Exploring Podcast Adoption

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Exploring Podcast Adoption

Intention via Perceived
Social Norms, Interpersonal
Communication, and Theory of
Planned Behavior
a b
Yi Mou & Carolyn A. Lin
a
School of Media and Design of Shanghai Jiaotong
University
b
Department of Communication, University of
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Published online: 12 Aug 2015.
To cite this article: Yi Mou & Carolyn A. Lin (2015) Exploring Podcast Adoption
Intention via Perceived Social Norms, Interpersonal Communication, and Theory of
Planned Behavior, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 59:3, 475-493, DOI:
10.1080/08838151.2015.1054997
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Exploring Podcast Adoption Intention via
Perceived Social Norms, Interpersonal
Communication, and Theory of
Planned Behavior
Yi Mou and Carolyn A. Lin
Previous research has not linked the perspectives of social influence, in-
terpersonal discourse, and behavioral theory to study new media diffusion.
The current study integrated these perspectives by incorporating theory of
planned behavior with the concepts of normative beliefs and interpersonal
communication to explain podcast-adoption intention. A cross-sectional sam-
ple responded to a survey online. Results show that descriptive norm and
perceived control were significant predictors of attitude; injunctive norm was
a significant predictor of perceived control. Social discourse, perceived de-
scriptive norm, and attitude had a direct effect on podcast-adoption intention;
perceived control and injunctive norm had an indirect effect in contrast.
Introduction
Podcasting is a technology that allows users to download, store, and play back
both audio and audio-visual content files. As of last July, Apple Inc. attained over
one billion podcast subscriptions, with podcasting content downloaded in over 100
different languages (Friedman, 2013). According to the most recent Pew Research
report, 27% of adult Internet users in the United States are podcast users and
the demographic profile of these podcast users resembles ‘‘early adopters’’ of a
technology innovation (Zickuhr, 2013). Another industry study found that 29% of the
Americans were audio podcast users and 26% were video podcast users (Webster,
2012).
Based on the narrow definition of podcasting, podcasting is ‘‘a digital recording
of a radio broadcast or similar program, made available on the Internet for down-
Yi Mou (Ph.D., University of Connecticut) is a special research fellow at the School of Media and Design of
Shanghai Jiaotong University. Her research interests include new media effects and health communication.
Carolyn A. Lin (Ph.D., Michigan State University) is professor in the Department of Communication,
University of Connecticut. Her research focuses on the content, uses, and effects of new media technologies,
health informatics, health communication, advertising, and cross-cultural communication.
© 2015 Broadcast Education Association Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 59(3), 2015, pp. 475–493
DOI: 10.1080/08838151.2015.1054997 ISSN: 0883-8151 print/1550-6878 online
475
476 Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media/September 2015
loading to a personal audio player’’ (Madden, 2006, p. 1). A broader definition

of podcasting will include the downloading of dedicated video programs or other
types of web content to a digital media player or device that has adequate playback
capability. Fundamentally, podcasts allow consumers to ‘‘both time-shift and place-
shift their listening and viewing habits through the downloading of content onto a
personal computer or a portable media player for immediate or future viewing’’
(Haygood, 2007, p. 518).
Past research has found podcasting to be an effective communication venue for
promoting healthy behavior. For instance, a study found that a tailored podcast pro-
gram was able to help people lose weight with increased knowledge, reduced BMI,
and decreased cognitive load (Turner-McGrievy et al., 2009). Additional studies, for
instance, have reported the effectiveness of podcasts in teaching psychomotor skills
among healthcare students (Moore, 2012), educating parents about child nutrition
(Stenger et al., 2013), and increasing participant knowledge about folate-based food
(LaBrosse & Albrecht, 2013).
A large number of studies have also identified podcasting as a productive ped-
agogical tool for enhancing college student learning either in a classroom (Hunts-
berger & Stavitsky, 2007) or online learning setting (Bolliger, Supanakorn, & Boggs,
2010). In addition, podcasting is considered an emerging advertising channel, as
products and services that advertise in podcasts can closely match the consumer
demographics of podcast users (Haygood, 2007). However, even though podcasting
has been around for nearly a decade, existing social scientific research on its
diffusion and adoption remains limited.
This study aims at increasing our understanding of whether perceived social
norms and social-network communication frequency could help explain the dif-
fusion process of podcasting, an emerging new media technology. Specifically, the
study tested a proposed conceptual framework that integrated both descriptive and
injunctive norms with the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and social discourse
to explore podcasting-adoption intention. For an easy-to-use and highly useful
technology that is no longer considered ‘‘new’’ by techies, the less-than-stellar
penetration rate makes podcasting a uniquely interesting case for studying the social
influence factors that could affect its diffusion. As the current study is the first to
examine the podcasting diffusion phenomenon by integrating the perspectives of
social discourse, normative influence, and behavioral theory, a main objective here
is to help advance theory development in new media diffusion research.
Literature Review
Research on information communication technology (ICT) adoption has often

applied theories from the fields of economics, information systems, communication,
and social psychology. Even though these theories have examined ICT adoption
from an interdisciplinary perspective, selective aspects of ICT adoption research are
still emerging due to rapid advances in online-based and mobile technologies. In
Mou and Lin/EXPLORING PODCAST ADOPTION INTENTION 477
particular, the social aspect of ICT diffusion research remains preliminary and our
understanding of ‘‘what makes a communication technology a social medium and
what role that social medium plays in shaping the technological culture in a social
system’’ is still evolving (Lin, 2003, p. 359).
As the distinctions in some of the key technical functions between different media
technologies have been gradually diminishing over time, perceived social influence
or perceived expected value of an ICT could be equally or more important to ICT
adoption than objective innovation or adopter attributes. For instance, relationship
maintenance was identified as the strongest predictor of photo-messaging adoption,
followed by photo messaging activity in one’s social network, perceived usefulness/
ease of use of photo-messaging technology and technology cluster (Hunt, Lin,

& Atkin, 2014). Likewise, perceived information value of podcasts was found to
be a stronger predictor of podcast adoption than technology innovativeness and
perceived attributes of podcast technology (Li & Zeng, 2011).
Based on the limited available literature, social influence factors such as perceived
social norms were found to have an impact on individuals in their innovation
adoption behavior involving green electricity (Ozaki, 2011), video content online
uploading (Park, Jung, & Lee, 2011) and push-to-talk (one-to-one and one-to-many),
instantaneous mobile voice communication service (Dickinger, Arami, & Meyer,
2008). Even so, the effect of social influence factors on ICT adoption decisions has
yet to be fully vetted. This is true, even though social influence concepts such as
social norms (i.e., group norms or descriptive norms) have been widely applied
to study public health behavior (Okun, Karoly, & Lutz, 2002; Smith-McLallen &
Fishbein, 2008).
Theory of Planned Behavior
According to the theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and
the theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1988, 1991), behavioral intention, or
the precondition of behavior, is predicted by three factors: behavioral attitude (the
degree to which one is in favor of or opposed to performing a behavior), perceived
behavioral control (an individual’s perceived ability to perform a behavior), and
subjective norms (an individual’s perception of the degree to which important
others think whether he or she should perform a behavior). Behavioral intention
and perceived behavioral control can in turn exert an influence on the individual’s
behavior. An early study that applied attitude, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioral control to predict ICT adoption intention found that all three variables
were significant predictors of college students’ intention to utilize a shop-bot to
purchase books online (Gentry & Calantone, 2002). Additional research reported
that these three independent variables significantly contributed to the formation of
behavioral intentions for utilizing an online learning system (Yu & Yu, 2010).
These findings were also consistent with past work associated with online learning
adoption (Ndubisi, 2006; Sivo, Pan, & Hahs-Vaughn, 2007; Venkatesh & Davis,
2000; Wiethoff, 2004). By the same token, a study focusing on the intention to
play online games suggested that player attitude, perceived subjective norms, and
perceived behavioral control, in addition to flow experience and perceived enjoy-
ment, all had an influence on an individual’s intention to continue playing these
online games (Lee & Tsai, 2010). Another study, however, reported that attitude
and subjective norm significantly predicted student intentions to download and
listen to course material via podcasts by mid-semester, but perceived control was
an insignificant predictor of podcast-use intention for the entire semester (Moss,
O’Connor, & White, 2010). A possible reason behind why perceived control was not
relevant to podcast-use intention could be that college students are typically savvy
in using new technologies and don’t see themselves having a real issue downloading
the podcasts.
Based on the empirical evidence presented above, the following hypotheses will
test the relations between the concepts of attitude, behavioral control, and intention
associated with podcast adoption.
H1 : Attitude toward podcast use is positively related to podcast-adoption inten-

tion.
H2 : Perceived behavioral control over podcast use is positively related to podcast-
adoption intention.
Injunctive Norm and Descriptive Norm
Although all three predictors of behavioral attitude, perceived behavioral control,

and social norm were found to be predictive of behavioral intention (Culos-Reed,
Shields, & Brawley, 2005; Payne, Jones, & Harris, 2004), the mechanics by which
these three predictors influence behavioral intention can vary from one study context
to the next. For example, a meta-analysis of 185 studies on TRA and TPB indicates
that subjective norms provide the least explanatory power for predicting behavioral
intention (Armitage & Conner, 2001). Similarly, in another meta-analytic review,
researchers found that subjective norms share little or no variance with behavioral
intentions (Hagger, Chatizisarantis, & Biddle, 2002).
The lack of consistent empirical support for the impact of subjective norms led to
the conceptual distinction between descriptive norms and injunctive norms (Reno,
Cialdini, & Kallgren, 1990). Descriptive norms refer to an individual’s perceptions
of what others are doing and injunctive norms reflect one’s perception of what
the important others think one should do (Cialdini et al., 1990). According to
Smith-McLallen and Fishbein (2008), perceived descriptive norm and injunctive
norm could interfere with each other and the impact of injunctive norm could be
mediated by descriptive norm. For instance, adolescents may choose to experiment
with alcohol against the advice of their parents and those who are close to them (i.e.,
injunctive norm) because they hold the belief that most of their peers at school are
drinking alcohol (i.e., descriptive norm) (Borsari & Carey, 2003). Hence, research
that failed to examine the impacts of both descriptive and injunctive norms could
also fail to capture the full impact of perceived norms on one’s behavioral intention
and subsequent action.
Despite its theoretical significance on shaping an individual’s adoption intention
and behavior (e.g., diet, exercise, drinking, or smoking), the concept of descriptive
norms has not been systematically investigated in the ICT adoption research. In
the context of ICT innovation adoption behavior, descriptive norms may play a
considerable role in predicting behavioral (or adoption) intention. From a con-
sumer or marketing perspective, the value of an ICT innovation increases when
its adoption reaches a critical mass (Markus, 1987). The diffusion of contemporary
two-way interactive ICTs in a community is more or less ‘‘all or nothing’’—either all

members use it or no one uses it (Markus, 1990, p. 199). For instance, when online
users face the choice of multiple instant messaging systems (IMs) for conducting
synchronous online communication with the individuals in their preferred social
networks, they are more likely to choose the instant messaging system(s) commonly
favored by their preferred social network(s) to avoid having technical incompatibility
(Lin & Li, 2014). In that sense, online users’ perceptions of what others do with an
ICT innovation to achieve their communication goals may also impact their ICT
innovation adoption decision-making process.
In the case of podcasting diffusion, it is possible that perceived podcast-use norm
in society or among members of a social network could help motivate potential
podcast users to consider adopting podcasting. More formally:
H3a : Perceived descriptive norm associated with podcast use is positively related
to an individual’s podcast adoption intention.
H3b : Perceived injunctive norm associated with podcast use is positively related
to an individual’s podcast adoption intention.
Relationships Between Social Norm, Attitude and Perceived

Behavioral Control
As aforementioned, studies have found that when perceived descriptive norm was
tested alongside subjective (or injunctive) norm, attitude, and perceived behavioral
control, the significant role of subjective norm in predicting behavioral intention
was either reduced or eliminated (e.g., Armitage & Conner, 2001; Hamilton &
White, 2008; Terry & Hogg, 1996; Terry, Hogg, & White, 1999). For instance,
a study on adolescent use of social network sites indicated that descriptive (or
group) norm, attitude, and perceived behavioral control predicted future intentions
to utilize social network sites, but not subjective (or injunctive) norm (Baker &
White, 2010). Hence, the role of social influence stemming from perceived social
norms or descriptive norms could outweigh that of subjective or injunctive norms
in predicting ICT adoption intention, in conjunction with consumer attitude and
perceived behavioral control.
According to Homburg, Wieseke, and Kuehnl (2010), when forming an attitude

toward a given behavior or toward perceived easiness of performing the behavior,
social influences from one’s social networks are inevitable. The TPB conceptually
treats subjective norm, attitude, and perceived control as predictors of behavioral
intention that are not interrelated. As such, past research that tested an integrated
framework of descriptive norm alongside injunctive norm, attitude, and perceived
behavioral control did not necessarily consider the potential interrelations between
them as antecedents of behavioral intention. The following hypotheses are presented
to test the relations between descriptive norm, injunctive (or subjective norm), atti-
tude, and perceived behavioral control in the context of podcast adoption intention.
to podcast-adoption attitude.
to podcast-adoption attitude.
to perceived behavioral control over podcast adoption.
to perceived behavioral control over podcast adoption.
Social Norms and Social Network Communication
Social norms are typically formulated through the following processes: 1) the
inference process, through which people represent the attributes of individuals or
groups by evaluating raw data; and 2) the selection process, through which people
choose their reference groups, i.e., sources of comparison (Miller & Prentice, 1996).
In the social inference process, raw information comes from three primary sources:
1) observable behavior, 2) direct and indirect communication, and 3) knowledge
of self. Empirical studies have shown that for behaviors such as littering (Cialdini
et al., 1990), dieting habits (Smith-McLallen & Fishbein, 2008) or college alcohol
consumption (Borsari & Carey, 2003), both injunctive norms and descriptive norms
are largely developed based on observations of others’ behaviors.
According to Reingen and Kernan (1986), communication frequency can reflect
the strength of a social tie between two individuals: the stronger the social tie
between them, the more frequently they will communicate with each other. It is
through communication, people can gain and share crucial and useful information
with each other—directly in their words and deeds—as well as indirectly in what
words and deeds imply (Miller & Prentice, 1996). In the ICT-adoption context,
where individuals need to devote more cognitive deliberation to consider monetary
and social factors, direct observations may not be sufficient to establish perceived
social norms to guide decision making; instead, direct and indirect communication
with reference groups could play a more crucial role (Baaren, van de Wijngaert, &
Huizer, 2011). Potential adopters may also seek information from friends, families,
peers, experts, or opinion leaders in their social networks for suggestions and advice
on ICT-adoption related questions.
By aggregating others’ self-reports from one or more reference groups within an
individual’s social networks, the individual could get a sense of the most exhibited
behaviors within these social networks to identify the perceived prevailing social
norms associated with those behaviors (Borsari & Carey, 2003). For instance, when
people discuss their ideas, opinions, or concerns associated with their use of an ICT
with others in their social networks, they are more likely to resolve or overcome
any potential difficulties associated with adopting and using that ICT innovation
in general (Homburg et al., 2010), in addition to getting a sense of what they are
expected to do with the technology from others. This is particularly true when people
communicate their ICT-related questions or concerns with those who have more
technology-use experience and knowledge (Kiesler, Zdaniuk, Lundmark, & Kraut,
2000). In other words, the potential effects of social influence are not necessarily
additive across all reference groups of one’s social networks. Instead, social norms
are inherently connected to individuals who belong to a social network and can
exert an influence on the behavior of those individuals within that network (Johnston
& White, 2003).
As the existing literature has yet to establish the relations between perceived
social norms and social-network communication in the context of ICT adoption, two
research questions were proposed below to explore these potential relationships.
Likewise, empirical research has not investigated the connection between social-
network communication and ICT adoption intention. Thus, a research question was
also posted below to test this potential theoretical linkage.
RQ1a : Will podcast-related communication frequency within an individual’s so-

cial network be positively related to perceived descriptive norm associated
with podcast adoption intention?
RQ1b : Will podcast-related communication frequency within an individual’s so-
cial network be positively related to perceived injunctive norm associated
with podcast adoption intention?
RQ2 : Will podcast-related communication frequency within an individual’s so-
cial network be positively related to podcast-adoption intention?
The theoretical concepts tested in the research hypotheses and research questions
above—including perceived social norm, TPB and social network communication—
are integrated into a conceptual model for analysis (see Figure 1).
Method
Study data were collected via a web-based survey. The study procedure and
research instrument were both approved by the institutional review board of a
large northeastern university in advance of data collection. A purposive sample
Figure 1
Proposed Conceptual Model
was selected for the study by recruiting undergraduate students from this university.
Young adults such as college students, who have grown up with mobile media
players, including iPods, iPad, MP-3, and mobile phones, are an important user
segment of podcasting and a suitable population for this exploratory study. They also
fit the profile of a population that tend to observe and comply with the perceived
social norms of their friends, peers, and others in their social networks more than
their other adult counterpart (Parker, Manstead, Stradling, Reason, & Baxter, 1992;
Rivis & Sheeran, 2003).
Sample Profile
Students enrolled in a large general education course were recruited to participate

in the study. Among the total 396 responses, 64% (or 254 cases) self-identified as
currently non-podcast users. To test the proposed research hypotheses and research
questions, only the data associated with those participants who never adopted
podcast before and were not current podcast users was used (n D 254).
The demographic profile of this sample of non-podcast users by and large matches
the overall student profile of the university. Of the 254 respondents, 55.3% were fe-
males and 44.7% were males. Their ages ranged from 18 to 22 years old (M D18.82,
SD D .86). The sample consisted of 80.8% Caucasian, 3.9% African American,
4.3% Hispanic American, 7.5% Asian American or Pacific Islander, in addition
to another 3.2% who selected the ‘‘other’’ category. The reported average annual
household (or family) income level ranged from $60,000 to $99,999. About half
of the respondents (47.2%) were sophomores, 35.4% were freshmen, 15.7% were
juniors, and another 1.6% were seniors.
Measures
Demographics.
Participant demographic characteristics, including gender, age, ethnicity, years

in college, and annual household (or family) income, in addition to media-player
ownership and podcasting use, were assessed and reported above.
Injunctive Norm.
Injunctive norm captures the perception of what important others think about a
certain behavior such as purchasing a product or adopting a desirable behavior.

Three items measured on a 7-point scale (1 D strongly disagree and 7 D strongly
agree), adapted from Smith-McLallen and Fishbein (2008), were modified to assess
this construct here. These items reflect how strongly ‘‘family members,’’ ‘‘friends,’’
‘‘other significant others’’ think that the respondent should adopt podcasts. The
reliability coefficient for these items was .97.
Descriptive Norm.
Descriptive norm reflects the perception of how others behave in relation to a

specific setting such as product-purchase decision making, etc. Three items, adapted
from Smith-McLallen and Fishbein (2008) and measured on the same aforemen-
tioned 7-point scale, were used to gauge this construct. These items include ‘‘people
who are similar to me’’/ ‘‘people who are most like me’’/ ‘‘people in my peer group’’
and ‘‘use podcasts.’’ The reliability coefficient for these items was .91.
Attitude Toward Podcast Use.
Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) define attitude toward behavior as ‘‘an individual’s
positive or negative feelings (evaluative affect) about performing the target behav-
ior’’ (p. 216). This concept was evaluated by nine items on a 7-point scale, ranging
from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. These nine items include: (1) I
(would) find podcasts useful in my life; (2) Listening to audio-information podcasts
enables me to access more news and other information; (3) Watching video podcasts
enables me to access more news and other information; (4) Listening to music
podcasts can entertain me; (5) Listening to audio-information podcasts can entertain
me; (6) Watching video podcasts can entertain me; (7) Listening to music podcasts
can kill boredom; (8) Listening to audio-information podcasts can kill boredom;
and (9) Watching video podcasts can kill boredom. A second-order exploratory
factor analysis model (see Results) generated two factors across those nine items:
items 1, 2, 3 and 5 loaded on factor 1 (˛ D .90); and items 4, 6, 7, 8 and
9 clustered as factor 2 (˛ D .93). The reliability coefficient for all nine items
was .94.
Perceived Behavioral Control.
Perceived behavioral control refers to ‘‘the perceived ease or difficulty of per-

forming the behavior’’ in question (Ajzen, 1991, p. 188). Three items measured
this concept on a 7-point scale, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly
agree. These items include (1) Learning to use podcasts is easy for me; (2) It is be
easy for me to become skillful at using podcasts; and (3) I find podcasting an easy
technology to use. The reliability coefficient for these items was .93.
Behavioral Intention.
Behavioral intention was measured by three items. Specifically, respondents were

asked to indicate their intention to ‘‘start to listen to music podcasts,’’ ‘‘start to
listen to audio-information podcasts,’’ and ‘‘start to watch video podcasts’’ in the
next 6 months. These items were assessed on a 7-point rating scale, ranging from
(1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. The reliability coefficient for all three
items was .96.
Social-Network Communication Frequency.
Respondent communication frequency on podcast-related topics within their so-

cial networks was measured by five items. Specifically, respondents were asked how
often they communicate with (1) friends at school, (2) family members, (3) friends
outside of school, (4) other students at school, and (5) other acquaintances about
podcasting technology on an ordinary day?’’ The items were measured on a scale
ranging from (1) never to (7) very frequently. The reliability coefficient for these five
measurement items was .98 (Table 1).
Table 1
Correlations of Key Variables
Variable M SD Com ATT PBC IN DN BI
Communication 1.43 .99 1.00

Frequency (Com)
Attitude (ATT) 4.43 1.11 .15* 1.00
Perceived Behavioral 4.76 1.24 .01 .47*** 1.00
Control (PBC)
Injunctive Norm 2.82 1.31 .37*** .39*** .14* 1.00
(IN)
Descriptive Norm 2.97 1.40 .40*** .35*** .12 .73*** 1.00
(DN)
Behavioral Intention 2.84 1.48 .44*** .44*** .11 .50*** .54*** 1.00
(BI)
Note: ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05.

Results
A confirmatory factor analysis was performed with the use of the statistical pro-
gram AMOS 21.0 to validate the scale reliability and the interrelations between
the variables tested in the hypotheses and research questions; these variables are
also presented in the conceptual model (see Figure 1). After removing 4 cases with
missing data, 250 responses were used in the structural equation modeling analysis.
A measurement model was run to test the relationships between observed and
latent variables. The resulting measurement model (Figure 2) shows the following
model-fit statistics: 2 /df D 1.826, p < .001, CFI D .97, RMSEA D .058. These
model-fit statistics were acceptable for the size of the sample and reflected adequate
measurement validity for the variables in the model, according to the model-fit
evaluation criteria recommended by Byrne (2001).
The proposed conceptual model (see Figure 1) was then tested with the structural
equation modeling procedure. As the original model did not fit well, several modifi-
cations were made to improve the model fit. After removing the paths leading from
injunctive norm and perceived control to adoption intention as well as the path
from descriptive norm to perceived control and another path from injunctive norm
to attitude, a revised model with satisfactory fit emerged. The model fit statistics
are: 2 /df D 2.42, p D .024, CFI D .98, RMSEA D .076; the overall equation
Figure 2
The Measurement Model
explained 45% of the variance in adoption intention. Findings associated with the
research hypotheses and research questions are provided below, based on the results
generated for the structural equation model in Figure 3.
H1 tests the assumption of a positive relationship between attitude and podcast-
adoption intention. A statistically significant path was found between these two
variables (ˇ D .29, p < .001), providing support for H1 . However, the result
from testing H2 , which presumes a positive relationship between behavioral control
and podcast-adoption intention, was not statistically significant; H2 was hence not
supported.
H3a predicts that there will be a positive relationship between descriptive norm
and podcast-adoption intention. This hypothesis was supported with a positive and
significant path from descriptive norm to podcast-adoption intention (ˇ D .35, p <
.001). H3b, which asserts a positive link between injunctive norm and podcast-
adoption intention, was not validated due to the statistically insignificant result.
A positive relationship is hypothesized between descriptive norm and attitude in
H4a ; this relation was found to be positive and significant (ˇ D .30, p < .001),
providing support for H4a . The same is not true for H4b , which postulates a positive
relationship between injunctive norm and attitude; this finding failed to support
H4b .
A positive relationship between descriptive norm and perceived behavioral con-
trol is posited in H5a . The standardized regression weight for the path between the
two variables was not statistically significant, rendering H5a without support. By
Figure 3
A Path Model for Podcast Adoption Intention
Note. Model Fit: 2 /df D 2.42, p D .024, CFI D .982, RMSEA D .076.
contrast, the test for H5b , which predicts a positive relationship between injunctive
norm and perceived behavioral control, produced a statistically significant path (ˇ D
.14, p < .05). H5b was thus supported.
RQ1a considers whether there is a positive relationship between podcast-related
communication frequency via an individual’s social network and descriptive norm.
Results from the structural equation model produced a positive link between the two
variables (ˇ D .40, p < .001), providing an affirmative answer to RQ1a. Similarly,
RQ1b also queries whether there is a positive relationship between podcast-related
communication frequency in one’s social network and injunctive norm. The results
again confirmed this speculated relation and provided a positive answer to RQ1b
(ˇ D .37, p < .001).

RQ2 investigates whether podcast-related communication frequency via an in-
dividual’s social network will be positively related to podcast-adoption intention.
Figure 2 shows that a positive link was found between the two variables (ˇ D .28,
p < .001), confirming the presumed relations inquired by RQ2 .
Discussion
The current study is the first to focus on the effects of interpersonal discussion
about new media technology in a social network setting and how that social network
communication influences the technology adoption process. According to Ajzen
(1991), additional predictors could be incorporated into the TPB, provided there
is a strong theoretical rational for adding them. This study extends the original
theory of planned behavior (TPB) by adding descriptive norm and social network
communication to examine behavioral intention associated with podcast adoption
intention. It also conceptualizes social network communication as an antecedent to
both descriptive and injunctive norm, in addition to adoption intention.
Study findings show that social-network communication frequency was a sig-
nificant predictor of descriptive norm (R2 D .16) and injunctive norm (R2 D .14)
in relation to podcasting-related interpersonal discourse. This suggests that inter-
personal communication about topics related to an ICT in an individual’s social
networks could potentially contribute to the shaping of perceived descriptive norm
or the expression of perceived injunctive norm associated with the adoption of that
particular ICT.
In essence, through interpersonal communication via one’s social network, an
individual could potentially obtain ICT-adoption related information from members
within that social network as well as observe the norms communicated about ICT-
adoption behavior in that network. In the case of social media (e.g., Facebook
or Twitter) users, members of an online social network could easily observe the
exchanges about ICT-adoption related topics as well as respond to those exchanges
by posting their own opinions (e.g., ‘‘likes or dislikes’’) on those topics. Hence, it
is possible that a set of broadly identified ‘‘social norms’’ related to the adoption or
uses of certain ICT products and/or services could either be inadvertently formulated
or casually observed within the communication context of selected offline or online

social networks (Homburg et al., 2010).
As the research literature has yet to address the relations between social network
communication and social norms, the current findings are particularly significant in
establishing the potential theoretical role of interpersonal communication via social
networks in formulating the perceived or expressed behavioral norms associated
with the diffusion of information and communication technology systems in the
consumer market. This influence of social network communication on ICT adoption
was further evidenced by another finding, which indicates social-network com-
munication frequency, was a significant and strong predictor of podcast-adoption
intention. This finding suggests that communication between members of a social

network can help instill or reinforce the influence of perceived norms, which can
lead to the development of ICT adoption intention. In other words, when considering
whether to adopt the podcasting technology to download music, audio content,
or videos, the relevant interpersonal communication in an individual’s social net-
works can carry considerable influence on the individual members of that social
network.
Interestingly, the role of descriptive norm and injunctive norm in explaining
adoption intention was different. Descriptive norm was identified with a direct effect
on adoption intention. By contrast, the relationship between injunctive norm and
adoption intention was mediated by both perceived control and attitude. In particu-
lar, descriptive norm was a significant predictor of podcast-adoption intention, but
injunctive norm was not. These findings confirmed past meta-analysis results which
reported how subjective (or injunctive) norm tends to have either the smallest role in
explaining an individual’s behavioral intention and behavior relative to other TPB
variables (e.g., Armitage & Conner, 2001)—or little to zero shared variance with
behavioral intention (e.g., Hagger et al., 2002).
Contrary to the prediction of TPB, perceived behavioral control exhibits only
an indirect effect on adoption intention—as mediated by attitude—instead of a
significant direct impact on adoption intention. There are two possible explanations
for this result. First, non-users could become relatively familiar with the podcasting
technology through the information learned through social-network communication
and thus believe in their ability to adopt the technology without any technical
difficulty. Second, young adults such as college students are generally savvy in using
communication technologies and may not consider their ability to adopt podcasting
or overcome any related technical difficulty an issue of concern. This scenario may
be different, if the study sample involved a different population segment that was
not as efficacious or proficient with digital communication technology or interfacing
a digital communication device with the Internet, for instance.
Consistent with the assumption of TPB, attitude was a significant and positive
predictor of adoption intention. By comparison, descriptive norm was a stronger pre-
dictor of adoption intention than attitude. Moreover, descriptive norm and perceived
control together explained 31% of the total variance in attitude, while injunctive
norm was a weak but significant predictor of perceived control. These findings imply
that podcast adoption attitude was strongly influenced by perceived descriptive
norm of podcast use—as well as perceived control of podcast use—in conjunc-
tion with indirect influence of perceived injunctive norm of podcast use. Hence,
descriptive and injunction norm—as shaped and learned via an individual’s social
network discourse—could play a direct and indirect role in helping to formulate the
individual’s ICT adoption attitude, respectively.
By integrating the intrinsic cognitive and extrinsic social influence factors as-
sociated with ICT adoption, the current study was able to link these two sets of
factors together by testing the effects of descriptive norm and injunctive norm on
attitude, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention. If one considers the
factors that can facilitate attitude formation, social influences that stems from the
prevailing descriptive norm and injunctive norm can undoubtedly be an important
factor (Homburg et al., 2010). This successful coupling of normative beliefs and
diffusion of innovations as additional predictors in conjunction with the TPB then
extends the empirical application values of all three theoretical perspectives.
According to cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957), when an individual
receives information inconsistent with his or her existing beliefs, he or she would
either adjust the beliefs based on the new information or ignore the new information.
In the context of ICT adoption, if an ICT is already believed to be popular, affordable,
and not technically difficult to use, any negative remarks shared in one’s social
networks would probably not easily dampen consumer interest or intention to
acquire it. Exposure to external sources of information, whether positive or negative,
brings awareness to the ICT. When combined with perceived behavioral norm
associated with the adoption or uses of the ICT observed in one’s social networks,
social influences could increase the probability for consumers to adopt or use that
ICT. This is perhaps why the word-of-mouth marketing is highly valued in the social
communication environment (Kimmel & Kitchen, 2014).
It should be noted that the purposive sample offers less external validity and is a
limitation of the study. Nonetheless, since young adults are more likely to be early
adopters of new technologies, college students represent an appropriate sample
for investigating the adoption of Internet-based technologies such as podcasting.
The measure of communication was limited to how often people communicated
with others about podcasting technology. A more general measurement could add
more richness to the findings. Another weakness of the study has to do with the
nature of a one-shot study. A longitudinal study that is capable of tracking how
the descriptive and injunctive norms might have evolved or changed over time—in
relation to the diffusion rate and social network communication frequency—could
yield a more comprehensive understanding of the relations between social norms,
social network communication, and podcasting adoption intention. Moreover, this
study only provides a more general than specific set of empirical explanations of
the podcast diffusion phenomenon, as it did not focus on audio or video podcast
technology separately.
Conclusion
Even though podcast use may seem like a solitary activity on the surface, it has a
social dimension through interpersonal discourse. As evidenced in the current study,
interpersonal communication, which enables podcast users to share their views and
opinions about their podcast-use experiences with non-podcast users, can facilitate
the non-users’ podcast adoption intention. More importantly, the current study
successfully introduced and validated a conceptual framework linking interpersonal
communication, social influence, and TPB in the context of new media diffusion.
Even as the study was exploratory in nature, it provided a good foundation for
future research to further verify the theoretical connections between these distinct
constructs that we have advanced in the current study. These theoretical connections
could have important implications for explaining audience adoption and uses of
other new ICTs.
For instance, additional work is needed to validate the applicability of this concep-
tual framework to other demographic segments and the diffusion process of other
emerging new media technologies. Previous research indicates that compared to
older cohorts, younger cohorts are more subject to normative pressures than their
more mature counterpart (Parker et al., 1992; Rivis & Sheeran, 2003). Hence, studies
that examine how older generations develop their perceptions about social norms
and are influenced by these norms could help us understand how best to facilitate
the diffusion of selective ICT’s to improve older adults’ quality of life.
The conceptual framework and theoretical assumptions forwarded here could
also be relevant in studying the diffusion of digital health technology innovations,
which could be especially useful in monitoring and preventing the prevalence or
occurrence of a number of chronic or infectious diseases. This work can easily
incorporate the functions and uses of podcasts as a health prevention and inter-
vention tool. Future studies could also further explicate the content of interpersonal
discourse, the process of interpersonal influence—as well as their combined impact
on shaping normative beliefs—regarding ICT adoption in both offline and online
communication environment.
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loading to a personal audio player’’ (Madden, 2006, p. 1). A broader definition

Research on information communication technology (ICT) adoption has often

ease of use of photo-messaging technology and technology cluster (Hunt, Lin,

Theory of Planned Behavior

H1 : Attitude toward podcast use is positively related to podcast-adoption inten-

Injunctive Norm and Descriptive Norm

Although all three predictors of behavioral attitude, perceived behavioral control,

two-way interactive ICTs in a community is more or less ‘‘all or nothing’’—either all

Relationships Between Social Norm, Attitude and Perceived

According to Homburg, Wieseke, and Kuehnl (2010), when forming an attitude

Social Norms and Social Network Communication

RQ1a : Will podcast-related communication frequency within an individual’s so-

Students enrolled in a large general education course were recruited to participate

Participant demographic characteristics, including gender, age, ethnicity, years

certain behavior such as purchasing a product or adopting a desirable behavior.

Descriptive norm reflects the perception of how others behave in relation to a

Attitude Toward Podcast Use.

Perceived Behavioral Control.

Perceived behavioral control refers to ‘‘the perceived ease or difficulty of per-

Behavioral intention was measured by three items. Specifically, respondents were

Social-Network Communication Frequency.

Respondent communication frequency on podcast-related topics within their so-

Variable M SD Com ATT PBC IN DN BI

Communication 1.43 .99 1.00

Note: ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05.

(ˇ D .37, p < .001).

or casually observed within the communication context of selected offline or online

intention. This finding suggests that communication between members of a social

Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality, and behavior. Chicago, IL: Dorsey.

Lin, C. A. (2003). An interactive communication technology adoption model. Communication

(pp. 799–829). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Research. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/12/27/over-a-quarter-

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Note: p < .001; p < .01; p < .05.