CHAPTER

1
Toward a Theory of
Public Administration

Introduction
Theory-building in public administration is a difficult exercise as the subject
covers a vast area of activity and partly it is a cluster of separate but
interrelated disciplines. As Peter Self points out that various kinds of
theories' have grown up around public administration "that are derived
from many or no academic disciplines". The rapidly increasing number and
scope of activities involving public administration have put theorists into a
lot of difficulties to theorize and conceptualize public administration. In fact.
acoherent and organized body of knowledge on the phenomenon of public
administration is still evolving.
The discipline is always in a state of turmoil. The current practice of
publicadministration and management draws strength mainly from the past
models: (i) the classic model with its focus on control and organizational
design; (ii) the neo-bureaucratic model, built upon rational decision-making
process; (iii) the institutional model of the 1950s and 1960s with its roots in
behavioural sciences: and (iv) the public choice model with its reliance on
political economy.? Not surprisingly, public administration is in a period of
transition. The period following the 1980s has been marked by tremendous
change, both nationally and globally. This is évidenced in the efects of
globalization and the emergence of new global economic engines Such as
ndia and China, in the exceptional transformation of South Africa and the
sAPansion of the European Union, and in the impact of modern information
1. Peter Self, Administrative Theories and Politics (New Delhi: S. Chand, 1984), p. 12.
Servng and
OeTt B. Denhardt and Janet y Denbardt. The New Public Service:
Steering (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2003).
 moremorethrough and civil institutions. field emphasis
countries decentra govern politics the
neutra
bureau promoting
contributed
Public
stable,
testresilience issues the
merito greater repetitive
growing not tasksto to nededthe
government governance'
and of the that does frameworklead
and the industrialization. reduce
developingpursued
or
good
sector thean service part
politicalA
remarkably
timnes. But
circumstances.of required the
numberrealized model canis
transparent sector dominated bureaucracies. of a not for
customerization of (iii) latter for
circumstances. Today, philasoph
thereby
requires It
instrument trait are guidance reality
intellectual
been 'good public acceptance and
(civil the
public ADMINISTRATION
law, The state. increasing enterprises,
countries classic
govermment
and making
Thought anonymity to proventhe offer. today'sand
morehas
which fundamental suited is unforeseen
developed to thegovemance authority
efficiency.modern undergoing Theadequate unilying
servants
attached effective powerful have It
service many could clear
Managementat goals sector,
commercialization,
an variable
power. an state in
productive, administration
(i) well bydiscretion.
a needed
aimed service address A
these now goodand by executive of civil a and
model and
countries staying
of model
1950s, provided of public
with govornment. conseq
Many private in a building highly proliferation absence
characterized
belief goai was new discretion
etoms achieve service public of coherentlythe classic of servants of
and is that PUBLIC this
simple
level The decisions
more
technologies importance
the a of theemergence service in its to issues
around Requiring
Attention In services
heries leant
public
public centralization and
of and adapt
(ii) of to success just the highpublic in
out.increased
extensive
to of clear, flexibility. ust unintend
deregulation,
effective, OF adherence
observance
was dichotomy, public change
not to to reality. forthanthe carry the
quest rolesis development moulded
effective of
THEORY ability fails and a
of require
the of guide
communcation of It
enistratie theory
1940s
the thewas is
proportion ONkon
expansion
flexibility
udertakenThe dealinteronnected
institutions sawweli-trained of
to model theory
modeltoday's
of
must
provide
the
of
face help
more andan an
sdministration
inistrations
immeasurably an Lack and theyguide risks
grest
priathztion, an roughly
respive classic
CLASSIC (iv)(v) century
control economic
thestrongimplies classic
reflect uMto
eficent. l iAm menie and
cracy),
The
in 1.
socer
and have The until on lity,19thrious, admevena that
of Thethat
the
 theondapproach
decisions
which
policy
Admlnistratlon.5 and
ispolicies
Thedichotony. in
implement undermine be encourage these of options
to andadministrative
would administration res policy andare interna policies;
all claimingthe andof well andcivilclassic is soCiely.
not and fundamental
affirmation century
inside including: at them. is complex theory
increases
consequences
admlnistration.
corruption potential Within
viable officials the non-partisan
government
should policy requisite the
this domains
interactions
and and are affect and administration
civil
to twenty-first who
national policies; most in
politics-ndrministration
politics
counterbalance, but creative
fromargues,
choices.
Today,identify simplepublic interaction elected most approach countries missingcitizens,
avoiding a on citizens
interference
political
which
matters
administrative
have
advice.
information of theprofessional,
unintended
politics thebest local, will
altermative amongst
Publle Waldo
objective, to role of
and
polilties
betveen of theofficials. policy
analysis, of the and
andthat this
is
of one policy-making
public
make
politicians of burcaucracy, political They
separation fearless
thantheprocessmore policy
of means from of in servants decisions performance
officials is
Theory important of
separation process.variousmorefor issues
administrative
servants
even exchange of
thatof
role newinteractio
and andbenefit policy providesearch
policy complex impact risks public a
the This u
order
to
prevent
as of
much policy require public elected seen policy
advisory
by
A official
a main political public the performed
in administratio
Toward
accepts cqually
policiesby can
thisrobust to the
impact organizationsto
the is Thethe
execute.
that the
governmentThe in uponare increasingly
world, public
will between the it reduces policyrole necessary
between
interactions of policies among consider implementation.
experience, to service elected
holds an practice, we of roleto the in importance
I
Chapter theoryservants public
outthewhich
difficult. contributions called
contribute today's Theand voice success, The functions
As criticalassess Interactions
Interactions
administrators
democracy. between public gOvernment.complex Interactions
levels--to the
theoryinnecessary
patronagc. are citizens.civilpublicand
of classical of preventsin in In
an larger guide
servan
been
However, ways aplay to they involves tional Through fundamental
Lack Thepublication to will.
Today, increasingly of This
challenging
alwayscooperation
substantiveand
ponsibility a likelihood
facilitates of to
functions, of service.needed
2. officialsoptions politicaloutside (i) (ii)
keep discover
(iii) being theory public
often
has to
 classic ministers
andare under civilprimarily
debate of between of balancedgrowing
andneeded
accountability
accountability of partnershipspublic
sharedcommunity enhance
of want to public
democraticcitizenship.
administration,
evolving essential
They
govern mandate actions of in
means forms seek 1990s
model
responsible
everyone of also
to public are against of and
should
policy.to views that balance be the scrutiny,
new They an newthe
According advice was a ensure
responsibility
legislated personal
must against across
or
performance our
and power enhancing
be
thethe as traditional to governments.
public synthesis should theof
intoand theory new non-governmental
balanced towards beginnin
Thought are everything thatthan holders to of
that funds
and or public central constitutional of
demands a the balanced of
ministers means
accountability. ensuring is
administration
forms
find public advice
departments today's andaccountability incarnation
exercise
rather office professional
accountability
regard, meeting be professional
trend
increase 'new'
Management new to prove goods the
people anonymity
for decisions need of be the
must The fromIn
a
THEORYin
theory, thereby of power. thisand for to legal,
governance.the
level, public theemerged
Parliament use must
of among
governmental,
Accountability could
more theory.
growingAccountabilityscrutiny
accountabilitysatisfactory helppoliticization. is
translating public exerciseIn of the the for social (NPM)
and ministerial service confidence, of of
the oversight
citizens. for Accountability could expectcomplex
accountability common
fundamental MANAGEMEN
Administration
administration ministerial aim tension: results of accountability which
Theories
the a andcosts. basedsystem
organizations. in
of
Civil Classic ultimate is public that forms Managemen
for to entirely against
growing for other today
role creating managem
to theThere
of agencies Administrative avoid
Parliamentary avenue involves
Inadequate
Administrative in on in
watch.
accountable
accountable controlling for lines
responsive servants.responsibility
forcivil review active most
Citizens new
interested
given servants. the involving andsocial
emerging. Political Public
public their focuses
However,
not mechanisms public demand
conflicting
one more its
political
for and PUBLIC
Public
is are peer learning, accountability
At
democracies. accountability
Transparency sector
are is and New
3. measures
are (i) (ii) a principles. New
ments new many (iii) A agencies publichave balance of NEW public
6 and peer part
to The
 andinformation It taxpayers"
and management
Choice
international
competitivenessaset of governpopularized
practices
approaches Lynnunified neglected.
thataddress the orderprovide theirIn is theirthe
role Rather, Mass.: public Congrcssion
reconcilegovern
7 4,
role departments needs.
this the
services. No. 290-305.
markets represents issues of reclaim although of reconcile
Administration
Public the and values. should attribute
in
should reduce breadth
services. (Reading, 53,
sector between aof citizens needs. the
in and Carrol! democratic certainbeen moderntheir of the Vol.
concept
Review,reinvention
to to pp.
(i) of on change previously
theory to
the helpcitizens' value
quality
serveservice citizens
NPMprivate relationship important for first not public taxes to
Government 1996,
on standpoint motion government quest
focuses
Public founded core, a
and
the Administration among
address of citizens does of should pay
servants
return misconceived
Administration
3,
emulating Tery,5 to public power enable delivery and No.
had commitment
manifests in of to federal
which set of
on
managerialism services userrights responsive Citizens 56,
in public Reinventing
of is the
its
At the disaggregation to One the put theory
Theoryof
globalization, beenby able which A to access should mere
service citizens' receive
Vol.
theory
frOm and
at approach criticized
gains. needs. use
interest. technologies Administration the Publicoffuture
Review
Managerialism,
aimed societyhas
being perspective
Public integrated
should to a money.the abandon
a government its be
"TheAdmi
NPM andservice or
Toward productivity Management Attention Requiring
Issuesof citizens' customer to that Gaebler, democracy",
newin
practices andtheof New be public
should it institutionstoapproach
communication
addition,
of to taxpayers'
recognition
need recognized
expect should
The bureaucracy effects short public Lynn.
challenges promotes, Thesector and Ted we
I
Chapter change.
The Gaebler, the the
citizen-centred
Public they
at (ii) falls to service co-ordinated reality.
the
not a 1992).
Addision-Wesley,
"Why D.B.
publicResponsive
achieve reality. of with with
technological sector. Public the
citizenry.
and
ment advanceIn democratic the and
EntrepreneurPubl
and and
looks
add theory agencies. word,
that fuller for
Newstabilityandbe Osborne
should
393-395.
and
pers
the productivity,
to which to public
values and Newandit
values
service today's public
a
from and
to
citizen
embraces
a
Valuement
Terry,
Carroll
oOvernmentOsborne
response ideas, The NPM to a A
interests.
for 2. David
D. pp.
Larry 1993,
the the public issues1.
reflect A
the need
JD,
and of hy for
The 9. O. 0.
in 0f I
8 Administrative Theories and Management Thought
share
Every public sector organization should
money.
Commi tment
to improving productivity. This is not a minimalist concept of the
role of the state. It is a commitment to marshal all available public
resources to effectively serve the public interest.
It is the responsibility of the sectay
government and every publieSevesi
organization to provide citizens with comprehensive information.
information (in
governments have enacted legislation that provides access to
adopted)
the case of India, Right to Information Act, 2005 has been
in itself, lead tó
However, access to disaggregated information does not, accountability for
better understanding; nor is it a useful tool for gavernment
Administration theory
results. As a more promising thread, a New Public
could explore the right of citizens to know, sector and to understand, the
performance.
consequences of government decisions and public
3. Responsible public service. In a new global economy and society,
and create and
government must be able to modernize its role
taken
strengthen its public services. Different countries have
different approaches to creating a meritorious public service and
protecting public servants. Public servants are "especially responsi
ble citizens who are fiduciaries for the citizenry as a whole".1
Because of their very special role in society, public servants are
awarded special status and special protection. The privileges and
protection help to ensure that public servants can withstand political
pressures in performing their duties and resist the temptations of
corruption.
The New Public Management sought to replace the traditional bureau
cracy with contractual arrangements, performance pay and related perform
approaches
ance management systems. Experiences have shown that such that
have been resisted vehemently. There is also little evidence to suggest
these approaches have been effective in the private sector itself. Recent
research conducted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development found no evidence that perfomance pay in the public sector
has ld to performance improvements. It is argued that traditional bureau
cracy has demonstrated capacity for stability. The success of the public ser
vice for the future depends on its ability to balance continuity and change.
BUILDING A THEORY FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Despite the fact that a rich and abundant body of literature is available on
the theory and practice of public administration, the field still lacks a
7. Terry Cooper, The Responsible Administrator, 4th ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
1998).
8, OECD, "Performance-related pay policies for government employees", OECD,
May 2005.
er, 14.
Tbid.Civic government
Lewin, both
community
Kurt .enrich
capital Citizens'interests, 13
Citizens
prompts thathelps Today, acquired contrast
Citizenship
Citizenship
Democratic transformed basic An society, hat conflicts affer eervice early
judgements." and t«There ketween servants
ernment nternational (New Review
Jocelyne of effort unifying
neyl Kobert Today, individuals
the Today,
level. In yet"there Inpublic 20th The
by citizens the the in
York:
S. interests. examine them role broader to towards tensions.
is aand
the in
Denhardt encouraging the »10
remains nothingis new the preceding set
King Bourgon, building is It inrole centuries their
Field the citizenship
to of servantstraditional
of
M.E. are late a begins ways overall nothing framework 21
consider
and citizens starting of actions.
housand a
and and
irtuesOaks,ErSharpe, Its role to meaning a so century. values, Chapter
Theory and more 19th New
government
Camilla Janet reconcile with that
development the
"Responsive, role reconcile
of practical so an discussionand
(New Administrative Sciences, in
citizen
and civil extends
the isthan and point Public push public themes
2003).
Denhardt, now the the yardstick
dangerous alternative the l
Stivers, Social the considered and or It Toward
York: society.
government
welfare constituents, early
multiple concept beyond is
community.
involvement extends various beyond their includes ofAdministration and reality
asnew aadministration
Science
(New alsO would and
Government
xford The 20th a and a
Sage,
CA: responsible of New the for as goodtheory modelnoted
New Government of the experienced principles Theory a
to kinds their the an centuries, improvement role a indicate
ersity economic Public citizenship." theory
makingtheory."9
Service:
Serving
Public Vol.73, 9 promote hascommunityintegrating'voters, constraints
1998). is York: in roles in of of tothat of
us: conflicting
of theory
and government gone th e that social help the theory to Public
individual Administration
clients the that
Press, Public No. , Harpr can and public decisions guide
respected citizenship, term lags To them NPM by
recognizes
society.
as
It must of of science, ofAdministration
1997). contribute beyond concept social this, those there
ministration March 2007, && self-interests a or the the the and
whole. customers.2 'citizenship start service behind resolvefailed
Row, activities and classic
economy
government", representing andBourgonLewin inlate is inspire
Steeringnot encourage dimensions. at a
1951). to collective in theory. are the emerging largely the
Today's the 19th wide
15.p. social that model. passing
in most being times adds says: public public
an that and has and and gap
it In to 9
 democratic *democratic
mandate
service. tration
tratorshas development, citizens'the sovereignty. e citizen theirment.
greater. thservices 10
16. Today,adrninistration
mustagencies. both
15. concern Public policies.
ians. hold national bility
2lst
first,
Citizenship
RobenMichael (ii) (i) Therefore, for Market successful Greater
It
increasingly elected Third, the The (iii) In of
seen National engagement
policy-making
that Policy These
he elected to community century, and Administrative
can
Nalional
Denhardt ultimate
Second, encouraging mobilizing
conceptdisseminating
a expanded tpurity protecting
The shared serve model
lynatieff, ít context citizenship, fromcitizenship'.
interest. They lead
citizen involvement
(New requireofficials frorn
affirms ofideals
Civic global and officials the
agovernments implementation. to
responsibility understanding
it of intention. this
citizens new become has
andYork: work
"The the of participation
their need in better
global values
democratic shared citizens and of perspective are The Theories
Review,Sanet Professional
markets market
and has public democratic
information includes human integratingnations.15
In not policy
Staemyth
with and the public
to fact, the
interests, for
Denhardt, solutions. public become and been policy theof
University
Vol. the
service responsibilities. starting
of advance main effective
ofother
have model. dignity, no wil entirely debate, Atcitizens and
citizenship",
90, citizenship
courts for ofgroups moreprofessional service
framework
indecisions
public tocitizenship, refocuses democratic
No.*The servants a values setting point instrument have policy present, Managemnent
environmental
governments of Accountability
given
Incomplex elevate the public citizen
4, as ofthan civic derives enhances
new New the issues; citizens to
satisfactory,
2003, that public decisions.
in policy rise and and recognizes
the the carrying public our assume there and
York
publicRonald public should institutionsinvolvement
pp. task. ultimate
clearly agenda the detines values, government for Thought
to and attentioninterest. its increasesis the
391-400.
Press, and a in role exerting
service: outcomes, discourse a
Beiner new host It govermment out servants.l6 true start resources even
legitimacy
the and In growing
1995), many involves differentiates and that orders. of meaning has the
issues of interpreter on
fromits with greater the
Putting (Ed. elected public commitment
role Public can influence in
pp. other making the been 2nd
governments
international ), and We the and government likelihood
It of ever demand of
democracy 53-78.
Theorizing ofefforts activities;
involves: ideals responsi decade
felt
private officials fostering adminis need govern adminis ideal political govern
public public public of ignore in even
of the to to of of the of for of
 Chapter1 Toward a Theory of Public Administration 11
organizations. At the national level, governments will
continue to play the
key role in setting the legal and political rules of
interests, and ensuring that the principles of democracygovernance, balancing
and social justice are
respected. In contrast, public servants are called upon to play new roles of
facilitation, negotiation, and conflict resolution. These changes add
complexity to the policy-administration relationship.
A New Public Administration theory would
of policy, politics and policy implementation as propose
a unifying vision
one
active process that brings together all relevant actors.integrated and inter
active and democratic interactions would replace the old This principle of
tration dichotomy. The new theory would recognize the fact politics-adminis
makers and administrators are actively involved in all that both policy
aspects of policy
process-formulation, implementation and evaluation. It would help elected
officials and public servants act responsibly, ethically and in
with democratic principles. It would accordance
also recognize that, in the twenty-first
century, discretjon is necessary in policy implementation and, thus,
help to explore how the exercise of discretion would
could be informed by citizens'
choices and participation. And again, the new theory of Public
tration would help to address the issue of Adminis
accountability. professional responsibility and
In seeking to address issues related to policy
implementation, the New Public Administration theory development and policy
take on the difficult task of proposing a unified would effectively
that encompasses the full range of political, legal, doctrine of accountability
cratic responsibilities. professional and demo

Public Trust
One important area which has not received much
is the public trust. At the most basic attention in the governance
level, citizens expect their government
to be legitimate, honest and trustworthy. They
expect
democratic principles and serve the collective interest.government to rspect
As taxpayers. they
expect public servants to abide by high ethical standards and to carry
their functions with competence and integrity. Trust in the out
public institutions is the ultimate test of good functioning of
public trust between governments and citizens isgovernment. Maintaining
an essential element of
democracy and a prerequisite for good government. Lack of trust in existing
public institutions leads to a lower rate of
compliance, corruption, black
markets, more tax avoidance strategies and increasing litigation costs. 17
Disaffected citizens may stop participating in public affairs.
Eventually, 1t
I7. T.R. Tyler, "What is it about
government that Americans dislike?," in J.R. Hibbing8
and E.T. Morse (Eds.), The Psychology of Public
Dissatisfaction wilh Gover ient
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 200|). pp. 227-242.
 Thought
12 " Administrative Theories and Management
elected officials
leads to the erosion of the social fabric. l8 Declining trust of
the best advice on
in the professional civil service may deprive them of dissatisfaction among
policy decisions. Ultimately, it leads to growing incumbent government
citizens and public servants. Declining trust in an
to social conflict and uitimately to an
and public institutions may leada return to military rule, dictatorship or
overthrow of govemment and
civil war.
reforms to make
The last two decades have seen the pressure for
But there is also a
govemments more efficient, transparent and responsive.
Decades of pressure
growing distrust in governments and public institutions.trust, a greater sense
to reduce the role of the state have not generated more
of security or greater citizen satisfaction.!9

Conclusion
government than
Decades of experience would reveal that we have more of
'spirit of public
of good governance', more of public servants than of than of
service', more of laws than of 'rightful justice' and much of talk
purity of intention'.
Although there is no end to our quest for better governance, yet the
time is ripe for a New Public Administration theory that would help to
reconcile the role of responsible public administrators and the democratic
responsibility of elected officials with commitment to citizens' participation.
In this way, a theory of public administration would serve the rapidly
changing circumstances of the 21st century.

18. M. Levi, A State of Trust (Firenze: European University

19. Bourgon, op. cit., pp. 7-26. Institute, 1996).