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Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416
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Technical Paper

Triaxial extension and tension tests on lime-cement-improved clay

Razvan Ignat a,⇑, Sadek Baker b, Martin Holmén c, Stefan Larsson a
a
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Division of Soil and Rock Mechanics, Stockholm, Sweden
b
Skanska Sweden AB, Stockholm, Sweden
c
Swedish Geotechnical Institute (SGI), Linköping, Sweden

Received 6 October 2018; received in revised form 27 May 2019; accepted 24 June 2019
Available online 5 August 2019

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a series of undrained and drained isotropic consolidated triaxial extension, tension and compression
laboratory tests on lime-cement-improved very soft clay. The main objective of these tests was to investigate the material strength and
stiffness properties for stress conditions similar to those expected on the passive side of excavations where a retaining structure is sup-
ported by Deep Mixing columns. The different stress paths to failure were obtained by varying the directions of the major and minor
principal stresses in a conventional triaxial test cell. The undrained tests conducted at low consolidation stresses, corresponding to depths
of approximately 0–10 m below the ground surface, revealed significant differences in undrained strength depending on the directions of
the major and minor principal stresses, indicating anisotropic material behavior. Based on the undrained triaxial test results, the rela-
tionship among the undrained strength, the effective consolidation stress and the over-consolidation ratio (OCR) is presented for differ-
ent stress paths to failure.
The experimental data from the drained tests show that a failure surface comprised of a shear failure function based on the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and a tensile failure function based on the tensile strength and the confining stress can be applied
for lime-cement-stabilized clay.
Ó 2019 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society. This is an open access article under the CC BY-
NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Dry deep mixing; Triaxial tests; Stress paths; Mobilized strength

1. Introduction Horpibulsuk et al., 2004, 2005; Kamruzzaman et al.,

Since the introduction of the Deep Mixing (DM)
method in the mid-1970s, extensive research has been con-
ducted on the compressive strength, compressibility and
yielding characteristics of soft clays improved with different
types of binders (Balasubramaniam et al., 1989, 1999, 2005;
Balasubramaniam and Buensucesco, 1989; Baker, 2000;
Bergado et al., 2005, 2006; Bushra and Robinson, 2012;
Peer review under responsibility of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: razvani@kth.se (R. Ignat), sadek.baker@skanska.se
(S. Baker), martin.holmen@swedgeo.se (M. Holmén), stefan.larsson@
byv.kth.se (S. Larsson).
2009; Kasama et al., 2000, 2006; Miura et al., 2001;
Uddin et al., 1997; Uddin and Buensucesco, 2002;

Tatsouka and Kobayashi, 1983; Ahnberg, 2004, 2006,
2007; Xiao et al., 2014; among many others). Conventional
laboratory tests, such as unconfined compression tests,
oedometer tests and triaxial compression tests, are com-
monly used to investigate the material stress-strain rela-
tionship and the strength and stiffness properties that are
then used in the design of different DM applications. How-
ever, improved soil in the passive zone of an embankment,
cut slope or excavation support will be subjected to lateral
loading and unloading conditions and the material stress-
strain behavior may differ significantly compared to that
obtained from conventional tests. Several researchers

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2019.06.004
0038-0806/Ó 2019 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1400 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416
(Larsson and Broms, 2000; Kitazume and Muruyama,
2007; Larsson et al., 2012; Nguyen et al., 2016) have shown
through centrifuge model tests and small-scale 1g tests, that
bending failure due to low tensile strength is the most prob-
able internal failure mechanism of DM columns subjected
to lateral loading conditions.
The tensile strength and the effects of principal stress
rotation and intermediate principal stress on artificially
cemented granular soils have been investigated in conven-
tional triaxial and true triaxial tests (Lade and Overton,
1989; Reddy and Saxena, 1993; Lade and Trads, 2014;
Malandraki and Toll, 2000, 2001; Toll et al., 2006;
Consoli et al., 2007, 2009, 2011; Koseki et al., 2005, 2008;
Namikawa and Mihira, 2007; Namikawa et al., 2017).
However, very few research studies have been done on
the mobilized strength and stress-strain behavior of lime-
cement-improved soft clay sheared under different stress
paths to failure under both undrained and drained condi-
tions. For improved clay, a linear relationship between
the unconfined tensile strength (evaluated by split tension
tests, unconfined tension tests or bending tests), qt , and
the unconfined compressive strength, qUC ;has been
reported and is usually assumed in the design (Kitazume
and Terashi, 2013). Nevertheless, in these types of tests,
some important parameters that may have a significant
effect on the material strength properties, such as the con-
fining stress and the long-term behavior (i.e., drained con-
ditions) are not considered.
In two extensively instrumented full-scale tests, Ignat
et al. (2016) investigated the stress-strain behavior and fail-
ure mechanisms of improved soil acting on the passive side
of a retaining structure supported by panels of dry deep
mixing (DDM) columns. A braced steel sheet pile wall,
interacting with panels of overlapping DDM columns (cen-
ter spacing between panels was equal to Test A = 3.0 m
and Test B = 1.5 m), was first excavated, as seen in
Fig. 1a and b, and then loaded to failure, as seen in
Fig. 1c and d, by applying stepwise load increments behind
the sheet pile wall. During the excavation stages, the DDM
columns, installed from the ground surface to the frictional
soil underneath the soft clay layer, were subjected to
unloading stress paths. After completing the excavation
(to a depth of 4.5–5.0 m), the structure was brought to fail-
ure by increasing the load behind the sheet pile wall, result-
ing in an increase in lateral loading (extension loading) in
the DDM columns installed in the passive zone. The exca-
vation and the following loading process to failure, approx-
imately 10 h from the start of loading until failure in Test A
and 50 h in Test B, were conducted over a relatively short
time period and undrained conditions prevailed. However,
in many constructions projects, the retaining structure has
to remain in function for a significantly longer time period
and the equalization of excessive pore pressure, and
thereby, drained conditions, would be expected.
The aim of this study was to enhance the understanding
of how the strength of DDM columns is mobilized in
the passive zone by performing a series of isotropic
consolidated triaxial tests on lime-cement-improved soft
clay subjected to lateral loading and unloading stress paths
to failure. The test program included the application of
three different stress paths to failure under undrained load-
ing conditions: (a) extension – CIUE-L, (b) tension –
CIUE-U and (c) a combination of extension and tension
– CIUE-UL, and two different stress paths to failure under
drained loading conditions: (d) extension – CIDE-L and (e)
tension – CIDE-U. The results of these tests were com-
pared to the results of undrained and drained triaxial com-
pression tests, CIUC and CIDC, conducted on the same
soil material. The results provide new insights into the
stress-strain behavior of lime-cement-improved clay.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Soil properties
The clay used for the preparation of the specimens is a
soft post-glacial clay collected from the full-scale test area,
located near Enköping in the eastern part of Sweden, about
70 km north-west of Stockholm. The geotechnical condi-
tions have been described in a previous publication (Ignat
et al., 2016); the general characteristics of the clay at differ-
ent depths below the ground surface are presented in Fig. 2.
The clay is characterized by a very low undrained shear
strength,su , and is lightly overconsolidated with over-
consolidation ratios (OCRs) of 1.5 and 1.2 at depths of 5
and 7 m, respectively. From a depth of about 6–7 m, there
are alternate layers of the clay and thin horizontal layers of
silt and sand, which is typical for the region. The clay is
classified as highly sensitive, with a sensitivity of S t
30.
The clay samples were collected from depths of 5.5–6.0 m
below the ground surface and the main material properties,
determined from laboratory tests, are presented in Table 1.
2.2. Sample preparation
The samples were prepared by mixing dry binders of lime
and cement with the soil for 5 min. Immediately thereafter,
the mixture was gradually poured into fiberglass molds,
50 mm in diameter and 150 mm in height, to create layers
of 10–20 mm. Each layer was compacted using a
£30-mm cylindrical rod in order to produce homogenous
samples with a minimum number of air pockets. The dry
binder content was 120 kg/m3 and consisted of 50%
quicklime, QL 0–0.1 KÖ, and 50% Portland cement,
CEM II/A-LL 42.5 R, similar to the dry binder content
used in the full-scale field tests. Tubes were filled and then
sealed with rubber lids before being stored in a climate-
controlled room at 7 °C without curing stress. This proce-
dure is in accordance with the common procedure for
testing of laboratory samples of improved soil in Sweden
(Larsson, 2006). After the curing period of 28 days, the
samples were extracted and trimmed to a height to diameter
ratio of 2:1, 100 mm in height and 50 mm in diameter.
Before testing, the specimens were cut and smoothed to
 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416 1401

Fig. 1. Photographs of full-scale tests: (a) Initial excavation of sheet pile wall supported by panels of DDM columns, (b) Completed excavation, (c)
Ongoing loading to failure conducted behind sheet pile wall and (d) Structure brought to failure.

Fig. 2. General properties of the treated clay, after Ignat et al. (2016).
1402 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416

Table 1
Material properties of the treated clay.
Enköping clay
Sampling depth, (m) 5.5–6.0
Density, d (t/m3) 16
Water content, w (%) 70
Liquid limit, wL (%) 54
Plastic limit, wp (%) 26
Plasticity index, PI 28
Undrained shear strength, su (kPa) 12–13

obtain parallel end surfaces. Any irregularities at either end

or mantle surfaces were repaired with remoulded trimmings
from the sample and the plaster.

2.3. Test procedure

The triaxial tests were conducted at the SGI (Swedish

Geotechnical Institute) laboratory with an SBEL HX-
100-SA-1500 triaxial cell with a hydraulic servo actuator.
The cell was controlled by an INSTRON 8800 digital servo
controller. The load was applied by a hydraulic servo actu-
ator located in the lid of the cell and a displacement trans-
ducer connected directly to the actuator piston. The load
was measured by a load cell in the base pedestal and cell
pressure was applied by a pneumatic servo valve. Back
pressure and volume change measurements were provided
by an Enterprise Pressure/Volume Controller (ELDPC)
of 1 MPa from GDS.
The paraffin method, described by Lacasse and Berre
(1988), was used in all the tests, eliminating the need for
membrane correction. A constant rate of stress change,
0.833 kPa/min, was used for the undrained tests. A much
slower rate of stress change, 0.083 kPa/min, was chosen
for the drained tests in order to ensure the adequate
dissipation of the excess pore water pressure. The triaxial
testing program is presented in Table 2.
Extension triaxial tests, using a conventional triaxial
cell, are normally conducted as follows:
1. Decrease the axial stress at a constant radial stress, com-
monly known as extension unloading, total stress path
OA in Fig. 3 and termed CIUE-U/CIDE-U in this
study.
Fig. 3. Applied triaxial total stress paths in p-q stress plane.
2. Increase the radial stress at a constant axial stress, com-
monly known as extension loading, total stress path OB
in Fig. 3 and termed CIUE-L/CIDE-L in this study.
The total stress path of the CUIE-U and CIDE-U tests
resembling the stress change during unloading is equivalent
to the excavation stages in the experimental tests. The total
stress path of the CUIE-U and CIDE-U tests resembles the
stress change during lateral loading and is equivalent to the
loading conducted to failure in the experimental tests.
During the excavation stage in the full-scale tests
described by Ignat et al. (2016), aside from a decrease in
the total vertical stress, an increase in the total horizontal
stress was also observed in the DDM columns located close
to the sheet pile wall. The magnitude of the increase in hor-
izontal stress was the highest in the DDM column panels
closest to the sheet pile wall (and decreased towards the
center of the excavation; see Ignat et al. 2016 for detailed
results) and varied with the center distance between the
DDM column panels (increasing horizontal stress with
increasing center distance between DDM column panels).
The stress paths induced in these columns would therefore
be located in the meridian plane between the lateral loading

Table 2
Triaxial testing program.
Test Consolidation stage Shearing stage
Test name Effective consolidation stress (kPa) Back pressure (kPa) Test type ra rr
1–4 CIUC 30/60/90/150 50/140/220/400 Compression Increases Constant
5–8 CIUE-L 30/60/90/150 50/140/220/400 Extension Constant Increases
9–12 CIUE-U 30/60/90/150 50/140/220/400 Tension Decreases Constant
13–16 CIUE-UL 30/60/90/150 50/140/220/400 Combined Decreases Increases
17–19 CIDC 30/60/90 50/140/220 Compression Increases Constant
20–22 CIDE-L 30/60/90 50/140/220 Extension Constant Increasing
23–26 CIDE-U 30/60/90/150 50/140/220/400 Tension Decreases Constant
 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416
and the axial unloading stress paths. In order to resemble
the observed field behavior, a series of undrained tests
was conducted in which deviator stress was applied
through an equal change in radial stress (increasing) and
axial stress (decreasing). This resulted in an extension total
stress path with an inclination of 6:1 towards the extension
Critical State Line (CSL).
3. Increase the radial stress and equally decrease the axial
stress, extension stress path with total stress path OC
in Fig. 3 and termed CIUE-UL in this study
In order to compare the mobilized strength and stress-
strain behavior of the extension tests with conventional
laboratory testing methods, a series of triaxial compression
tests was conducted at the same consolidation stresses.
4. Increase the axial stress at a constant radial stress, com-
monly known as compression loading, total stress path
OD in Fig. 3 and termed CIUC/CIDC in this study.
The repeatability of the tests was considered and verified
by several duplicate triaxial tests, and no significant differ-
ence between the tests could be detected. In addition to the
triaxial tests presented in this paper, UC tests, FFR tests
(Free-Free Resonant column tests) and CRS tests (Con-
stant Rate of Strain Oedometer tests) were conducted on
samples from different batches for the purpose of investi-
gating the reproducibility of the test specimens (Ignat,
2018). The UC tests were performed at a strain rate of
1.2%/min in accordance with Swedish Standards, SIS
(1991), on samples with the same height and diameter as
those tested in the triaxial tests. The CRS tests were con-
ducted at a strain rate of 0.01%/min in accordance with
SIS (1992). The results of the UC and CRS tests indicated
a good reproducibility with similar strength and deforma-
tion properties. The quasi-preconsolidation stress (vertical
0
yield stress), rqp , evaluated from the CRS tests was signif-
icantly increased due to the formation of cementation
bonds, as was also observed in previous studies
(Tremblay et al., 2001; Miura et al., 2001; Kamruzzaman
0
et al., 2009; Horpibulsuk et al., 2004). The values of rqp
varied between 220 and 250 kPa, and the ratio between
the quasi-preconsolidation stress and the unconfined com-
0
pression strength, qu , of the improved clay, rqp =qu , was
evaluated at 1.26, which is in line with the results reported
in earlier investigations (Terashi et al., 1980; Indraratna
 S r0 ; after curing and before sample saturation and consol-
et al., 1995; Ahnberg, 2006; Lorenzo and Bergado, 2006).
2.4. Saturation and consolidation
A frequently used procedure to ensure a high degree of
saturation of cement-stabilized soils is, due to its simplicity,
to apply high back pressure for a sufficient period of time to
minimize the volume of entrapped air voids in the sample.
However, it has been debated whether the field behavior of
1403
lime-cement columns manufactured by the dry method,
where the soil is mixed in situ with the dry binder under rel-
atively high air pressure, is consistent with the saturation
procedure where high back pressure is applied, and how
the material behavior is influenced by this procedure.

Ahnberg (2004) investigated the effect of consolidating
lime-cement-improved clay samples at different effective
0
confining stresses, rc ;with very low and high back pressures,
and found that samples consolidated at low back pressure
during undrained shearing behave as partly drained and
related this behavior to excess pore pressure,Du; being partly
equalized by the compression or extension of entrapped air.
The back pressure applied during the saturation stage and
the consolidation stresses were chosen so as to be close to
those of the prevailing in situ pore water pressure and effec-
tive confining stresses at depths within those representative
of engineering consideration, i.e., less than 40 m.
Black and Lee (1973) investigated four different cate-
gories of soils and showed that a Skempton B-value lower
than 1 can be expected even at full saturation for stiff and
very stiff soils. A degree of saturation, S r , of 99.0–99.5% for
a stiff soil implies a B-value of 0.5–0.7, and that for a very
stiff soil implies a B-value of only 0.1–0.2. A Skempton B-
value of at least 0.9 has been regarded as a measure of full
saturation for cement-improved soils resulting in negligible
suction during testing (Schnaid et al., 2001; Consoli et al.,
2001). Based on the results of the FFR-tests (Ignat, 2018),
the lime-cement-improved clay was categorized as a stiff-
very stiff soil.
For the saturation of these samples, an active applica-
tion of back pressure (water is allowed to flow into the
specimen to replace the air being dissolved in the pore
water and the soil skeleton is kept at its initial volume)
was chosen. Both the volumetric change (volume change
measured as the amount of water entering/exiting the sam-
ple) and the axial strain during the consolidation stage were
used as measures of when the equilibrium conditions had
been reached, as described by Lade (2016). This technique
allows saturation and consolidation to be achieved at the
same time. Firstly, the back pressure and the cell pressure
were simultaneously increased to the targeted values over
a period of 1.5–2.5 h. The samples were then isotropically
0
consolidated at rc ranging from 30 to 150 kPa, for 16–
24 h, at which time no further axial strain or volumetric
change (inflow of water due to saturation) was recorded
and an equilibrium condition was obtained.
The initial degree of saturation of the stabilized samples,
idation, varied between 93 and 95%, which is of the same
order as previous studies of laboratory mixed samples of
improved clay (Baker, 2000; Uddin and Buensucesco,

2002; Ahnberg, 2004). Theoretical back pressure, to
increase the degree of saturation in a sample from its initial
value, S r0 ;to another required value, S r , by both compres-
sion and solution of the pore air, has been defined by
Lowe and Johnson (1960) as
1404 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416
ðS r  S r0 Þð1  H Þ
DBP ¼ p0
1  S r ð1  H Þ
where DBP is the required back pressure increment, p0 is
the initial absolute pressure corresponding to S r0 (an atmo-
spheric pressure, equal to 101.33 kPa, was assumed for
samples cured in a climate-controlled room) and H is
Henry’s coefficient of air solubility in water which is
temperature- and pressure-dependent (equal to approxi-
mately 0.02 at room temperature, 20 °C). By rearranging
Eq. (1), S r after saturation and consolidation to the differ-
ent applied back pressures was evaluated as
p0 S r0  HDBP
1
Sr ¼
DBP þ p0
The calculated degrees of saturation prior to and after
saturation, together with the measured B-values after the
completed consolidation, are presented in Table 3. The
results show that practically complete or nearly complete
saturation was obtained for the samples consolidated at
back pressures of 220 kPa and 400 kPa. However, both cal-
culated S r and measured B-values for the samples consoli-
dated at the lower back pressure levels indicate that these
samples are partly saturated. The calculated S r of 96–97%
of the samples consolidated at the back pressure of
50 kPa, corresponding to a depth of approximately 6 m
below the ground surface, is in good agreement with the
S r of 96.5–98.1% measured by Baker (2000) on samples
from field columns extracted from a depth of up to 7 m.
3. Test results and discussion
3.1. Stress–strain behavior
The deviator stress–axial strain behavior, q  ea , of the
undrained and drained tests is illustrated in Fig. 4, and
the test results are summarized in Tables 4 and 5, respec-
tively. The excess pore pressure – axial strain, Du  ea , from
the undrained tests and the volumetric strain – axial strain,
eV  ea , from the drained tests are presented in Fig. 5. The
post-peak behavior expressed as strain softening cannot be
identified in these tests due to the implied test conditions,
namely, the constant rate of stress change, although it
has often been observed in strain-controlled tests. The devi-
ator stress at failure, qf , for the undrained tests with no
clearly observed peak value (or one that occurred at very
Table 3
Calculated degree of saturation before saturation and after consolidation and measured Skempton B-values.
0
Consolidation stress,rc (kPa) Back pressure (kPa)
30 50
60 140
90 220
150 400
large values of ea ) was evaluated as q at level ea where both
ð1Þ
the change in q and the change in Du become negligible.
The results show that the deviator stress at failure, qf ,
evaluated from the undrained triaxial extension tests, is
strongly influenced by the stress path to failure at low val-
0
ues of rc , but the difference in qf decreases with an increas-
0
ing rc . The general pore pressure behavior in the CIUC and
CIUE-L tests was similar with positive Du generated in the
elastic region of the stress-strain curve followed, before qf
was reached, by a decrease inDu. Low positive Du was mea-
0
sured in both the CIUC and CIUE-L tests at rc = 30 kPa
and this may be attributed to those samples not being fully
saturated samples, but also due to the samples being heav-
ð2Þ
ily overconsolidated at OCR = 8. Negative Du values, due
to prevented dilation tendencies, were observed before fail-
ure. The incremental rate of Du increased with an increas-
0
ing rc in both types of tests. However, the overconsolidated
behavior is more prominent in the CIUC tests compared to
the CIUE-L tests as higher positive Du values were gener-
0
ated in the CIUE-L tests at equal rc ; regardless of the mag-
nitude of the applied rc .
0
The trend of the stress-strain curves for the CIUE-L
tests and also the CIUE-UL and CIUE-U tests, seen in
0
Fig. 4b and c, respectively, consolidated at rc
90 kPa,
and is analogous to that of the CIUC tests. An initial linear
elastic behavior followed by an elastoplastic behavior
(strain hardening) with increasing ea is representative of
these tests. The CIUE-UL and CIUE-U tests consolidated
0
at low values of rc , i.e., heavily overconsolidated, exhibit
different stress-strain behavior to a certain extent. The
stress-strain behavior is influenced by the failure mode of
these samples, which is tension failure. The initial linear
elastic part of the stress-strain curve corresponds to the
stress path from the start of the test moving towards the
tension failure line. During the test, negative Du develops
and continues to decrease with increasing strain, pushing
the stress path of the sample downwards to the right in
0
the p  q plane (increasing q and p0 ) and parallel to the
tension failure line. The Du behavior of these tests, seen
in Fig. 5c, is analogous to the behavior observed in the
undrained triaxial extension (unloading) tests on overcon-
solidated clays with OCR > 2 (Parry, 1960;
Balasubramaniam and Uddin, 1977; Zhu and Yin, 2000).
The significant stiffness degradation following the initial
linear elastic part of the stress-strain curve observed in
these tests is believed to be due to micro tension cracks that
S r0 before saturation (%) S r after consolidation (%) Measured B-values
min  max
92.8–94.8 95.9–97.2 0.23–0.36
93.8–95.5 98.6–99.3 0.46–0.71
93.6–95.2 99.4–99.9 0.72–0.80
93.1–94.7
99.9 0.92–0.94
 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416 1405

Fig. 4. (a)–(c): Stress-strain relationship in undrained tests and (d)–(f): Stress-strain relationship in drained tests.
1406 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416

Table 4
Results of consolidated triaxial undrained tests.
qf
Test type qf (kPa) qy b (kPa) ea at qf c (%) ea at qy (%) r0c
qy =qf
CIUC-30 216 175 4.00 1.24 7.20 0.81
CIUC-60 236 182 4.45 1.20 3.93 0.77
CIUC-90 244 200 4.73 1.30 2.71 0.82
CIUC-150 261 215 6.70 1.56 1.74 0.82
CIUE-L-30 165 128 0.84 0.21 5.50 0.78
CIUE-L-60 190 151 0.83 0.20 3.17 0.79
CIUE-L-90 200 155 1.06 0.23 2.22 0.78
CIUE-L-150 200 164 1.16 0.29 1.33 0.82
CIUE-UL-30 104 – 1.00 – 3.47 –
CIUE-UL-60 165 – 0.64 – 2.75 –
CIUE-UL-90a (176) 146 (0.62) 0.24 (1.96) (0.83)
CIUE-UL-150 207 173 1.42 0.32 1.38 0.84
CIUE-U-30 74 – 0.96 – 2.47 –
CIUE-U-60 126 – 1.00 – 2.10 –
CIUE-U-90 177 140 1.04 0.25 1.97 0.79
CIUE-U-150 212 172 1.41 0.35 1.41 0.81
a
The vacuum pressure between the top cap and the sample could not be sustained and the test was terminated before failure occurred.
b
qy was not evaluated for samples that failed in tension.
c
Negative values for ea mean the sample was elongated.

Table 5
Results of consolidated triaxial drained tests.
qf
Test type qf (kPa) qy a (kPa) ea at qf b (%) ea at qy (%) r0c
qy =qf
CIDC-30 230 171 3.61 1.14 7.67 0.74
CIDC-60 340 189 3.45 1.12 5.67 0.56
CIDC-90 395 222 4.12 1.38 4.39 0.56
CIDE-L-30 144 116 0.30 0.13 4.80 0.81
CIDE-L-60 275 144 0.72 0.11 4.58 0.52
CIDE-L-90 344 151 0.82 0.10 3.82 0.44
CIDE-U-30 31 – c – 1.03 –
CIDE-U-60 64 – 0.15 – 1.07 –
CIDE-U-90 93 – 0.18 – 1.03 –
CIDE-U-150 156 – 0.30 – 1.04 –
a
qy at values of ea < 0.1% and for samples that failed in tension is not evaluated.
b
Negative values mean the sample is elongated.
c
Values of ea < 0.1% are not evaluated.

emerge and increase in the samples with a continuous
increase in deviator stress until tension failure occurs,
which is also indicated by the post-failure photographs of
the samples presented in Fig. 6.
Results of the CIDE-U tests, given in Fig. 4f, indicate a
very brittle behavior as eaf was 0.1% for samples consol-
0
idated at low values of rc . Axial strain measurement was
performed only by an external transducer making an eval-
uation of the eaf at values <0.1% very uncertain. However,
0
an increasing trend of eaf with an increasing rc is indicated
for all tests, and the stress-strain behavior is analogous
with the results presented by Koseki et al. (2008) and
Namikawa et al. (2017) for drained triaxial tension tests,
with LDTs attached to the samples, for strain measure-
ments conducted on artificially cemented sand.
In a majority of the CIDE-U and CIUE-U tests, but
also for the CIUE-UL tests consolidated at low values of
0
rc , the samples split with a distinct horizontal failure
surface perpendicular to the direction of the axial stress,
indicating the tensile failure of these samples, as seen in
Fig. 6c and d. On the other hand, a more ductile type of
failure, characterized by a necking type of failure, occurred
in the CIDE-L and CIUE-L tests, shown in Fig. 6a and b,
and also in the CIUE-UL tests consolidated at higher val-
0
ues of rc . Regardless of the applied extension stress path
(unloading/loading), the strain-hardening behavior gener-
0
ally becomes more significant at higher values of rc . How-
ever, the strain-hardening behavior is more pronounced for
extension loading (CIUE-L and CIDE-L) compared to
extension unloading (CIUE-U and CIDE-U). These results
0
indicate that the magnitude of rc , i.e., the depth below the
ground surface in field conditions, has a significant influ-
ence on the type of failure of lime-cement-treated clay sub-
jected to extension stress paths. Very brittle tension failure
0
would be expected at low values of rc during extension
unloading stress paths, while strain-hardening behavior
and higher strain at failure would be expected when the
lime-cement-treated material is subjected to extension
 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416 1407

Fig. 5. (a)–(c): Excess pore pressure – axial strain relationship from undrained tests and (d)–(f): Volumetric strain – axial strain relationship from drained
tests.
1408 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416
Fig. 6. Specimen after failure in triaxial extension: (a) CIUE-L, (b) CIDE-L, (c) CIUE-U and (d) CIDE-U.
0
loading stress paths at high values of rc . The post-failure
photographs, presented in Fig. 6, show that failure in the
extension loading/unloading tests occurs along a randomly
located horizontal weakness plane that depends on the
quality and homogeneity of the actual sample tested. Sim-
ilar behavior has been observed and reported by
Namikawa et al. (2017) from triaxial tension tests on
cement-treated sand.
The yielding of bonded or artificially cemented soils has
usually been identified in experimental tests as a disconti-
nuity in the stress-strain behavior or an abrupt decrease
in stiffness (Maccarini, 1987; Jardine et al., 1991; Jardine,
1992; Malandraki and Toll, 1996; Leroueil and Vaughan,
1990; Bergado et al., 2006; Rotta et al., 2003; Xiao et al.,
2014; Cheng et al., 2018, among others). Research on
small-strain behavior, conducted by Jardine et al. (1991)
and Jardine (1992), has suggested that three different yield
conditions may be identified for cemented soils represent-
ing the limit of elastic behavior, the limit of recoverable
behavior and the complete destructuration of the soil struc-
ture. Malandraki and Toll (2000, 2001) suggested that a
bond yield, located between the initial yielding, defining
the end of the elastic region, and the final yielding, could
be determined as the point at which a major change in tan-
gential stiffness occurs.
In a majority of these tests, the yielding was not readily
identified. This is because the stress-strain curves do not
show any abrupt change in the gradient. As a consequence,
the yield stress, qy , could not be evaluated from the meth-
ods proposed by Rotta et al. (2003) and Malandraki and
Toll (1996). As an alternative, qy was mathematically eval-
uated at ea corresponding to the tangent of the maximum
curvature of the q – ea curves. As these tests were conducted
with only external strain measurements, evaluated qy repre-
sents the yield stress at which level irrecoverable strain
develops and should not be confounded with the initial
(or primary) yield stress marking the purely elastic region.
From the undrained tests, the ratio qy =qf appears to be
independent of the stress path to failure and varies between
0.77 and 0.84.
3.2. Effective stress paths and yield locus
The effective stress paths measured in the undrained and
0
drained triaxial tests in the p  q effective stress plane (q
0 0 0 0 0 0
¼ ðra  rr Þ and p ¼ ðra þ 2rr Þ=3, where ra is the effective
0
axial stress and rr is the effective radial stress in the triaxial
stress system) are presented in Fig. 7a, where the Critical
State Lines, CSLs, of the natural clay are also included
for comparison.
The slope of the compression and extension failure line
and also that of the tension failure line were determined
from the linear regression of qf from the CIDC, CIDE-L
and CIDE-U tests. All the samples were consolidated in
0 0
the quasi-overconsolidation region (rc < rqp ) prior to
undrained shearing, and the behavior in both the compres-
sion and extension tests is very similar to the undrained
behavior of heavily overconsolidated cohesive soils. The
effective stress paths of the undrained tests consolidated
0
at low back pressure and rc (corresponding to shallow
depths) may have been influenced by the samples not being
fully saturated. However, the effective stress paths close to
failure of these tests deviate only slightly from the failure
line evaluated based on the drained tests, and any inaccu-
0
racy in the evaluation of p was considered to be insignifi-
cant. Due to the low positive Du generated, the effective
stress paths of the CIUC and CIUE-L tests are located
close to the stress paths of the corresponding drained tests.
However, the low Du is not believed to depend only on the
 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416 1409

Fig. 7. (a) Effective stress paths of lime-cement improved clay, (b) Evaluated yield locus of lime-cement improved clay and (c) Yield locus normalized by
isotropic yield stress of lime-cement improved clay.

S r ; but also to a large extent on the OCR. Generally, low that of the CIDE-L and CIDE-U tests resulting in a large
Du values are expected during the initial shearing of heavily difference in qf . In the CIUE-U tests with increasing rc ,
0

overconsolidated samples, and similar effective stress paths
for fully saturated heavily overconsolidated samples were
presented from CIUC and both CIUC and CIUE-L tests
on improved clay by Horpibulsuk et al. (2004) and

Ahnberg (2007). This effect is very clear on the different
0
extension stress paths. At low rc , the effective stress path
of the CIUE-L and CIUE-U tests is initially very close to
higher negative Du values are initially generated, causing
the effective stress path of these tests to deviate to the right
0
of the corresponding drained tests in the p  q plane. On
0
the other hand, in the CIUE-L tests with increasing rc , lar-
ger positive Du values are initially generated, causing the
effective stress path of these tests to deviate to the left
0
of the corresponding drained tests in the p  q plane, as
1410 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416
0
illustrated in Fig. 6a. With increasing rc and also the excess
pore pressure generated, the difference in effective stress
paths and also qf of the CIUE-L, CIUE-UL and CIUE-
U tests decrease and the stress paths of the undrained tests
are located between the stress paths of the corresponding
0 0 
CIDE-L and CIDE-U tests. At the highest applied rc , at
which stage the samples were also fully saturated, very sim-
ilar effective stress paths were obtained in all three types of
undrained extension/tension tests, although the difference
in Du between CIUE-L and CIUE-U was approximately
200 kPa at failure. For the CIUE-UL and CIUE-U tests,
0 following relationship between the normalized compressive
consolidated at low rc (30 and 60 kPa), OCR
4, qf was
located on the tension failure line evaluated from the
CIDE-U tests confirming that these tests failed in tension.
On the other hand, the qf of the CIUE-L, CIUE-UL and
0
CIUE-U tests, consolidated at higher values of rc (90
and 150 kPa), OCR  2.7, was located between the evalu-
ated tension and the extension failure line evaluated from
the CIDE-L tests.
The yield locus of the lime-cement-improved clay is pre-
sented in Fig. 7b and was evaluated by the nonlinear
regression of qy , presented in Tables 4 and 5. The corre-
0 cementation effect in the quasi-overconsolidated region,
sponding mean effective stress at yield, py , defines the
change from recoverable to irrecoverable strains.
The shape of the yield locus is considerably rotated in the
meridian plane, indicating that the material exhibits signif-
icant anisotropy in the overconsolidated region. The inter-
section of the yield locus with the tension failure line in the
negative stress region agrees with the observed behavior in
the CIUE-U, CIUE-UL and CIDE-U tests conducted at
0 parameter aq . As seen in Fig. 8a and b, the relationship
low values of rc for which tension failure occurred prior
to yielding. The yield locus was fitted with the following
relation proposed by Xiao et al. (2014):
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u 0! !2
u p p0
q t
0 ¼ N  ð3Þ
0 0
piy piy piy
0 0
by normalizing q and p by the isotropic yield stress, piy ,
and is presented in Fig. 7c. A good agreement with the
experimental data was obtained for N = 1.70 in compres-
sion and N = 1.25 in extension. The N value evaluated
in compression is significantly smaller than N = 3.65, pro-
posed by Xiao et al. (2014); however, the N values obtained
from these tests represent the yield locus at the change from
recoverable to irrecoverable strains and not the primary
yield stress.
3.3. Undrained failure
Test results show that at low consolidation stresses, qf is
dependent on the induced undrained stress path to failure.
A procedure that is extensively used to characterize the
undrained strength of overconsolidated clays is the
SHANSEP procedure presented by Ladd and Foott
(1974), where the undrained shear strength of the clay nor-
malized by the effective vertical stress is related to the OCR
according to the following relationship:
 
su
¼ aðOCRÞb ð4Þ
r0vo OC

Parameter b is an empirical exponent and a ¼ su =rv0 NC is
the normalized undrained shear strength of the NC clay.

Ahnberg (2006) showed that the compressive strength of
the improved clay, consolidated at stress levels below rqp ,
0
could be normalized analogous to Eq. (4), presenting the
strength and the OCR:
 
qf
¼ aq ðOCRÞb ð5Þ
r0c OC
For improved clay, the OCR can be defined as
0
rqp
OCR ¼ ð6Þ
r0c
An analogous exponential function, where, in addition
0
to rc , a relative tensile stress is introduced to consider the
has been proposed by Kasama et al. (2006) for the
undrained strength of cement-improved clay.
0
The qf values normalized by rc for the different stress-
paths investigated in these tests were plotted against the
OCR on a log-log scale in Fig. 8. The slope of the straight
line in these plots is equal to the b parameter in Eq. (5),
while the intercept to the vertical axis at OCR = 1 is
for the CIUC and CIUE-L tests is almost a perfectly
straight line, which indicates a very good correlation
between qf and OCR, demonstrating the validity of Eq.
(5). The experimental data for the CIUE-UL and CIUE-
U tests, seen in Fig. 8c and d, show a slightly larger scatter.
Nevertheless, the linear regression yielded R2 values
0.90,
indicating a correlation between the OCR and qf even for
these tests. In both CIUC and CIUE-L tests, the results
clearly show that the OCR has a significant influence on
0 0
the qf for rc < rqp . Contrary to the CIUC and CIUE-L
tests, a significant decrease in qf associated with a decrease
0
in rc was observed for the CIUE-U tests at stress levels
0
below rqp . The experimental data points of both CIUE-
0
UL and CIUE-U tests, consolidated at rc = 150 kPa, are
located below the regression line, indicating that the linear
regression on the log–log scale overestimates qf in the
range of 1  OCR  2. A relationship between the normal-
ized qf and lnðOCRÞ, given as Eq. (2) in Fig. 8, indicates a
better agreement with the test data in the range of
1  OCR  2 and also yields slightly higher correlation
values for the CIUE-UL and CIUE-U tests. However, to
the author’s knowledge, no CIUE-U tests on
improved clays have been previously reported, and further
investigations, including CIUE-U tests with different types
 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416 1411

Fig. 8. Relationship between normalized undrained failure strength and OCR: (a) CIUC, (b) CIUE-L, (c) CIUE-UL and (d) CIUE-U.

of binders and natural clays, are needed in order to draw
general conclusions.
The slope of the regression lines of the CIUE-U tests
0
shows that qf at low values of rc is significantly less influ-
enced by the OCR compared to the CIUC and CIUE-L
0
tests, but it is strongly related to the applied rc in the over-
0 2010; Horpibulsuk and Liu, 2015; Nguyen et al., 2014;
consolidated region. The influence of rc on qf for the
CIUE-U tests is illustrated in Fig. 9. A linear relationship
0 In most of these models, an enlarged elliptical yield surface
between rc and qf is indicated up to a level of qf approxi-
mately equal to qUC , as shown in Fig. 9b, and the intercept
0
of the straight line with the vertical axis at rc = 0 is analo-
gous to the unconfined tensile strength, qt . A ratio qt =qUC
equal to 0.13 is predicted by extrapolating qf of the
CIUE-U tests, which is in good agreement with previously
presented results for the unconfined tensile strength of dif-
ferent types of cement-improved soils.
3.4. Drained failure
In recent years, some advanced constitutive material
models describing the mechanical behavior of cemented soils
have been proposed (Kasama et al., 2000; Liu and Carter,
2002; Suebsuk et al., 2010 and 2011; Horpibulsuk et al.,
Arroyo et al., 2012; Robin et al., 2015; Xiao et al., 2017).
and a failure surface parallel to that of untreated clay are
adopted. The effect of bonding due to cementation as well
as cementation degradation are considered in some of these
models through a modified mean effective stress and by
introducing model parameters and additional hardening
rules to capture the hardening behavior up to peak stress
and post-peak softening behavior. Although the main fea-
tures of the material’s behavior from compression labora-
1412 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416

Fig. 9. (a) Range in normalized undrained strength and (b) Evaluation of unconfined tensile strength from CIUE-U tests.

tory data are captured realistically, an isotropic yield and
failure surface is assumed and the material strength is
thereby independent of the direction of the principal stresses.
The experimental test data of the performed tests clearly
show that a shear failure occurred for drained stress paths
corresponding to axial and lateral loading, while samples
subjected to an axial unloading stress path failed in tension.
In fact, the experimental data from the tests are conceptually
similar to those presented by Namikawa and Mihira (2007)
and Namikawa et al. (2017) from drained triaxial compres-
sion and tension tests on cemented sand. The Mohr circles
determined from the effective principal stresses at the axial
strain corresponding to qf from the CIDC and CIDE-L tests
are presented in Fig. 10 together with the Mohr circles from
the CIDE-U tests. The results show that the failure strength
of the CIDC and CIDE-L tests is proportional to the normal
stresses and that the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria, which
have been superimposed, can be employed with reasonable
agreement with the experimental data for these stress paths.
0
It is well recognized that the strength parameters, £
0
and c , for natural and artificially cemented granular soils
are stress path-dependent and change with the change in
ratio between the three main principal stresses, often
defined as ðr2  r3 Þ=ðr1  r3 Þ ¼ b, whereas b = 0 for triax-
ial compression and b = 1 for triaxial extension (Reddy
and Saxena, 1993; Matsuoka and Nakai, 1974; Lade and
Duncan, 1973, 1975; among others). Generally, the friction
angle and the cohesion intercept have been found to
increase with an increasing value of b. However, this mate-
rial behavior could not be identified from these conven-
tional compression and extension tests. On the contrary,
the Mohr-Coulomb parameters of the shear failure, fric-
tion angle and cohesion intercept, from the CIDE-L tests,
were found to be lower than those from the CIDC tests.

Fig. 10. Mohr’s circles at failure: (a) CIDC and CIDE-U tests and (b) CIDE-L and CIDE-U tests.
 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416 1413

In order to investigate the effect of the variation in Lode’s  0  pffiffiffiffiffi 1 0


0 0
F rij ¼ J 2 cos h  pffiffiffi sin h sin £  c cos £
angle and to describe the failure criterion of the lime- 3
cement-stabilized clay in the octahedral plane, further 0 0
 p sin £ ¼ 0 ð10Þ
investigations under general stress path conditions, where
all three main principal stresses can be varied indepen- By combining the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion for
dently, need to be conducted. shear failure with the tension failure criterion, Namikawa
From the CIDE-U tests, the experimental data show et al. (2017) determined the mean effective stress at the
that failure occurs when the minor principal stress reaches intersection between the tensile failure line and the shear
the tension strength line. failure line as
According to Namikawa et al. (2017), the function of 0 0 0
0 0
the tensile failure can be described as 0 c cos £  T f T f sin £  c cos £
pt ¼ 0 þ pffiffiffi 0 tan h ð11Þ
  1  sin £ 3 1  sin £
0 0
F t rij ¼ r3  T f ¼ 0 ð7Þ
However, the tensile strength evaluated as the minor prin-
cipal stress at failure from the CIDE-U tests, T fd ; is signif-
and can be expressed in the form of stress invariants as
icantly lower than the unconfined tensile strength
  pffiffiffiffiffi   extrapolated from the CIUE-U tests. The difference in ten-
0 2 J2 2
F t rij ¼ pffiffiffi sin h þ p  p0  T f ¼ 0 ð8Þ sile strength between undrained and drained unloading,
3 3 observed for stabilized soil of relatively ‘‘low” strength,
may be attributed to the difference in strain rate between
where T f is the material tensile strength determined from the test methods and also to the development of negative
direct tension tests, h is the Lode angle with the special case Du in the undrained triaxial tests, resulting in a higher
of axial symmetric triaxial compression and extension stress 0
strength at failure observed at each applied rc compared
conditions, expressed byh = p=6 and p=6, respectively,
to the drained tests. In the undrained tests at zero confining
and J 2 is the deviatoric stress tensor defined as follows:
stress of relatively high-strength cement-improved soil,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi lower Du would be expected and also the influence of the
q ¼ 3J 2
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
iffi
strain rate between the test methods would be of minor
1h 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 importance, resulting in a better agreement between the
¼ ðr1  r2 Þ þ ðr2  r3 Þ þ ðr1  r3 Þ
2 direct tensile tests and the drained triaxial tension tests.
0 0 0 0
¼ r1  r3 ðfor r2 ¼ r3 Þ ð9Þ By taking into consideration the difference in the Mohr-
0 0
Coulomb strength parameters, £ and c , evaluated from
The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is expressed in the the CIDC and CIDE-L tests, respectively, the mean effec-
form of a stress invariant as tive stress at the intersection between the tensile failure line

Fig. 11. (a) Deviator stress at failure from experimental data in p0 –q plane and (b) Intersection of tension and shear failure function according to
Namikawa et al. (2017).
1414 R. Ignat et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1399–1416

0
and the compression failure line, ptmin , respectively, between At very low effective stresses and degrees of saturation
0
the tensile failure line and the extension failure line, ptmax , below 98–99%, representative of shallow depths in field
were rewritten for the special case of axial symmetric triax- conditions, the undrained failure strength seemed to be
ial compression, h=p6, and extension tests, h=p , as influenced by the applied stress path to failure, resulting
6
in a lower undrained shear strength for extension stress
0
 0
 paths than compression stress paths. However, the results
0
2cc cos £c  3  sin £c T fd p
0
ptmin ¼ ;h ¼ ð12Þ also indicated that with increasing consolidation stress
0
3  3 sin £c 6 and an increasing degree of saturation, representative of
  larger depths in field conditions, the difference in undrained
0 0 0
4ce cos £e  3 þ sin £e T fd strength between lateral loading and unloading stress paths
0 p
ptmax ¼ 0 ;h ¼ ð13Þ was reduced and similar effective stress paths were
3  3 sin £e 6 observed. Furthermore, the relationship between the
0 0 0 0
where £c ; cc and £e , ce are the friction angle and the cohe- undrained failure strength normalized by the consolidation
stress and the OCR in both compression and extension
sion intercept in compression and extension, respectively,
could be accurately described by an exponential function,
and T fd is the tensile strength evaluated from drained
similar to the SHANSEP methodology.
unloading tests. The tension and shear failure functions
The present study revealed that for drained lateral load-
evaluated from Eqs. (8) and (10) are presented in Fig. 11
ing conditions, the lime-cement-improved clay failed in
together with the experimental data. The experimental data
shear with the mobilization of both cohesion and friction,
indicate that a failure surface consisting of a tensile failure
while the samples subjected to drained unloading condi-
function and a shear failure function, as proposed by
tions failed in tension when the minor principal stress
Namikawa et al. (2017), can also be adopted for lime-
reached the material’s tensile strength. The values of both
cement-stabilized clay.
the friction angle and the effective cohesion were lower
than those evaluated from axial compression tests indicat-
4. Conclusions
ing that the cementation bonds for lime-cement-improved
clay are weaker when the material is subjected to lateral
In this study, a series of undrained and drained axial
compression loading compared to axial compression load-
symmetric triaxial extension and tension tests were con-
ing. A significant difference between the undrained and
ducted for the purpose of investigating the behavior of
drained tensile strength, attributed to the development of
lime-cement-improved clay installed in the passive zone of
negative excess pore pressures and the rate of unloading,
a structure. The results were compared with those of con-
was observed for all applied consolidation stresses.
ventional undrained and drained triaxial compression tests.
Finally, the experimental data of the drained tests
The triaxial extension and tension tests showed signifi-
showed that a failure surface consisting of a shear failure
cantly more brittle material behavior compared to the triax-
function based on the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
ial compression tests, with very low strain at failure
and a tensile failure function can be applied for lime-
mobilized in the drained triaxial tension tests. Consequently,
cement-improved clay.
the strength of the improved clay and the natural clay may
not be mobilized simultaneously in applications where the
Declaration of Competing Interest
material is subjected to extension/tension loading.
The tests indicated that the heavily overconsolidated
None.
samples subjected to undrained unloading conditions failed
in tension, while the lightly overconsolidated samples failed
Acknowledgements
in a combination of shear and tension. The yield stress,
evaluated as the point of the maximum curvature of the
This study is part of the BIG (Better Interaction in
stress-strain curve, representative of the stress level where
Geotechnics) project. The authors wish to acknowledge
significant degradation of the bonds takes place, appeared
the financial support provided by Skanska Sweden AB,
to be independent of the applied stress path and was equal
the Development Fund of the Swedish Construction Indus-
to approximately 80% of the evaluated failure strength for
try and the Swedish Transport Administration. They
the samples subjected to undrained loading/unloading con-
would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers, as their
ditions. However, following an initial elastic stress-strain
constructive comments truly helped to improve the
curve, significant stiffness degradation related to the initia-
manuscript.
tion of tensile cracks could be observed for the heavily
overconsolidated samples subjected to undrained unload-
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