CHAPTER 2

STEAM GENERATORS AND AUXILIARIES

2023 _ CPUT

PRESENTED BY

1
 • Regulations pertaining to pressure vessels.
• Types of boilers.

• Boiler mountings And accessories

Contents • Computation and experimental
determination
• of boiler equivalent Evaporation,
boiler efficiency and heat loss.

2
 Steam generators mainly consist of:
➢ Furnace, Superheater and reheater
➢ Boiler or evaporator
➢ Economiser and air preheater
Introduction
Auxiliaries include:
➢ Pulverisers, burners and fans
➢ Stockers and dust collectors
➢ Precipitators, ash handling
equipment and chimney or stack.

3
 The boiler (or evaporator) is that part of
the steam generator where phase change or
boiling occurs from liquid (water) to
vapour (steam), essentially at constant
The boiler
pressure and temperature. However, the
term “boiler” is traditionally used to mean
the whole steam generator. The water
receives the heat from hot gases (flue gas)
from the combustion chamber. For this
reason, boilers are made from high-quality
steel.
4
 a) Safety

The boiler/ b) Accessibility

steam generator c) Capacity

should have the d) Good efficiency

e) Simplicity
following
f) Low initial cost
requirements:
g) Good Manufacturing quality

h) No foreign materials inside

5
 A pressure vessel is a housing
Regulations on designed and manufactured to contain
pressure a fluid under a design pressure equal
vessels, OHSA to or greater than 50kPa (Occupational
Health and Safety Act, Act 85 of 1993).

6
 a) Any person who manufactures, imports,
sells, offers, or supplies any pressure
equipment for use in the Republic shall
ensure that such equipment complies with
the regulations.
Key legal b) Any person who erects or installs any
requirements pressure equipment for use in the Republic
(ref: OHSA) shall ensure, as far as is reasonably
practical, that it is erected or installed safely
and without risk to health and safety when
properly used.
c) No pressure vessel or steam generator shall
be manufactured, modified or repaired to the
RSA/CI/OHSA certification requirements by
a Manufacturer whose Quality Management
System is not accredited by an approved
Certification Body in accordance with Annex
C of SANS347. 7
 FUNCTION The most basic function of any
OF A BOILER boiler is to generate steam from
combusted fuel-air mixture.

8
 • There is a variety of ways in which boilers can
be classified:
Classification 1) According to capacity:

of boilers a) Low-capacity boiler: Capacity < 20 t/h

b) Medium capacity boilers: Capacity=20 to
75 t/h
c) High-capacity boilers: Capacity > 100 t/h

9
 2) According to the pressure of steam:
a) Low-pressure boiler: pressure < 30 bars
Classification b) Medium pressure boilers: pressure = 30 to

of 70 bars
c) High-pressure boilers: pressure up to 150
boilers(continued…) bars
d) Super pressure boilers: pressure = 150 and
up to 190 bars
e) Supercritical boilers: pressure > 221,2 bars

10
 3) According to the position of the furnace:

a) Internally fired boilers, the grate

Classification and furnace are enclosed within
of the boiler shell

boilers(continued…) b) Externally fired boilers: furnace and

grate are separated from boiler shell.

11
 4) According to design (or flow of
water and hot gases):
a) Tank or shell boiler: Consists of a
Classification cylindrical water drum containing
one or more flue tubes through
of which gases are circulated. They
are used for small plant capacity.
boilers(continued…) b) Fire Tube or Smoke Tube Boiler:
Composed of a water-filled
pressure vessel containing a nest
of tubes through which the hot
flue gases flow, and heat is
transferred from hot gases to water
in boiler.

12
 4) According to design (or flow of water
and hot gases) [continued…]:

c) Water tube boilers: High-pressure

Classification water passes through nests of tubes in

the path of the hot flue gases.
of These boilers are the most efficient
boilers(continued…) (efficiency may reach 92%). They are more
suitable where large quantities of steam can
be raised rapidly in a limited space. They
may raise more than 375t/h of steam at
pressures up to 350 bars. Temperatures >
550°C are used in large power plants.
13
 5) According to the heating surface
arrangement
a) Horizontal water tube boiler

Classification b) Vertical water tube boiler.

6) According to the position of the principal
of axis:
a) Vertical boilers
boilers(continued…) b) Horizontal boilers
c) Inclined boilers
7) According to the number of boiler passes:
a) single-,
b) two-,
c) three-, and
d) multi-pass boilers
 8) According to the purpose or application:
a) Utility boilers for power generation

b) Industrial boilers
Classification c) Marine boilers

of d) Locomotive boiler

boilers(continued…) e) Heating boilers

9) According to water circulation: All water
tube boilers may be classified as either
natural-circulation or forced–circulation
boilers

15
 The boiler consists of horizontal tubes through
which the flue gases pass and, by so doing,

Typical fire transfer heat to the body of water surrounding

them. The primary mode of heat transfer from
tube: Cochran gases to water is convection. Its design is compact

boiler and suitable for small capacity requirements. Its

body is cylindrical and has a hemispherical crown
and furnace made to withstand high pressure
during operation. The boiler is mostly oil or coal-
fired, giving a thermal efficiency of 75% and 70%,
respectively. Other sources can also be used to fire
the boiler. The combustion chamber is constructed
from firebricks to withstand intense heat in the
boiler. 16
 Typical
boilers: Fire
tube boilers

Cochran Boiler: Consist of a cylindrical shell with its crown having a

spherical shape. It can be used with any fuel. Used for small capacity.
17
 This boiler consists of a horizontal cylindrical
shell filled with water. Heat exchange is the
basic working principle of this boiler. It has a
Typical tank or shell and tube-type heat exchanging system.
shell boilers: Generally, the flue gases pass through the
Lancashire fire tubes, and water flows through the shell.

boilers This way, the heat is transferred from flue

gases to the water. It is a low-pressure,
internally fired, natural water circulation
boiler. That means this boiler uses the
natural current to circulate water inside the
boiler during its operation.
18
 19
19
2020
 a) La Mont Boiler
Lamont boiler is a high-pressure, forced
High-Pressure circulation, water tube boiler with an

water tube internally fired furnace. An external

pump is used to circulate the water within
boilers small diameter water tubes of the
boiler. Walter Douglas La-Mont invented
this boiler in the year 1925. At that time,
this boiler was primarily designed to use
in ships/vessels.

21
22
 b) A four-drum stirling boiler (bent-tube boiler)

Bent-tube boilers were the improved version of

straight-tube boilers with enhanced ease of
High-Pressure access and handling (inspection, maintenance
and cleaning). They also have improved steam
water tube production rates and quality (drier steam).
During operation, feedwater is supplied to the
boilers (continued…) third steam drum (far left) and naturally flows
to the mud drum. Flue gases flow upwards
from the furnace through the tube bank
connecting the first steam drum (far right) and
the mud drum. Baffles direct the flue gases to
the second and third steam drums.
The separated saturated steam is sent to the centre drum (second steam
drum) from the first steam drum, where the steam is sent to the superheater
for further hearing. Recently incorporated designs were the water cooling of
these boilers. 23
24
 a) Natural circulation

Typical modern
water tube
boilers

25
 b) Forced circulation

Typical modern
water tube
boilers(continued…)

26
 c) Once through boiler

Typical modern
water tube
boilers

27
Detailed water tube boilers (natural circ.)

28
Steam boilers: Available at ESKOM
Power Station Quantity Type of a boiler

Coal fired radiant furnace, natural circulation type with

Matla 6
superheating and reheating

Stein Muller- Benson (once-through) boilers with

Kriel 6
circulating pumps

Coal fired radiant furnace, natural circulation type with

Matimba - superheating and reheating

Stein Muller- Benson (once-through) boilers with

Duvha 6 circulating pumps

Stein Muller- Benson (once-through) boilers with

Tutuka - circulating pumps

Medupi - Supercritical-pressure boiler turbine units

Supercritical-pressure boiler turbine units Note:

Kusile 6
they operate above 221.2 bar and 374 0𝐶

29
Boiler mounting and accessories

30
 Boiler mountings are mandatory and are used
for the safe working of the boiler.
Various mountings:
Safety: Boiler a) Feed check valve: To prevent the backflow
of water if the pump is out of operation.
mounting b) Steam stop valve/junction valve: To
regulate the flow of steam from the boiler.
c) Safety valves: For the boiler’s safety in the
case of excessive steam pressure.
d) Blow-off valve/blow-down valve: For
emptying the boiler and discharging mud
and sediments that collect in the boiler.

31
 e) Fusible plug: it protects the furnace
crown from burning due to excessive
heat. When water level is too low, and the
plug is exposed to the steam space, the
plug melts. This allows water to fall into
Safety: Boiler the furnace, extinguishing the fire and
venting the boiler.
mounting

32
 f) Pressure gauge: indicates the pressure
inside the drum at anytime in desired
units. The sum of the indicated pressure
and the atmospheric pressure indicates the
Safety: Boiler absolute pressure.
mounting

33
 g) Water level indicators: indicates water
level in the boiler at anytime. Tow are
installed, one of them serving as a standby
unit.
Safety: Boiler
mounting

34
 1) Feed water pumps: deliver the feed
water into the steam boiler.
Steam boiler The common ones include:
accessories a) reciprocating pumps, can be
single or double acting.
b) Rotary pumps

35
 2) Economiser feedwater: Partially heating
the water (Sat. liquid) before it enters the
boiler through outgoing flue gases. Feedwater
Steam boiler
flows in thinned-walled and tightly spaced
accessories(continued…) tubes while heated by flue gases. The tube
arrangement should be inline rather than
staggered to allow large ash chunks to pass.
Incorporating the economiser reduces fuel
consumption and increase the boiler’s overall
efficiency.

36
37
 Economiser feedwater [continued]…:

• Gain due to feeding water heaters:

Steam boiler • Let:

ℎ1= ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒
accessories(continued…) ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
ℎ2 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐻 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

The gain percentage due to heating the feed

water is:

ℎ2 − ℎ1
= × 100%
𝐻 − ℎ1
38
 • For practical purposes, if 𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 denote
inlet and outlet temperatures, then the
gain percentage is given by:
Steam boiler
accessories(continued…) =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
× 100%
𝑡𝐻 − 𝑡1

• The gain stated above is based on the

assumption that the heat used in the heater
would otherwise be wasted.

39
 3) Air pre-heater: Preheats the incoming air
before directing it into the combustion
chamber. Flue gases exhausted from the
economiser are used for air preheating
Steam boiler before being discharged through the
chimney.
accessories(continued…)

40
 4) Reheater: Reheat partially condensed steam
from the HP turbine, removing moisture before
sending it back to the intermediate turbine. The
Steam boiler reheat surface may be radiant (in the furnace) or
accessories(continued…) convective in the convection pass.

5) Evaporator: Saturated liquid is achieved by

further heating the water in the evaporator (Sat.
line). The latent heat of vaporisation is further
absorbed at a constant temperature (liquid
vapour). Saturated steam is then collected for
further heating

41
Steam boiler
accessories(continued…)

6) Superheater: Passing dry steam through an assemblage of comparatively small

diameter steel tubes forming the central part of the superheater. Its function is to
remove any suspended water particles (moisture) and increase the steam
temperature above the saturated temperature. By doing so, it reduces the chances
of bulk condensation in the turbine blades; it also increases the efficiency of the
cycle. 42
 7) Steam driers/separators: The purpose is
to remove as completely as possible the
water from the system
Steam boiler
8) Steam traps: The purpose is to automatically
accessories(continued…)
drain away or return to the boiler water
resulting from the partial condensation of
steam in steam pipes, steam jackets etc.,
without allowing any steam to escape.

a) Expansion traps

b) Float traps

43
 9) Reducing valves: To regulate the supplied
steam at a uniform pressure. The Lancashire
type, which has a large water capacity, makes
Steam boiler it easier to maintain nearly constant pressure.
accessories(continued…) Water-tube boilers are not because of the small
quantity of water.

10) De-superheater: To reduce steam

temperature to desired temperatures by
directing it to the de-superheater tubes and
injecting purified water through nozzles. Water
can be sprayed before or after the superheater
and directed to the HP turbine. 44
 • In a water-tube boiler, feedwater is heated
in three heat exchangers; economiser,
evaporator (downcomer-riser circuit) and
Heat Absorption superheater. Feedwater from the h.p. heater
in Water-Tube enters the economiser and is heated by the

Boilers outgoing flue gases until it is saturated at that

pressure, then fed to the drum.
• Saturated water falls through the downcomer
into the bottom header and moves up
through the riser, where water is partially
boiled back into the drum.

45
 •For each kg of steam formed, the heat
absorbed in the economiser (in the

Heat liquid phase), in the evaporator (liquid

to vapour transition or the latent heat
interaction in of vaporisation), and in the
the boiler superheater (in the vapour or gas
phase) are given by:

𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑜 = ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 = ℎ3 − ℎ2
𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝 = ℎ4 − ℎ3
46
47
Heat absorption in different heat
exchangers of a water-tube boiler

Saturated vapour line

C.P.

Liquid.-Vapour region

48
The percentage of total heat absorbed
in the economiser, evaporator and
superheater are:

𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑜 ℎ2 − ℎ1
%𝑒𝑐𝑜 = × 100 = × 100
𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑜 + 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 + 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝 ℎ4 − ℎ1

𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 ℎ3 − ℎ2
%𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 = × 100 = × 100
𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑜 + 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 + 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝 ℎ4 − ℎ1

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝 ℎ4 − ℎ3
%𝑠𝑢𝑝 = × 100 = × 100
𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑜 + 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 + 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝 ℎ4 − ℎ1

49
 The use of a reheater

If a reheater is used, the fraction of the total heat absorbed in the

reheater can similarly be estimated. Using a large number of feedwater
heaters (up to seven or eight) means
C.P. a smaller economiser, and high
pressure means a smaller boiler surface (risers) because the latent heat
of vaporisation decreases rapidly with pressure. Thus, a modern high-
pressure steam generator requires more superheating and reheating
surfaces and less boiler surface than older units. The fraction of total
heat absorbed in superheaters alone may be as high as 60% in a
modern boiler.

50
 Feedwater Circulation
Under natural circulation, water
circulation is initiated by the density
difference. The volume of water
flowing in the circuit must be sufficient
to remove heat from the furnace and
carry it into the drum. For boiler pressure
> 30 bar, it is ideal to place downcomers
outside furnace wall to maintain sufficient
density. Feedwater accumulate heat by
flowing through the riser as saturated
liquid. The denser saturated water is Outside the furnace Inside the furnace
recirculated in the downcomer and through
the header for distribution.
Feed water preheated by the economiser mixes saturated liquid in the
drum, and the light-weight vapour is separated for further heating in
the superheater. There is usually few downcomers with large diameter,
and riser have small diameters but many in numbers. 51
 Steam-water (mixture)

• density of steam–water mixture in the riser is less than that of

saturated water in the downcomer. Due to this density difference,
a circulation current is set up within the downcomer–riser circuit.
The feedwater from the economiser enters the drum, and
saturated steam is taken out of the drum to the superheater.

• The pressure head available for natural circulation is given by

∆𝑝 = 𝑔𝐻 𝜌𝐷 − 𝜌𝑚
𝜌𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝐷 = 𝑆𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟
𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑟 52
 Steam-water (mixture) (continued…)
𝜌𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + 𝜌𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝜌𝑚 =
2

𝜌𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝜌𝐷

1
𝜌𝑡𝑜𝑝 =
𝑣𝑡𝑜𝑝

𝑣𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑡𝑜𝑝 × 𝑣𝑓𝑔

𝑥𝑡𝑜𝑝 , is the quality of the mixture at the top of the riser,

also known as the top dryness fraction (TDF)
53
 Steam-water (mixture) (continued…)
Natural circulation limitations:

• Increasing pressure in the circulation circuit, decreases the

density difference between the saturated liquid (𝜌𝑓 ) and vapour
(𝜌𝑔 ) , at critical pressure, 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜌𝑓 , thus, ceasing the circulation.

• The same phenomena applies in terms of specific volume of the

two substances, 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑓 (m3/kg).

• For steam pressure at or exceeding 180 bar, the density

difference is drastically decreased, necessitating the employ of
forced circulation where a pump circulates feedwater in the
circuit.

54
 Steam-water (mixture) (continued…)
Natural circulation limitations:

55
 Circulation ratio (CR)
• CR: It is the amount of saturated water circulated through the
downcomer–riser circuit per kg of steam released from the drum.
Therefore:
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟
𝐶𝑅 =
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚

𝑚 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑙 1 1
𝐶𝑅 = = = =
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 / 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑙 𝑇𝐷𝐹

m = mass of saturated water flowing through the downcomer-riser

circuit during a certain time.
𝑚𝑔 = mas of steam released from the drum during the same time.
𝑚𝑙 = 𝑚 − 𝑚𝑔= mass of saturated water at the riser exit.
TDF = top dryness fraction: quality of liquid vapour mixture
discharged from the riser into the drum 56
 Circulation ratio (CR) (continued…)

CR thermal boundaries:

•Lower: For every kg of steam released in a drum, 6 kg or more of

saturated feedwater must be circulated in the circuit, that
is, 1:6 or higher. Overheating may cause system components
to deform, which may be prone to accidents.

• Upper: Introduction of feedwater into the system should be limited

to 1:25 to enhance heat transfer and effectively use heat
generated heat in the system.
57
STEAM BOILER PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS

58
 • Rating of boilers and efficiency
• Boiler capacity rating can be expressed in
PERFORMANCE various ways including:

OF STEAM • kg of steam /h of heating surface

• kg of steam /kg of fuel burnt
BOILERS
• Boilers generating the same amount of
steam per hour may differ in their quality
of steam output (i.e., pressure and
temperature). Therefore, quivalent
evaporation and boiler efficiencies are
used to compare different boilers.

59
 • Power of a Boiler is the amount of water
capable of evaporating from and at 100 0 𝐶 in
an hour.

BOILER POWER • The power of any particular boiler must

depend on:

• The quality of the fuel used,

• Its combustion rate

• The boiler's efficiency in utilising the

fuel's heat of combustion.

60
 • To compare the evaporating capacities
of different boilers, they must be referred
to standard conditions.
EQUIVALENT • Equivalent evaporation is the amount of
EVAPORATION water evaporated from water at 100 𝐶 to 0

dry steam at the same temperature

(100 0 𝐶).

• Under these standard conditions, 1 kg of

water at 100 0 𝐶 needs 2257 kJ of heat
(ℎ𝑓𝑔 - from steam tables) to be converted
into dry and saturated steam at 100 0𝐶.
61
 𝑚𝑎 ℎ − ℎ𝑓
𝑚𝑒 = = 𝑚𝑎 × 𝐹𝑒
ℎ𝑓𝑔

𝑚𝑠
EQUIVALENT 𝑚𝑎 =
𝑚𝑓𝑢
Where,
EVAPORATION 𝑚𝑒 = mass, equivalent evaporation
(continued…) 𝑚𝑠 = mass of steam generated
ℎ = enthalpy of steam at exit from the boiler
ℎ𝑓 = Enthalpy of feedwater at inlet
ℎ𝑓𝑔 = Latent heat of evaporation
𝐹𝑒 = Factor of evaporation
𝑚𝑎 = Mass of steam produced per kg of fuel
used
𝑚𝑓𝑢 = Mass of fuel

62
 Enthalpy of steam
- Dry saturated steam at pressure
ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔
- Wet saturated steam at pressure
EQUIVALENT ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔
Superheated steam at pressure and
EVAPORATION -
temperature
(continued…)
ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑇𝑠

Where,
ℎ = enthalpy of steam at exit from the
boiler/superheater
𝑥 = dryness fraction
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 = SH steam temperature
𝑇𝑠 = Boiler exit temperature
63
 • Knowing the weight of steam produced by
a boiler plant in at any time, the
temperature of the feed water, the pressure
BOILER and the dryness or superheat of the steam,
THERMAL the amount of heat (𝑄1) utilised by the boiler
EFFICIENCY plant may be computed. Knowing also the
mass of fuel burned at anytime and its
calorific value, the maximum possible amount
of heat (𝑄) due to the combustion of this fuel
may be calculated.

64
 Boiler thermal efficiency is the ratio of the
heat used to generate steam to the heat
produced by the combusted fuel to generate
steam.
BOILER
𝑚𝑠 ℎ − ℎ𝑓
THERMAL 𝜂𝑏 =
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶𝑉
EFFICIENCY Where,
(continued…) 𝑚𝑓 = Mass of fuel used
𝐶𝑉 = Calorific value of fuel

Where the efficiency is calculated on the loss

basis, the boiler thermal efficiency becomes:

𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶𝑉 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜂𝑏 =
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶𝑉 65
 • Losses due to dry flue gases
Heat losses at exhaust as these flue gases leave
the boiler. Heat can be preserved by passing
the hot flue gases through the economiser and

LOSSES IN the air heater to preheat incoming feedwater.

A BOILER 𝑄𝑑𝑓𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑓𝑔 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑎

Where,
𝑚𝑔 = mass of flue gases generated
𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑓𝑔 = specific heat capacity of flue gases
𝑇𝑔 = gas temperature
𝑇𝑎 = temperature of air entering the boiler
66
 • Losses due to unburnt fuel
Heat losses caused by excessive fuel supply to
the burners, resulting in unbalanced air-fuel
mixture ratio. These losses increases
LOSSES IN operational expenses.
A BOILER
(continued…) 𝑄𝑓 = 𝑚𝑓1 × 𝐶𝑉
Where:
𝑚𝑓1 = mass of unburnt fuel per kg of fuel
supplied.
𝑄𝑓 = heat losses due to unburnt fuel.

67
 • Losses due to incomplete combustion

LOSSES IN Carbon monoxide (CO) produces 10120 kJ/kg,

while carbon dioxide (CO2) produces 33800
A BOILER kJ/kg, when 1 kg of carbon. Therefore, 23680
(continued…)
kJ/kg of carbon is the difference of the amount
of heat that is lost.

68
 • Losses due to radiation and convection
LOSSES IN These losses occur where high temperature

A BOILER surfaces are exposed to the ambient air

(continued…) temperature. The reduction of heat losses can
be achieved by using insulation material on
the body of the boiler.

69