrounded by a response zone of an approved

granular material used to backfili the borehole to a depth of 1.5m
beiow ground level.

The top of the P.V.C. tubing is then sealed with a steel cap to prevent
the ingress of surface water.

5.5.3 Piezometer Standpip. ,

The piezometer standpipe consists of a porous element 305mm long. It

is saturated before placing and is placed centrally in a response zone
consisting of 1.0m deep layer of well-graded fine to coarse sand and is
tamped below and above the porous element. The porous element is
connected to 19mm internal diameter rigid unplasticised P.V.C. tubing
which finishes close to ground level. A11 the joints in the tubing are
made with coupling sleeves so that there is no change in the internal
diameter of the bore and it is sealed to be watertight.

5-8
,i
,,*-,-ifl.
 5.5.3 Piezometer Standpipe _ (Cont,d)

The borehcire is then seared above the

response zone. A stiff grout seal
of bentonite 0.5m thick is rhen formed
a"poriting ; **;;
freshly mixed grout. The remainder of!y ";;;ry
irr" ,"ui is tormea by pracing
grout through a tremie tube, the iower
eno oi ,ti.t, ,hul'f,"ffi
below the surface of the grout. The grout
is then alrowed to settre and
set for one (1) hour after completion
of placing, rrr"
- top of the p.v.c.
tubing is sealed with a steel cover. (See
Fig. S]ql.
5.6 DETERMINATION OF SO'' COEFFICIENT
OF PERMEABILITY
(a) when possible,,permeability of soil should be
determined by testing.
Two common raboratory methods of ..t".*ining
constant (K)
the permeab'ity
are:_

(1) constant-head permeameter test

;
(2) falling-head permeameter test

(b) There are tabres. and nomoslaphs developed

permeability coefficient. A tabre
fbr estimating soil
prepar"o uy-rupun Road Association
(see Table
.5.1).and nomograptrby Moulto" i!;" Fig. 5.r0) can be
a
used for estimating soil permeablHty
coefficient.
(c) Besides raboratory testing, measurement
of soil permeability shourd be
made in the field by adopting one
of the above two methods, after a
normal borehole test has been carried
out.

5.6.1 In-situ permeability Test

(a) Variable Head in Soils

31d typlcll recording of the rest are presenred in

r"r:u^O
fh.".
Tables 5'2' 5.3 and 5'4. The coificients of p"r-"uuitity
depth of borehole are determined at tte
by using the so calred iailing_
head method' water in the borehole
is filred up to the top of
casing and the change in water level
with time is monitored for
a period of time.

The formula for computing the coefficient

of permeability is
given as follows:-

2nP. H1
K= 1og"

1 1 (r2- t1) H2

where K= coefficie_nt of permeabiliry (cmlsec)

R= radius of casing (cm)
f.!l
-
initial testing time (minute)
L2= final testing time (minute)
H1 = initial head
Hr= final head

5-9
;"J#."
(a) Variable Head in Soils - (Cont'd)
The formula for determining the coefficient of permeability
from packer test results is given in the United States Bureau of
Land Reclamation "Earth Manual" (1963) as:-

a
K = 1og"(L/r)forl>10r
2nLH,
-x
where K = coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)
a = rate of flow (cu.cm.sec)
L = test section length (cm)
Ht = total dynamic head (cm)
r = radius of test hole (cm)

(b) Packer Test in Rock

A single packer is lowered to the required depth, and is
supported on drill rods, which are also used to supply water
under pressure to the test section. At the top of the drill hole,
the rods are connected via a water swivel and a high pressure
piston water supply pump capable of delivering at least 100
litres/minute. In addition, at the end coupled to the swivel
hose, one pressure gauge and a volumeter are included to allow
the measurement of water flow and pressure in various stages.

The test carried out in stages being cycled up to a maximum

head and then down again. In the case of leakage (unsound
rock), the test is performed only for the attainable pressure.

At each pressure stage, the pressure is held constant and the

volume is measured over a period of 5 minutes.

The permeability is calculated from the volume of flow and the

net dynamic head applied to the test section"

The net dynamic head (Ht) is:-

Ht = (Hp+Ht+Hz)-H"
where Hn = the pressure head (from the pressure gauge)

Hr = head due to the height of the pressure gauge

above the ground level

Hz = depth of ground water or middle of

test section if the drill hole is dry

H" = head loss in the equipment

Note: In rocks with a permeability of less than 1 x 10-s cm/s,

(H") is not likely to be significant and therefore negligible.

5-10
j
j

CTMTNT MIXID WITH SAND

PIPT
GROUND LEVEL GROUND LtVtL

COARST SAND

FI

3| nrnronnrro
o) SECTION

P.V.C. COVER
1m SAND

COARST SAND

FIG. 5.8 STANDPIPE INSTATI,ATION

5-11
 COVER

CEMENT MIXID WITH

19mm l.D. P.V.C. PIPE

GROUND LTVEL GROUND LEVEL

CTMENT BENTONIK SLURRY

COARSE SAND
PIEZOMITER TIP

t.oml
T- sOlL/sAND BACKFTLL

t (BonoM oF BORrHOLT)

FIG. 5.9 PIEZOMETER STANDPIPE INSTALI.{TION

5-12 i

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j
 TABLE 5.4 - MEASUREMENT OF W.L. FOR STANDP!PE / PIEZOMETER STANDPIPE
No. oF STANDPIPES : BH4
(INSTALLATION oF STANDPIPE DEPTH To 30.70m b.g.l)

DATE TIME W.L. MEASURED FROM DATE TIME W.L. MEASURED FROM
GRoUND LEVEL (m) cRoUND LEVEL (m)

18/06t87 23.93 04/07t87 26.71

19/06t87 24.21 05t07 t87 26.63

20/06t87 24.46 a6/07t87 26.53

21/A687 24.67 07t07t87 26.22

22/06t87 24.9 a8/07t87 26.01

23/06t87 23.97 09ta7t87 25.85

24/06t87 23.99 10/07 t87 25.88

25/06t87 24.25 11t07 t87 25.90

26/06187 24,38 12tA7t87 25.91

27/06t87 24.45 13/07/87 25.92

28106t87 25'Qt 14t07 t87 25.94

29106t87 25.24 15/07t87 25.92

3A/06t87 2s.52 16t07t87 25.93

01/47 t87 25.58

02/07t87 25.64

03t07t87 25.68

(Aug 02)
C:\REANAT5.4-Standpipe.xls(IMfVct) 5-1 6

-.--- r-
 5.7 DESIGN OF FILTER MATERIAL

In the past little attention has been paid to the nature of the material backfill
into the drainage trench and that surrounding the drain pipe. It has been found
that the usage of unsuitable filter material has resulted in an inefficient
drainage system, which after few years has ceased to function owing to the
siiting up of the backfill. In addition, where the drains are installed in silty
sandy soi1, fine silts are often washed through the voids leading to the
formation of large voids (also known as "soil piping" or "internal erosion")
which have caused failure in pavements due to lack of the structural integrity
of the underlying soil.

General characteristics required for the filter material are:-

(a) the stability of grains, i.e. not early weathered nor dissolved.

(b) proper gradation, well graded natural gravel or graded crashed rock is
most suitable.

Filter material selected must be able to fulfill these requirements:-

(a) it must prevent finer material, usually the subgrade soil, from piping or
migrating into the drainage layer and clogging it.

(b) it must be permeable enough to carry water without any significant

resistance.

(c) it must be strong enough to carry the loads applied and, for aggregate
filters, to distribute live loads to the subsrade.

Filter material can consist of standard / design gradings of soil particles or

synthetic filter cloth. The procedure, which is now commonly adopted, is to
use specially selected or designed filter materials.

5.7,1 Design Filter Material - standard Gradings and Design Gradings

The aim of filter design is to ensure that the pores in the filter are fine
enough to prevent the migration of coarser soil particles (soil piping)
which will support the soil mass. Filter design criteria therefore needs
to relate to the pore size of backfill material and the particle sizes of
the soil around the drain, filter material must also be sufficiently
permeable to allow the flow of water. The design life of filter material
should be 10 to 15 Years. Generallv" we have to desisn filter materials
for:-

(a) predominantly clay soils

(b) predominantly sandy or gravel soils

i:
(a) Predominantlv Clav Soils
Concrete sand complying to MS 30, Zone Z grading or similar
material has proved quite satisfactory for all silty and clayey
soils. The concrete sand is fine enough to act as a filter for
silts, and will protect the drain from any fine non-cohesive
particles in clays. Fig.5.11 and Table 5.5 show the particles
size distribution for concrete sand MS 30.

Table 5.5 - The Particles Size Distribution for concrete Sand MS 30

8.S.410 Test Sieve Percentage by Weight Passing

B.S. Sieves
10.0 mm 100
5.0 mm 90 - 100
2.36 mm 75 - 100
1.18 mm 55-90
600 um 35-59
300 um 8-30
150 um 0-10

(b) Predominantly Sandy or Gravel Soils

The first step in the design of filter material for sandy or gravel
soils is to obtain a particle size analysis of the subgrade soil in
which it is prop.osed to install the drain and to plot a curve of
particle size distribution in the usual manner. The limits for the
particle size distribution of the filter materials are based on the
requirements shown in Fig. 5.12.

(i) Filtration or Piping Ratio

To prevent silt or fine particles of the base soil from
being washed into the filter material (soil piping). (See
Fig.5.12).

Drsp
<5
D85S

(ii) Permeabilitv Ratio

To ensure that the filter material must have a higher
permeability rate than that of the subgrade.

Drsr
>5
Drss

5-1 8

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5-19
I
i
*itr&i.
 (b) Predominantly Sandy or Gravel Soils - (Cont'd)
(iii) Hole Ratio
For the filter material to be prevented from being
carried away through the holes of the drain pipes, the
followins must hold:
Dasp

D (diameter of hole)
Notes:
(1) Dtsp is used to designate the size of the sieve that
allows fifteen percent (l5%o) by weight of the filter
material to pass through it. Similariy, Dass designates
the size of sieve that allows eighty-five (852o) by
weight of the base soil to pass through it. particle sizes
smaller than the 75 um sieve refer to Hygrometer
analysis results.

(2) The filter must not be gap-graded (i.e. when some sieve
fractions are scarce or missing altogether). Where the
soil around a drain is gap-graded, filter design shall be
based only on the particles finer than the gap in the
grading. Such precautions are intended to ensure that
the finer soil cannot migrate through the coarser
particles and therefore clog the drain.

(3) If the soil contains layers of fine material, the filter shall
be designed from the grading of the finer soil.

(4) Filter material shall not have more than five percent
(5%) of its weight passing through the 75 um sieve, to
prevent migration of fines from the filter into the drain.

Examples in Section 5.7.3 show how to design filter materials

for different types ofbase soi1.

5.7.2 Synthetic Filter Cloth / Fabrics

The recommended minimum engineering fabric selection criteria in
filtration / drwnage applications shall be as follows:-

(a) Pipins Rgsistance (all applications)

(i) soils with 50Vo or less particles by weight passing 75
um sieve; EOS < Dss of adjacent soil

(ii) soils with more than 50Vo partrcles by weight passing 75

um sieve;

(iii) the Equivalent Opening Size shall be obtained in the

following manner:-

5-20
 5.7.2 Synthetic Filter Cloth / Fabrics - (Cont,d)
Five (5) fresh samples shall be tested. About 150 gm of each of
the following fractions of sand composed of sound rounded
particles shall be as tabulated below:-

Table 5.6 - Composition of Sand Fraction From 150 gm Samples

Percentage Passing Percentage Retained On

l0 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 t0
100 720

(iv) The cloth shal1 be fixed to a standard sieve having

openings larger than the coarsest sand used in such
manner that no sand can pass between the cloth and the
sieve wall. The sand shali be oven-dried. Shaking shall
be accomplished as described in ASTM D422, and shall
be continued for 20 minutes. Determine by sieving
(using successively coarser fractions) that fraction of
sand of which five percent (5Vo) or less by weight
passes the cloth: the equivalent opening size of the cloth
sample is the "retained on" Standard Metric sizes of this
fraction.

Notes:
(1) whenever possible, fabric with the iargest
possible EOS shall be preferred.

(2) when protected soil contains particles 25mm

size to those passing the U.S. 75 um sieve, use
only the gradation of soil passing the U.S. 4.75
mm sieve in selecting the fabric.

(b) Cloesins Resistance

(i) Severe / cntrcal applications:
+ woven fabrics percent open area > 4.0Vo and
EOS > 150 um sieve (0.149 mm);
** woven fabrics not meeting item (*) and al1 other
fabrics gradient ratio < 3.0;
(ii) Less severe I less critical applications all fabrics
equivalent Darcy permeability of fabric > 10 times
Darcy permeability of soil to be drained.

5-2r
l
(c) Chemical Composition Requirements

(i) Fibres used in the manufacture of engineering fabrics

shall consist of long-chain synthetic polymer, composed
of at least 85Vo by weight of polypropylene, -ethylene, -
ester amide, or-vinylidene-chloride, and shall contain
stabilizers and / or inhibitors added to the base plastic
(as necessary) to make the fabric resistance to
deterioration from ultraviolet and heat exposure.

(ii) The engineering fabric shall be exposed to ultraviolet

radiation (sunlight) for no more than 30 days total in the
period of time following manufacture until the fabric is
covered with soil, rock, concrete, etc.

(d) Physical Propertv Requirements (all fabrics)

Table 5.7 - Physical Property Requirements

Fabric (*) Fabric

Unprotected Protected

Grab Strength 0.9 KN 0.45 KN

(ASTM D 1682)

Puncture Strength xx 355 N 155 N

(ASTM D 751-68)

Burst Strength xxx 2.2 KN/m 1.1 KN/m

(ASTM D 751-68)

Notes:

* Fabric is said to be protected when used in drainage

trenches or beneath / behind concrete (portiand or
asphalt cement) slabs" A11 other conditions are said to
be unprotected.

** Tension testing machine with ring clamp, steel ball

replaced with an 8 mm diameter solid steel cylinder
with hemispherical tip centered within the ring clamp.

+{<{< Diaphragm test method.

5-22
 -r-- --- i a1 ?E:.gj'-Pr

5.7.3 Examples of Filter Design

Example 1

suppose a subsoil drain is to be constructed in a base soil with

gradings as shown in Fig. 5.12.

(a) For Filtration

D15F
<5
Dass

= D15F <5 x Dess

5 x 0.25 (fromFig.5.t2)
= l,.25mm hence, D15F < 1.25mm
(b) For Permeability
D15F

l
l

j
;>s
:

-j = D15F>5xDtss
j
5 x 0.02 (f6omFig.5.12)
= 0.10mm hence, D15F > 0.1mm
*i
I

A backfill material should be chosen for the drain that is within the
specifications above. Please note in Figure 5.12 thatit is desirable that
the gradation curve of the filter material is smooth and parallel to that
of the subgrade.

Example 2

A subsoil drain is to be constructed in a base soil with gradings as

shown in Fig. 5.13.

(a) Filter Design

(i) For Filtration

D15F
<5
*-il
,
l
Dlss
;;

; - D15F<5.rDsss
"i = 5x0.21(fromFig.5;13)
i .: = 1.05mm hence, Dtsr < 1.05mm

'-':
:

I
<12
J-LJ
*-;it-
 2D (HOL[ StZ

80
b's

F
z HOLE SlZt = l0mm
L!.1

cr60
U
ALLOWABLE RANGE
o- 0F Des (FILIER)
GRADIATION CURVE OF SUBGRADE ,

z.
a I

i?40 N CURVT
o_ FILTIR MATTRIAL
5 Drs (SUBGRADE) = P.1rt

ALLOWABLI RANGE 0F D1s (FILTER)

0.5 'l

SIEVI SIZE (mm)

FIG. 5.12 GRADATION OF FILTER MATERIAT

SAND GRAVTL

100

z.
U) 6U
a ' BASE SOIL TO
o_
,.60 /- BT FILTERTD
U

z+0 /
UJ CALCULATED
*: / FILTTR MATTRIALS
L! ?n
o- --
0 )
0.05 0.1 1.0 10

GRAIN SlZt (mm)

NG. 5.13 NTTER Ai'ID SIOT DESIGN FOR EXAMPI.E Z

5-2/+
5.7.3 Examplesof FilterDesign - (Cont'd)

(ii) For Permeability

D15F
>5
D155

= D15F>5xDtss
= 5 x 0.085 (from Fig. 5.13)
= 0.425mmhence, D15F > 0.421mm

(b) Slot Design

A backfill material should be chosen for the drain that is within

the specification given above.

A suitable material might have 85vo size of between 3-5mm.

The maximum allowabie hole sizes in pipes used with the
material would be given by:-

Maximum dia. of circular hole = Dssr = 5.0mm

Maximum dia. slots width = Dssp x 1 = 4.2mm
7.2

If the holes in the pipe are too large, a coarser filter material
must be placed next to the pipe. The grading of the coarser
material must be able to prevent migration of the filter into the
pipe. It should therefore be designed in the way indicated
above, except that the finer filter material is considered as the
base soil.

Example 3

A subsoil drain is to be constructed in a base soil with gradings as

shown in Fig. 5.14.

(a) For Filtration

D15F
<5
Dsss

Drsp<5xDsss
5; 1.05 (from Fig. 5.1a)
5.25mmhence, D15F < 5.25mm

5-25
 COBBLES

SILT SAND GRAVEL

100
E-
U
2.80
L-
L!
^^
BASE JI IL TI rEREI
I
s )
CAL :UI \TFD
2.,^ FILI :R UATE (l ,L
LI +U
U.
u^^
o_ 4u

0.01 0.1 1.0 100

Sltvt SIZE (mm)

FIG. 5,14 FITTER DESIGN FOR EXAMPTE 3

5-26
 5.7,3 Examples of Filter Design - (Cont'd)
(b) For Permeabilitlz
Drsr'
>5
D155

D15F>5xDtss
5 x 0.025 (from Fig. 5.14)
0.125mmhence, Dtsp > 0.125mm

The backfiil chosen for the drain should lie within the calculated
grading limits.

5.8 TYPES OF SUBSOIL DRAINS

The type of subsoil drain to be used will depend mainly on the source and the
volume of water to be handled.

A11 subsoil drains should be surrounded with an appropriate filter to prevent

soil piping and at the same time have adequate conductivity to remove seepage
flow. Granular or synthetic (Geotextile) materials can be used us iilt"t
membrane and free draining aggregates with or without a subsoil pipe is
commonly used as the water conductivity medium.

Four (4) types of subsoil drain commonly used are:-

(a) single size aggregate filled trench lined with synthetic filter cloth (See
Fig.5.15);

(b) subsoil pipe and single size aggregate filled trench lined with synthetic
filter cloth
(See Fig. 5.16);

(c) porous / perforated / slotted pipe with design filter material (See Fig.
5.17):

(d) other proprietary types.

5.8.1 Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with

Synthetic Filter Cloth (See Fig.5.15)

In this type of subsoil drain, the trench is lined with geotextiles (made
up of very fine holes and high porosity) protecting gravel filled trench.
The geotextile acts as a filter as it allows water seeping from the soil to
pass through while preventing most soil particles from being carried
away by seepage water.

5-21
5.8.1 Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with
Synthetic Filter Cloth (See Fig. 5.15) - (Cont,d)

The recommended minimum geotextile selection criteria in filtration

applications is discussed earlier in detail under Section 5.j.2.

This type of subsoil drain requires less control of aggregate gradings

and can handle only relatively low seepage volume of water.
However, this type of subsoil drain is quite expensive due to high cost
of geotextile material.

5.8.2 Subsoil Pipe and Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with
Synthetic Filter Cloth (See Fig. 5.16)

It is a combination of subsoil pipe and aggregates. It can handle large

seepage volume of water but is even more expensive than the type
mentioned under Section 5.8.1.

5.8.3 Porous / Perforated / slotted Pipe with Design Filter Material

(See Fig. 5.17)

consists of a trench in which a line of subsoil pipe is laid and the

trench backfilled with suitable fiiter material.

The common types of pipes available are follows:

(i) porous concrete plpes

(ii) asbestos cement slotted pipes
(iii) perforated PVC pipes
(iv) unglazed earthenware

This type of subsoil drain requires stringent control of gradings and

can handle large seepage volume of water. Among the four if is the
cheapest type of subsoil drain.

5.8.4 Other Proprietary Types

Currently in the market, there are other patented types of subsoil drain
which are marketed by various manufacturers. Proprietary types
should be given due consideration and there is no reason why they
cannot be used if they a.re proven to be suitable after proper evaluation
and field tests as described under Section 5.4.r. If in doubt, the
Engineer should refer the new products to IKRAM for advice.

5-28
5.9 DRAIN PIPE DESIGN

(a) Diameter of pipe

Minimum diameter of pipe used should be 150mm.

(b) Gradient of Pipe

Absolute minimum gradient: 1 : 300
Desirable minimum gradient: i : 100

(c) Perforations
(i) slot width

1.2
(ii) hole diameter

(iii) average surface opening of porous pipe

n
The perforated or slotted pipes shall have holes in the lower half of
their circumference only. This is to increase the interception ability
of
the pipes and to reduce the in washing of filter materiai.

(d) Cover of Pipe

Subsoil pipes shall have a minimum cover of 300mm (from top of pipe
to formation level) if it is not subjected to vehicular loadine. Ii theie-is
vehicular loading minimum cover shall be 1.0m.

(e) Subsoil Drain Sumps

Subsoil drain shall be connected into stormwater sumps or under some

circumstances separate subsoil sumps may be necessary. These sumps
have two functions:-

(D For Inspection

usually at the start of a subsoil drain, a simple inspection sump

should be provided.

(ii) For Cleaning Purposes

Spacing of the sumps should not be more than rz}mapart and

have a minimum horizontal dimensions of 600mm if less than
1.2m deep, and 900mm when deeper than that.

5-29
5.9 Drain Pipe Design - (Cont'd)
(0 Pipe Outlet

Pipe outlets should be located at no more than 120m spacing. Subsoil

drain outlets shall be constructed on a relatively steep grade to ensure
unimpeded pipe discharge. The outlets shall also be paved to prevent
erosion and to be clearly visible for inspection and maintenance.

Figure 5.19 shows a typical pipe outlet for subsoil drain.

It should be noted that under certain circumstances subsoil pipes can

function exclusiveiy as a subsoil drain, or be a combination of
stormwater, and subsoil drain. Therefore the types of subsoil drainage
which do not utilise a pipe cannot be properly maintained and as such
cannot be recommended for permanent installation.

5-30
 SHOULDER
ROADSIDT DRAIN

AGGRIGATE BACK FILL

25mm - 40mm STNGLE

SIZE AGGREGATT

ONI LAYTR FILIER CTOTH

ALt ROUND

FIG. 5.15

ROADSIDE DRAIN
FORMATION LEVIL

t) ONE I-AYER. FILTER CLOTH

ALL ROUND

N
12rrm - 25mm SINGLI
SIZE AGGREGATE

MlNl[/UM ] 50mm 0 SUBSOIL PIPE

5.16 SUBSOIL PIPE AND SINGLE SIZE AGGREGATE FILTED

5-31
 SHOULDER
ROADSIDT DRAIN
SUBBAST

DESIGN FILTER MATIRIAL

MINIMUM 150mm 0 SUBS0IL PlPt

FrG. 5.17 P0ROUS/PERFORATEp/SL0TTED pIpE

WITH DESIGN FILTER MATERIAI

i (To BE DrslcN[D)

CENTTRLINE

TRANSVTRSE SUBSOIL DRAIN

FIG. 5.18 EXAMPLES OF ARRANGEMENT OF

TRANSVERSE SUBSOIL DRAIN

5-32
 -

,75

n
,

t
tv
lL.)

LONG GALV. SCRTW

-T I

GALV. WIRI
(stT rN PLASTTC OR NITTING '19mm
HIAD WALL PLUG) (MrsH)

'l.6mm DlA. GALV.

IHT WIRT TWISTID
AROUND EACH

FRONT VIET

SIDE YIET

150mm 0 PIPE

___-tt tr)

-f-
TOP VIET

FIG.5.19 TYPICAT PIPE OUTLET FOR SUBSOIT DRAIN

5-33

r--- _
 ACKI.{OWLEDGEMENTS

TECHNICAL COMMITTEE 6_ DRAINAGE

Main Committee Members

Nafisah Hj. Abdul Aziz Chairman

Ahmad Fuad Emby Deputy Chairman

Wan Suraya Mustaffa Secretary

Normala Hassan Alternate Secretary

Teh Ming Hu Committee member

Lim Kim Oum Committee member

Alias Hashim Committee member

Low Kom Sing Committee member

Nor Asiah Othman Committee member

Johan Les Hare Abdullah Editor

Sub-Committee Members for Volume 5 - Subsoil Drainaee

Teh Ming Hu Chairman

Wan Suraya Mustaffa Secretary

Ahmad Fuad Emby Committee member

Lam Kok Hong Committee member

Yap Lee Chor Committee member

Letchumanan Allagappan Committee member

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Volume 5 is a review of the Arahan Teknik (Jalan) f5/97 - INTERMEDIATE
GUIDE TO DRAINAGE DESIGN OF ROADS, the chapter was authored originally
by Soon Ho Sin and Muhamad Amin Mahmud of Public Works Department
Malaysia.

Volume 5 now provides guidelines to the practical design of subsoil drainage, with
worked examples provided to assist users.

Thanks are due to:

REAM Standing Committee on Technology and Road Management for the

guidance and encouragement given in the preparation of Volume 5.

Members of the Technical Committee 6 - Drainage and Sub-Committee for

Subsoil Drainage for their untiring efforts to ensure timeiy completion of
Volume 5.