Issue 34

SILLY LINGUISTICS THE MAGAZINE FOR LANGUAGE LOVERS
al Faux-p
t
sa
aF
• AND HOW TO
AVOID THEM •
VOCABULARY
ITEMS
-
THE
SQUATTERS
OF THE
BRAIN
BANANAS,
WIRES, AND LONG-
DISTANCE
RELATIONSHIPS
THE MAGAZINE FOR LANGUAGE LOVERS : ISSUE #34 : MARCH 2021
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Titles in
bold are
regular
3 THE ETYMOLOGICAL
CORNER
columns!
By Katarzyna Koźma
LINGUISTIC CUSTOMS
6 AROUND THE WORLD #3
By Valentin Pradelou
JARRING GERMAN: HOW

9 “BADISCH” DEFIES THE
NATIONAL STEREOTYPE 34
GLAGOLITIC – GOD’S SONG-
LIKE LANGUAGE AND A
By Rachael Greyhound LINGUIST’S PERSONAL DEVIL
By Joana Atanasova
13 BALANCING ACTS
By Georgie O’Mara 38 DOES LANGUAGE AFFECT THE
WAY OUR BRAIN WORKS?
By Brenda Lee Intignano
17 THE LINK BETWEEN GOAL
SETTING AND MOTIVATION VOCABULARY ITEMS – THE
By Em Horne 41 SQUATTERS OF THE BRAIN
By Kateřina Fuková
FATAL FAUX-PAS AND HOW
20 TO AVOID THEM THE LIGHT OF THE DEAD:
By Adam Millward 44 RELOCATING BASQUE
CULTURE IN ITS EVERYDAY
VOCABULARY
MIRROR MIRROR ON THE
23 WALL, WHO’S THE MOST
DISCERNING OF THEM ALL?
By Tanya Newton
BANANAS, WIRES, AND LONG-

By Kristel Ho
48 DISTANCE RELATIONSHIPS
By Jerome Jochems
ROSETTA STONES:
28 RECONSTRUCTING
LANGUAGES
DISPATCHES FROM
By Emmeline Burdett
56 LINGUISTS: SPEECH THERAPY
OBSERVATION
By Tiffany Marcum
HOW TO PRONOUNCE
58 KNIFE: A REVIEW
By Holly Gustafson
Cover and content page photo by Yasin Arıbuğa on Unsplash

This week's page numbers are in Basque!
March 2021, Issue #34 Silly Linguistics: The Magazine for Language Lovers
3 \ hiru
THE
ETYMOLOGICAL
CORNER
BY KATARZYNA KOŹMA
Cover that fire! It’s the police’s hour!

There is no denying it –COVID is everywhere. And I am not only talking about
the virus itself. The coronavirus is on our social media feeds, news, TV. It even
infiltrates into our private emails, text messages and conversations. It came as
no surprise then, when, during my language course, we have started talking
about restrictions imposed by our governments. It was exactly that day when I
heard the French word for a curfew - couvre-feu. Sounds a bit similar to
English, doesn’t it? That is
because they share their history.
Ironically, this similarity made
me think about how different
the name for curfew is in Polish,
my native language. We say
godzina policyjna which
translates roughly to “police’s
hour”. So, are we the only nation
who evokes the law
enforcement while talking about
the restriction of movement?
Short answer: no. Long answer:
keep reading.
4 \ lau
The English word curfew and the French couvre-feu have their origins in the
Middle Ages and derive from an Anglo-French term cuevrefeu which literally
means “cover fire”. Initially, the word itself meant an evening ringing of a bell
signalling time to cover you fire for the night, or simply extinguish it. The image of
the bell is even evoked by William Shakespeare in his famous Romeo and Juliet:
“Come, stir, stir, stir! The second cock hath crowed. The curfew bell hath rung; 'tis
three o'clock”. So according to the Bard, renaissance Verona had its own curfew
bell. Speaking of Italy, Italian is another language in which the word for curfew
involves fire. Coprifuoco derives form coprire (to cover) and fuoco (fire).
So, what’s the deal with “the police’s hour” in Polish? To be perfectly frank, after a
few hours of research I still have some missing elements. However, it seems that
the majority of the Slavic terms for a curfew involve some variations of the “police’s
hour”: policijska ura in Slovenian, комендантский час (komendantskij čas) in
Russian, полицейски час (policeiski čas) in Bulgarian, полици ски час (policijski
čas) in Serbian, and policijski sat in Croatian.
The first use of the term in Polish, that I’ve managed to trace, comes from World
War II. The Nazis occupying Poland imposed many restrictions on the local
population, including an introduction of a curfew, or Polizeistunde, which
translates into… “the police’s hour”. (Nowadays, German uses both Polizeistunde
and Sperrstunde, the latter meaning “the closing hour”). Thus, it is entirely possible
that the Polish term was influenced by German. Interestingly, I discovered a
Croatian article entitled ‘Od Sperrstunde do Koprifoga – policijski satovi u doba
1
stare Makarske’ in which the author, Marino Srzić, claims that during the time of
Austrian rule in Croatia the local population knew the term Sperrstunde, whereas
Polizeistunde became widely known during the Nazi period.
Marino was kind enough to share with me some additional information: “When
military authorities were forbidding the free movement of citizens in Makarska [a
city in south-eastern Croatia] people very often used 'cuoprifuko'-koprfogo as a
term remaining after the Italian occupation. The prohibition of movement in the
Austro-Hungarian Empire is remembered as Sperrstunde (rarely, though, and after
the assassination in Sarajevo) and during the Nazi occupation period as
Polizeistunde. I recorded [theses terms] according to the memory of the
contemporaries. In addition to the 'policijskog časa' according to Serbian
terminology, the term 'redarstveni sat' ('police watch') was also used, especially
during the NDH (NDH - Nezavisna Država Hrvatska (the Independent State of
Croatia) – a puppet state during the Nazi occupation 1941-1945)”. Note that this is
my translation of Marino’s words, from Croatian into English.
1
If you read Croatian, you can find the whole article here: https://makarska-danas.com/pise-marino-srzic-od-sperrstunde-
do-koprifoga-policijski-satovi-u-doba-stare-makarske/ In this place, I would also like to thank Marino for his willingness
to discuss his ideas and answer my questions about his sources. Hvala!
5 \ bost
It seems that we are on to something than! However, the trail gets lost, as I wasn’t
able to find any information about the relationship between the Croatian and
Polish term, nor about any other Slavic languages. (See? Etymological research can
be frustrating…If you have any knowledge about the history of this term in any of
the Slavic languages, please do let us know!)
Regardless of how your language calls the time when we have to stay at home, I
think that you will join me in a wish to be back to normal as soon as possible. In the
meantime, if you are looking for something interesting to do during the curfew
hours – why not go on your own etymological adventure and research the word for
‘curfew’ in some other languages? Just remember to share your results with us!
See you soon in the next instalment of The Etymological Corner!
If you want to know more…

…about the motif of the curfew bell in English literature – ‘Curfew Must Not Ring
Tonight’ by Rosa Hartwick Thorpe. It’s a Victorian poem set in the 17th century. It
tells the story of a young woman whose lover has been arrested and is going to be
executed after the ringing of the curfew bell. According to some sources it was also
one of Queen Victoria’s favourite poems.
…about curfew and photography – Herbert Gehr’s photos ‘Curfew’ (there is more
than one photo with this title) and ‘Wartime Curfew, New York City, 1945’. Gehr
(1910 – 1983), associated with Life magazine, was photographing a wide range of
subjects, including New Yorkers during the World War II.
…about curfew and paintings – Albert Pinkham Ryder’s painting ‘Curfew Hour’ from
1882. Ryder (1847-1917) style was very characteristic, full of ephemeral
landscapes and stylised figures. ‘Curfew Hour’ can be seen in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, at The Met Fifth Avenue in Gallery 774 in New York.
We invite you to participate in our etymological adventure! If you’d like to read

about the etymology of a word or phrase that intrigues you send it to
magazine@sillylinguistics.com. Although we can’t promise that we’ll be able to
answer all questions we can certainly promise that we can give it a go!
6 \ sei
Linguistic customs
around the world
#3
BY VALENTIN PRADELOU
Let's keep going on the path of linguistic customs around the world.
We've already talked about some ways to say "thanks", some non-
verbal customs, some house interactions, and even some wedding
customs. All these are related to Linguistics because they're all used,
in their appropriate culture, to mean something. This is very
interesting, as a meaning in one culture is not always the same in
another.
In this article, we'll talk again about some wedding customs, as it

seems this particular event is a cornerstone for various customs
around the world. But before that, we'll go with some fancy ways to say
hello around the world, such as in Tibet, Oman and New Zealand.
Then we'll discover some wedding customs in Lapland and Denmark.
We'll try to see if it resembles the customs found in France or not. As I
say in every "Linguistic customs" article, they actually don’t (sorry for
the spoiler) because if they did, I simply wouldn't mention them in the
article.
I would also like to sum up one more thing as well: these customs I'll
describe are taken from internet sites and I cannot claim they are
exact or exhaustive. I'd be even glad to get some more precise details if
certain readers know more.
7 \ zazpi
HOW TO SAY HELLO IN TIBET

In this Asian region from the north of the Himalayas, monks have a
particular way to say hello to each other. As described on this site:
https://www.opodo.fr/blog/bonjour-monde.html, Tibetan monks stick their
tongue out to say hello. If we compare it to French culture, for example, then
it'd be considered rather peculiar! In France, and probably in close countries,
sticking your tongue out at somebody means you kind of defy them, or you
just make fun of this person.
Monks also join their hands in front of their chest to mean that they "come in
peace". Tradition says this custom is used to prove they weren't some sort of a
reincarnation of a cruel King from IXth century. You better not eat coal
before saying hello in Tibet.
HOW TO SAY HELLO IN OMAN AND NEW-ZEALAND

In Oman, there is one particular custom to say hello. Indeed, on the same site
cited before, we can see that Omani men say "Hi" by touching their noses
together. This is very interesting, because I find it somehow related to la bise
in France (touching each other cheeks once, twice, three times or so). To me,
it seems like a way to say hello, but establishing a closer relation between the
protagonists.
And this is related, I don't really know how, with how Māori people (from
New-Zealand) say hello. They also touch their noses together, but their
foreheads have to be in contact as well, and they have to look in the eyes. It's
very gripping, because doing that in France somehow means you're defying
the other one, or even that you want to fight.
Here, it's the absolute contrary. Once again, it seems like saying hello is
already a place for being connected to the other one, and I think this is nice.
8 \ zortzi
WEDDING CUSTOMS IN LAPLAND AND DENMARK

As said before, weddings are a particular place in which very various customs are
displayed. It can be before, during the wedding or after. Here, it'll be especially
before and during the wedding. These come from the following site:
https://www.guide-evasion.fr/nos-tops/les-coutumes-de-mariage/.
Because before the wedding, a Lapp father won't accept to give his daughter's
hand unless he's shared a "certain" number of eau-de-vie bottles with the man,
specifically called "hard stuff". This certain number of bottles is supposed to be
directly bound with the man's love width. A way to mean "I choose to not be able
to walk back home, because I do love your daughter". And here is one hell of an
element: some fathers choose to make the lover wait more than usual, in order to
enjoy more of the "hard stuff"... In France, meeting the lover's family before the
wedding is obvious. However, as long as I know, drinking some specific beverage
to prove your love is not compulsory.
Then, let's go to Denmark for the customs during the wedding. They seem to be
rather welcoming. During the ceremony, all guests are supposed to be authorized
to kiss the newlyweds, on the lips. If it could create some jealousy matter, Danish
people thought about it. During the actual wedding party, a hole is done in the
groom's sock, proving his loyalty. A way to say, "now it's over, how could you be
even attracted by a holey-socked man?".
I like all these wedding customs. Even if it's sometimes very different from our
own culture, it remains festive and celebratory.
CONCLUSION
All these customs are beautiful and interesting. I'm always surprised by how it can
be different from one place to another. And don't forget: do not stick your tongue
out at somebody unless it is a Tibetan monk.
Thanks for reading!
9 \ bederatzi
JARRING
GERMAN
HOW “BADISCH” DEFIES THE
NATIONAL STEREOTYPE
By Rachael Greyhound
(rachaelgreyhound.com)
Photo by Free To Use Sounds on Unsplash
10 \ hamar
The German language has long-suffered a reputation for its harsh-sounding gutturals and
short vowel sounds — an extension of the curt and efficient national stereotype. However,
on a recent trip to Constance, South West Germany, I was pleased to discover a pocket of
Baden-Württemberg where this preconception could not be further from the truth. I had
stumbled upon Badisch, the aural equivalent of a mug of hot chocolate.
The third largest state in Germany, Baden-Württemberg is a 1950s conglomeration of pre-
existing states: Baden, Württemberg-Hohenzollern, and Württemberg-Baden. You can
understand why they picked a new name — imagine trying to cheer the state team, you’d
get lockjaw. To the inhabitants themselves, however, the state is often referred to by the
cuddlier sobriquet Ländle [Lend-leh] (little country). Here the umlaut over the “ä” produces
a longer, softer vowel sound, typical of Alemannisch German, the dialect group at the
heart of what it means to speak “Badisch.”
Historically, South West Germany has been a melting pot of languages, under French and
US occupation post second world war, and invaded numerous times previously by Frankish,
Roman, and Germanic forces. Despite its place in the cultural identity of the Badener,
Badisch does not exist as a homogenous dialect, but as an umbrella term for the various
dialects spoken in the former territory of Baden along the southwest German border. These
include variants of Allemanisch, which date back to the Alemanni — a confederation of
German tribal groups occupying South West Germany as early as the year 213.
Pre-1952, the former territory of Baden stretched along the Franco-German border up to
Mannheim, and the southern Swiss-German border to Linzgau. Local dialects took
influence from Swiss and Swabian German, with others sounding more French. At Lake
Constance, the locals have their own Bodenseeallemanisch, specific to the northern shore.
There you often hear the greeting Salli, taken from the French Salut (a leftover from the
French occupation). But it was the invented, collective Badisch that brought together the
diverse and fascinating ways of speaking in the far South West, representing Baden and its
culture, well after the state was assimilated into Baden-Württemberg.
The Alemannic dialects match the Badener stereotype well — famed for being friendly,
generous, and easy-going, as well as living a slower pace of life. In local dialects, the
emphasis seems to be on softening and abbreviating words: Gute Nacht (Good Night)
becoming Gued Nacht.
14 \ hamalau
11 \ hamaika
Another endearing feature is the diminutive “LE” suffix, which is used to make words cuter
as far as I can see. This seems to occur more frequently than you’d expect, the diminutive
often replacing the original word. With telephones referred to as little boxes and grown
cats as kittens, it raises the question: is everything somehow smaller over there? It seems
somehow, in the glorious evolution of the German language, grown adults have begun to
speak to other grown adults as they would to toddlers or excitable dogs…
Badisch/Allemanisch
Hochdeutsch
English (Badish/Allemanic
(Standard German)
German)
Kitten/Small Cat Kätzchen Kätzle [Ket-sleh]
Small house Häuschen Häusle [Hoi-zleh]
Fricative and plosive sounds are also blunted in this dialect group, leading to increased use
of “Gs” and “Ds.” For example, Auto (car) becomes Audo. While Swabians living in central
Baden-Württemberg might call a bread roll a Weckle, Badeners would be more likely to say
Weggle, as if spoken without teeth.
In addition to “N” endings often being dropped in the plural (as shown below), spoken
“badisch” traditionally shortens verbs by dropping the final letter. For example, Gehen (to
go) becomes Gehe, and Genommen (have taken) becomes Genomme. To my struggling
British ear, this makes everything sound like slang to me.
Some words, in fact, bear no resemblance to Hochdeutsch (standard German) at all:
Badisch/Allemanisch
Hochdeutsch
English (Badish/Allemanic
(Standard German)
German)
Scoops Kugeln Bolle [Bol-leh]
Grumbeere
Potatoes Kartoffeln
[Grum-beer-eh]
12 \ hamabi
In spite of the highly industrial parts of the state, home to the headquarters of Porsche,
Bosch and Mercedes-Benz, the people of Baden-Württemberg have somehow attracted a
reputation as country bumpkins or Landeier (country eggs) over time. I had to wonder
whether it was the dialect itself that had a part in this stereotyping.
I’d stumbled across the Grimm Brothers’ Die Sieben Schwaben (The Seven Swabians), a
folktale in which a group of co-dependent and bumbling Swabian men drown in a river
after confusing a frog’s ribbit for a voice telling them to wade in. This seemed a tad
unflattering. The portrait of the country simpleton, of co-dependency and naivety all
evoked a sense of the child-like, something somehow connected to the long vowels, soft
consonants, and fantastical nicknames for things that I associate with Allemanic German.
Defying the brutality which non-speakers so frequently associate with the German
language, the Allemanic dialect group is a whimsical, ancient, and wonderfully cuddly
legacy of the South West – a middle finger to those who view German people as
mechanical or cold. And yet as the Grimm Brothers’ story suggests, the people of Baden-
Württemberg are not immune to stereotyping, portrayed rather on the opposite end of the
spectrum — as child-like country folk. Perhaps then it would be better to view language as
a double-edged sword, a means of preserving identity, yet inescapably bound to reductive
pigeonholing.
13 \ hamahiru
Balancing
Acts
By Georgie O’Mara
Photo by Bekir Dönmez on Unsplash
14 \ hamalau
O ne of my favourite hobbies is reading the

Chinese translations of signs around my city.
Mandarin, mostly. They’re not particularly
common (sadly), and I don’t actually know how
to read Chinese characters, but I have a thing
for non-Latin scripts. Very mysterious. What
secrets do they hold? A menu? A train
timetable? I stare in wonder at these glyphs
while my friends tap their feet impatiently,
already four steps ahead of me. ‘You could just
learn Chinese,’ they tell me, ‘if you’re so Inherently, there is an obvious undertone here
interested.’ I would very much like this, but I that connects language ‘complexity’ with its
am not here to kid myself; language learning speakers’ cognitive processing capabilities, and
is, for me, a nigh-impossible task, and would this of course has led to much racial and ethnic
certainly be a Mission Impossible for a bias throughout history. This is less salient
language as complex as Mandarin. My friends today, and there is a general consensus that
look at the unfathomable characters and tell either a) all languages are equally complex, or
me I have a point. Of course, Chinese is very b) they aren’t equally complex, but it doesn’t
hard. We keep walking and the sign remains matter – every language can convey exactly
undeciphered. what it needs to convey. That’s its purpose,
after all.
It is a curious habit of humans, to categorise
and rank languages in terms of their One of the most baffling things about defining
complexity. It’s almost innate, and aptly seen language complexity is that it is almost totally
throughout European history. During the 19th subjective, and anything can be marked as
century, literary languages like Ancient Greek ‘complex’ if you want it to be. I do a cryptic
and Latin were placed on pedestals, regarded crossword every morning, in preparation for
as the best languages spoken by the best my grandmotherly years. Many people find
people – a marker of refined cognition and these too complicated because the clues are
thought. Notions of Orientalism were also rife, kind of funky; but each clue technically
spurring beliefs that Semitic languages were comprises two clues, so it actually provides
less ‘organic’, to quote philologist Edward Said, double the amount of information from which
than those spoken within Europe - despite the to deduce the answer. Just because someone
fact that the latter were used prolifically perceives something to be complex, does not
throughout the entire Middle East. Classical necessarily meant they are correct. It’s based
Chinese, with its non-inflecting grammar, was on what we already know and what is different
once noted by linguist and philosopher to what we already know, and what we already
Wilhelm von Humboldt as being an apt vehicle perceive to be difficult. Whilst I may claim
for conveying ideas, but inferior to inflecting Mandarin is a difficult language to learn, I’m
languages like Latin, which could properly doubtful a native speaker of Cantonese would
convey human thought. share that view.
15 \ hamabost
But surely there must be some reason to Let’s take phonology, for example – the
class one language as more complex than sounds of a language. We can consider a
another, right? Languages uncommon language with thirty consonants compared
with click phonemes? Words that can go in to one with eleven, like we saw before.
any order? Scripts that look like tiny We’ll call them Languages A and B,
pictures? Letters that can be pronounced respectively. What if Language A only has
any number of ways (I’m looking at you, three vowels, and Language B has five?
English vowels)? In blanket terms, yes. A What if Language A has tone distinctions?
language that has thirty consonants, for What if Language B has a lot of allophones
instance, will be more complex than a – a sound that is realised a little differently
language with only, say, eleven depending on what surrounds it, but
consonants, simply because there’s more which is still perceived as the same sound?
stuff to remember. Unfortunately, this Suddenly it’s very difficult to crown
doesn’t make it any easier to quantify, Language A as more complex than
because languages have a habit of Language B, even if we’re only looking at
balancing complex and simple structures phonology. Imagine what’s going on in the
within different parts of their grammar – rest of its grammar!
sometimes even within the same part.
Photo by Debby Hudson on Unsplash
16 \ hamasei
This is a jazzy little phenomenon called trade-

off theory, and it’s at the core of our modern
assumption that all languages are equally
complex – every language system is just a big
balancing act. This is something that’s easily
overlooked when we classify one language as
‘harder’ than another, particularly for English
speakers. For instance, highly-inflecting
languages – those that use affixes instead of
separate words to encode information – are
often regarded as quite complex; they usually
have pretty long words, and they come in a
bunch of different forms depending on
number, gender, case, as well as any number of
other properties. What it does mean, however, The second hurdle for me is tone – phonemes
is that you can sum up what would otherwise in Mandarin are differentiated depending on
be a whole sentence in English – like “my dogs whether you say them with a high pitch, a low
did not eat your shoes” – with only a few words pitch, or even a rising pitch. We don’t have this
in a language like Turkish – which would be in English; it’s not a very easy phenomenon to
köpeklerim ayakkabılarını yemedi. And this pick up. Mandarin does, however, have a
shorter sentence is, well, shorter, so naturally markedly simpler tense system than English;
it’s quicker and easier to understand, even verbs aren’t inflected for past tense, for
though internally it’s a little more complicated. instance, and are instead marked by an adverb
like “yesterday”. So, the energy one might
I like to consider the trade-offs in Mandarin spend on conjugating a verb can instead be
Chinese before I decide whether or not I redirected to ensuring the tone is correct,
should tackle it. Obviously, the Chinese script although of course this isn’t a conscious
is the first hurdle; it’s intricate, artistic and process. The brain works in mysterious ways.
largely logographic – you can’t read them
phonetically, but they also don’t usually The moral of the story is that there’s no fool-
resemble anything. Some, however, do proof method of determining if one language is
resemble their meanings, like the characters more complex than another, and whether
上下
for “up” and “down” . The character , 休 you find it easier to learn is simply going to be
which means “rest”, is made up of the radicals based on what you already know. This is
⼈⽊
for “person” and “tree” , and it vaguely almost comforting to me – one day I might
looks like a person sitting underneath a tree. decipher those signs, and you’d best believe I’ll
Very relaxing. And in these sorts of characters, bask in the praise and admiration lauded to me
we see a trade-off between how hard they are for cracking such an intimidating code. After
to read or memorise and how much semantic all, my friends don’t need to know about the
information they’re automatically offering us. balancing acts.
17 \ hamazazpi
T H E L I N K
B E T W E E N
GOAL SETTING
and
MOTIVATION
W I T H I N
L A N G U A G E
L E A R N I N G
By Em Horne
18 \ hamazortzi
L earning a language has always been a common interest and hobby for many
people, even more so within the last few months with the up-haul of normal life
and lockdowns in many countries and a need to fill up time. However, in many
cases language learning is started with the best intentions and desire to learn
yet slowly fades away and can become tiresome and demotivating without the
right mental approach and use of goal setting.
Within language learners a common pattern seems to be intense interest and

motivation towards learning a new language, perhaps spanning for a few weeks
or months, before entering a slump - a dismal chasm of learning where nothing
seems to be as interesting, effective, or inspiring anymore. Often this stems
from the lack of feeling of achievement, after all no one can learn a language
fluently within a few months, especially considering the lack of real life exposure
to your target language in most learning cases. While originally completing a
few Duolingo lessons or remembering how that one irritating word is spelled on
your first try feels like a goalpost has been reached, these same thresholds
appear to shift and become the normal and so lose their rewarding feeling. As a
result, this can make learners feel that they aren’t making progress as quickly
or as efficiently as they were at the start, and so cause a severe drop in their
motivation or the will to carry on with second (or third etc.) language learning.
An explanation for this is simply that learners often do not set clear mental end
goals and targets for what they want to achieve in learning a second language,
as such any progress made towards any sort of end goal is hardly registered,
thus giving an overall sense of nothingness or lack of progression even if this is
far from the case in reality.
In 2005 Zoltan Dörnyei, a Hungarian-born British Linguist specialising in the

nature and impact of motivation within second language acquisition, proposed
the idea of the Ideal Self within a second language Motivational Self System in
his book ‘The Psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in
second language acquisition’. This Ideal Self is the mental vision and
representation of all the attributes that a person would like to possess and by
associating a trait with your ideal self, whether it be a skill such as cooking or
riding a bike or something as simple as a hairstyle or colour. The suggestion is
that through goal setting and a mental realisation and representation of what
you’d like to achieve it inspires a more powerful sense of motivation to reduce
the discrepancy between ourselves in reality and our Ideal Selves. As such, by
associating a mastery of or fluency within your target language with your ideal
self your internal desire to gain communicative competence and become an
effective second language learner is increased massively. Furthermore, any
progress made towards this goal consistently feels like an achievement and
something to be proud of, thus providing a positive reinforcement towards
language learning which was previously missing, and as a result increasing the
desire to continue your language learning journey.
19 \ hemeretzi
Additionally, a sense of achievement and acknowledgement of progress in your

language acquisition, especially when going through a rough patch of learning,
increases motivation to continue and move forward and overall creates a more
supportive learning environment and experience for yourself. However, fluency
or full acquisition of a second language can seem like a daunting task or overall
goal to set for yourself so breaking down individual mental goals to be updated
as you go may be a more beneficial approach for some; perhaps those who
prefer the feeling of constant development and goal achievement in place of
simply progression towards a goal. Consider smaller goals at the start such as
the mastery of a certain grammar, the memorisation of a specific set of
vocabulary, or the ability to introduce yourself in your target language and hold
a small conversation, and work to bridge the gap between reality and these
targets. Then once achieved, repeat and set new goals for what your ideal
language learning self is.
While motivation is one of the most elusive concepts within the social sciences it
underpins the direction and magnitude of human behaviours; the choices behind,
the persistence with, and the effort expended on particular actions and events.
And so, it can rightly be considered as one of the most influential individual
differences when studying and learning a language, thus one of the most vital
things to maintain for a consistent attitude towards and eventual successful
outcome of second language acquisition.
Good luck with your newly motivated language learning!
20 \ hogei
tal Faux-pa
Fa s
and How to Avoid Them

By Adam Millward
Of all the potential faux-pas in the German language, vergiften (to

poison) is by far the best known. While vergiften has occasionally been
known to trip up non-native speakers over the festive period, to label it
the ultimate German-language Judas would be an act of considerable
quackery. Some of the other candidates in the pantheon of vicious verbs,
horrid homonyms and fatal false friends can be far more perilous. The
very worst are capable of twisting entire sentences upside-down and
inside-out – sinking the unsuspecting speaker into some pretty deep
water in the process.
Photo by Bernard Hermant on Unsplash
21 \ hogeita bat
Having learnt German for the best part of a Fortunately, each one comes with a different
decade now, you may expect me to have set of verb forms that distinguish them from
long since eliminated such amateurish errors. each other – although mix-ups are still not
Not so. Just last week for example, while out out of the question. Should you be
on a walk in the local park, a pigeon addressing a respected older gentleman – a
dropped its load all over my brand-new distinguished war vet or a retired politician
cream-coloured pea coat. I stormed home in for example – you would always be
a huff to be greeted by my landlady, a kind expected to use the formal you (Sie). It would
and mild-mannered German native, who only take a brief lapse in concentration
wanted to know what had irked me. however for a novice speaker to confuse Sie
for sie (meaning she) – subsequently
At this point it’s crucial to note that the conjugating all ensuing verbs and pronouns
German word for pigeon is Taube and takes into the feminine form, and gravely insulting
a feminine article – always either die or eine. a revered national hero in the process.
A masculine article – der or ein – changes
the meaning of the word to describe, of all Each of these pronouns decline further into
things, a deaf person. In this moment of two reflexive forms; in the first person they
white-hot anger, I managed to overlook this are mich (me, myself) in the accusative case,
critical detail. My poor landlady watched on and mir (to me) in the dative case. To make
in staggered silence as I launched into an matters worse, the German language comes
obscene diatribe against the filthy, low-life, with a stacked arsenal of reflexive verbs (for
degenerate deaf person that had just example sich waschen – ‘to wash yourself’)
emptied his bowels all over my brand-new and almost no sure-fire way to determine
jacket. which reflexive pronoun is right for the job.
In a pinch, taking a blind stab at one of these
This labyrinthine mishmash of articles and options may be a halfway permissible tactic,
pronouns is perhaps the most likely source of but one that fails to deal with the wider
faux-pas for a non-native speaker. Each of strata of instances in which a reflexive
German’s four gendered articles decline into pronoun is also inexplicably required. States
four cases – nominative, accusative, dative of being – bodily temperature for example –
and genitive – all of which serve a different are always expressed using the dative
grammatical function. Having finally nailed reflexive pronoun Mir, rather than the first
the definite articles, you’ll be served up a person Ich (so ‘I am hot’ would translate as
fresh batch of indefinite articles to learn – Mir ist heiß). What your textbook doesn’t tell
closed followed by pronouns, possessive you is that using the latter – as would be the
pronouns and so on. Some of these pronouns inherent instinct of an English native speaker
even overlap with each other; the pronoun – devilishly switches the meaning from ‘I’m
Sie, for example, can assume up to three getting bit too hot’ to something more to the
different meanings. tune of ‘I’m getting a bit too horny.’
22 \ hogeita bi
Just confusing matters further is a wicked (you should drive around that pensioner
web of homonyms – deceptive words with up crossing the street) to inadvertently incite the
to five meanings apiece. The word blasen for obliging learner to accelerate and plough
example describes almost anything related to directly into the defenceless old timer.
blowing – from tooting a wind instrument to
giving a blowjob. It’s not impossible that an Granted, it would take a freak twist of fate to
innocent invitation to a freeform jazz recital enable such a fateful faux-pas, just as it
could be misconstrued as an offer of oral sex. would to trigger any of the others mentioned
More precarious still is the verb festnehmen – but in the course of language acquisition,
(‘to arrest’) which is just slipshod spacebar stranger things have been known to happen.
removed from fest nehmen - literally meaning As with all language mistakes however, faux-
‘to take hard.’ One haphazard slip of the pas are not something to be feared, but
finger could transform a dark and grizzled cop embraced as invaluable learning experiences.
drama into a risqué bedside-table porno novel. Each and every embarrassment, humiliation
and failure you face is just another small step
There is however one faux-pas that stands tall on the road to achieving total fluency.
above the rest – a single verb which, if used
incorrectly, can have potentially fatal
implications for the unsuspecting speaker. The
word in question is umfahren – not be
confused with its twin brother: umfahren. In
the infinitive form, these homonymous verbs
are only distinguishable by which part of the
word is emphasised - where umfahren would
mean ‘to drive around’, umfahren crucially
means ‘to run over.’
Admittedly it would be pretty rare for these

treacherous twins cause significant problems
seeing as they conjugate differently in both
the perfect past and imperative tenses.
Supposing that the stars should somehow
align; a nervous learner driver at the wheel of
a car, a stammering driving instructor in the
passenger seat and an absentminded
pensioner crossing the road ahead. In this
rarest of instances, a split-second lapse in
concentration could drastically alter the
course of the sentence Du solltest den
Rentner, der die Straße überquert, umfahren
23 \ hogeita hiru
O R MI RR
R R
O
I
M
R
WHO’S THE
MOST
DISCERNING
OF THEM
ALL?
N L
O
THE WA
By Kristel ho
Photo by Jess @ Harper Sunday on Unsplash
24 \ hogeita lau
beautiful
Every day, our senses are bombarded with

advertisements. We see them at the bus stop, in
shopping malls, before YouTube videos, in the
newspapers, hear them on the radio – the list
goes on. This myriad of communication
platforms implies brands can advertise products
in a multitude of ways to us, their target
audience, in turn inevitably influencing our
thoughts. In particular, the beauty market is a
large, profitable and competitive one, with
brands vying for consumers’ attention.
Advertisers employ a plethora of strategies, to

attract readers’ attention, and ultimately
persuade them to purchase a product.
radiant glow
Companies advertise their commodities

through deliberately designed pictures that
communicate specific messages, and language,
a partner in crime. Language is vital to the visual
representations in advertisements, in
reinforcing the messages conveyed to and
consequently interpreted by readers.
A common method utilised by advertisers is to

devise an issue that can be overcome only by
purchasing their commodities. Such
commercials frequently coax and mislead
readers into accepting their messages as the
truth. Indeed, advertisements are powerful
settings where language and culture converge,
in constructing and propagating certain beliefs.
With countless commercials promoting and

necessitating the conscientious use of skincare
products, beauty has become an indispensable
routine for women, thereby compelling them to
moisturising
put in effort in maintaining their looks. The

desirable woman is typecast through pictorial
and textual features of commercials. This
situation has revealed the ways in which
advertisers exert their influence and
simultaneously exploit women’s perspectives.
Photo by Priscilla Du Preez on Unsplash
25 \ hogeita bost
Let’s have a look at how beauty is represented Scientific jargon

in skincare product advertisements, and how
Advertisers use scientific jargon to better
advertisers capitalise on women's concerns
market a product. This tactic differentiates
on their outward physical appearance, in
their product in a saturated beauty industry
utilising different linguistic features. The
as a result of the extensive array of
examples were taken from various brands
comparable commodities. Medical
and discussed in a broad context.
terminology is commonly employed in
highlighting the reliability, efficacy and
Simple sentences attractiveness of a product to the more
Simple sentences are used to better capture informed consumers. As such, the role of
readers’ attention. The language in jargon in skincare commodities alludes to
advertisements aims to be unambiguous, superiority, potency, advanced procedures,
rendering information accessible to and authenticity of products.
consumers. With this, advertisements Inspired by iontophoresis, features Ion
combine informal elements of oral and Force Technology [Shiseido]
written language, fostering a sense of Infusion of Hyaluronic Acid [Estee Lauder]
intimacy and affability to consumers. Short Drunk Elephant F-Balm Electrolyte
and simple sentences retain the reader’s Waterfacial Masque Hydratant [Drunk
interest in the advertisement, countering Elephant]
short attention spans. Additionally,
imperatives, coupled with active verbs, Synthetic personalisation
convey it is a given that the product will Synthetic personalisation is employed in
deliver results to consumers. advertisements to address readers
individually and directly, reducing the social
Dehydration is a common culprit
distance. With targeted personalisation of
[Neutrogena]
messages to the individual, synthetic
Quench your skin’s thirst [Laneige]
Eject the dissolved bits [Shiseido]
personalisation forms an intimate
Repairs the visible signs of aging [Estee relationship with consumers. For instance,
Lauder] the second person pronoun ‘your’ in “trapped
Nourishes maturing skin [Clarins] deeper within your skin” in a Shiseido
*active verbs are shown in bold. advertisement for their White Lucent
Intensive Spot Targeting Serum presupposes
the advertiser’s knowledge of the consumer’s
existing skin condition. Consumers gain the
impression that the advertisement was
constructed with their best interests in mind,
making them feel valued and more likely to
purchase their product.
Love your skin [Clarins]
Has your skin started to lose its glow?
[Neutrogena]
26 \ hogeita sei
Coinages and compound words Lexical chains

Advertisers coin new phrases and use As a cohesive device, lexical chains further
compound words in marketing to better aid in easier comprehension of an
describe the product. These could showcase advertisement by using related words.
language creativity from the advertisers’ Notably, in a Neutrogena advertisement for
side, or simply provide more detail about their Hydra Boost Water Gel, “hydro”,
what the product purports to deliver. “hydration” and “quench” form the semantic
Compound and newly coined words could field of terms related to water, attracting
emphasise the properties of a product, readers with dry skin looking to purchase a
describe things that we may not have the moisturiser. Similarly, repetition of
words for in English or even appear “spotless”, “crush” and “eject” in a Shiseido
grandiose, lending more credibility to the advertisement for their White Lucent
product. On the other hand, advertisers Intensive Spot Targeting Serum contributes
could mask the (potential) sham behind the to the coherence of the text. Such strategies
effectiveness of the substances with this effectively promote the alluring benefits of
technique. the product.
Micro-sculpting cream [Olay]
Healthy-looking vitality, age-defying Celebrity endorsements
moisturiser [Clarins]
A non-linguistic feature commonly used in
Youthful-looking skin [Neutrogena]
advertisements is celebrity endorsements,
Dermatologist-developed [Clinique]
which function as symbolising and defining
beauty. In advertisements including Olay,
Ameliorative adjectives Shiseido, and Clarins, a youthful female is
often foregrounded, placing emphasis on
The language of advertising generally extols
one’s outward appearance. Comparing the
the distinct benefits of a product, conveying
product with celebrity endorsement thereby
a positive feeling to consumers. While nouns
implies that to achieve the same confidence
with negative connotations tend to refer to
and success celebrities wield, consumers
women’s prevailing flaws or concerns,
must purchase the product to become
ameliorative adjectives convey the benefits of
beautiful like them.
using the product and positive outlooks for
consumers, promising to improve on their
physical flaws when they purchase the
skincare product. With these strategies,
advertisers paint an ideal picture of a
woman’s physical appearance.
E.g. restorative, supple, radiant, spotless
27 \ hogeita zazpi
In conclusion, advertisements are a tool to
brightening
promote various products and spread
messages. Understanding the underlying
messages behind advertisements by
analysing the language used, can help us
broaden our perspective and how it colours
our perceptions.
Language is laden with ideology, going

beyond simply promoting a skincare
product, but also constructing beauty ideals.
Advertisers construct realities and encode
unattainable standards of beauty in their
language use. As a result, various findings
call for a more discerning and informed
audience. Advertisements do not just sell
products, but also the lifestyle that
inherently comes with using the product,
and conceptions of how a woman’s life
should be.
pearl infusion
dewy
Photo by Priscilla Du Preez on Unsplash
28 \ hogeita zortzi
Rosetta
Rosetta Stones
Stones
Reconstructing Languages
By Emmeline Burdett
Photo by Matteo Vistocco on Unsplash
29 \ hogeita bederatzi
I n my previous article, I looked at ways of making films and television

productions set in the past seem more ‘authentic’ by using particular types of
language – such as eighteenth-century slang. There have, however, been many
examples of reconstructing whole languages, and this has happened for a
variety of reasons.
In keeping with my previous article, I’ll start with a language which has been
reconstructed for the purposes of a film, and then go on to look at one of the
most well-known language reconstructions of them all – that is to say, how the
rediscovery of the Rosetta Stone enabled scholars to make enormous advances
in their understanding of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic and demotic scripts.
Finally, I’ll look at Professor Ghil’ad Zuckermann, an Israeli professor of
linguistics based in Australia, who has considered some of the issues around the
reconstruction of languages.
Ӧtzi the Iceman:
‘Ӧtzi’ was the name given to the mummified body of a man found in September
1991 in the Alps between Austria and Italy. At the time of his death, which
occurred when he was shot in the back with an arrow somewhere between
3400BC and 3100BC, he was about 45 years old. In 2017, an Austrian feature
film – ‘The Iceman’ – was made about him, and which speculated about how he
might have come to be shot in the back. This little-known film was in Rhaetic, an
ancient language of the Alps.
Whilst there is no direct evidence that Ӧtzi spoke Rhaetic, neither is there
anything to say that he did not. Katherine McDonald, an academic specialising in
the languages of pre-Roman Italy, wrote in her blog that, though it wasn’t really
possible to say with certainty anything about Alpine languages until the first
millennium BC, but that the decision to use Rhaetic was an interesting one.
The film’s director, Felix Randau, stated in an interview that he had decided to
have the dialogue for his film in an ancient language because he always found it
ridiculous when a film was set in, for example, Ancient Rome, but the actors
were speaking what he referred to as ‘BBC English’. He turned to a linguist for
help, and the linguist suggested that Rhaetic might be a good candidate.
According to Randau, the linguist reconstructed Rhaetic ‘back to some ancient
form’, but it isn’t a real language – although at some point it obviously was.
30 \ hogeita hamar
There are frustratingly few details of how this reconstruction was achieved, but
Katherine McDonald’s blog suggests that Rhaetic might have been related to
Etruscan, on the basis of an antler inscribed with a Rhaetic text which reads
‘Pitale lemais zinake’. On the basis that the word ‘zinake’ is so similar to the
Etruscan verb ‘zinake’, which means ‘to make’ or ‘to establish’, McDonald
suggested that the film – which she had not yet seen – might show Rhaetic as
having other links to Etruscan. Another article – which does not speculate on the
way in which Rhaetic was reconstructed for the film – nevertheless transcribes
three words used in it.
The words are used in the context of mourning someone, and they are ‘Pitamei,
Pitamos’, to which the response is ‘Bala’. To be quite honest, I haven’t found
anything to say how these words were created (to me ‘Pitamos’ sounds vaguely
Greek, but that’s just my impression), and so I’d be really interested to hear if
anyone has any other ideas.
The Rosetta Stone:
The Rosetta Stone’s importance to the study of language is well-known – apart
from anything else, there is a language school called Rosetta Stone. But where
does the name come from? The Rosetta Stone itself is in the British Museum in
London, and is a large granite tablet with the same text engraved in Ancient
Egyptian hieroglyphics, Ancient Greek, and Demotic (which, like hieroglyphics or
picture-writing, was used in Ancient Egypt, but was known as ‘document writing’,
even though its name actually comes from the Ancient Greek word dēmotikós
(‘popular’).
The Stone was created in 196BC, and the text engraved on it is of a decree from
the then pharaoh, Ptolomy V Epiphanes. Fast-forward 1800 years or so, and it
became an important weapon in the struggle for dominance between France and
Britain, which came about as a result of the French emperor Napoleon’s
expansion into Egypt and competition with the British Empire.
The Rosetta Stone had been rediscovered by Napoleon’s troops in Egypt’s

Western Delta, and though its importance to linguists was immediately apparent
(given that the Ancient Greek text could be read by those with a knowledge of
the classics) it took years for the hieroglyphic and demotic portions to be
translated. Copies of the text were sent to Paris, but the Stone itself went to
London under the terms of the 1801 Treaty of Alexandria.
31 \ hogeita hamaika
The starting point for deciphering the hieroglyphs (as well as the demotic text)
was that a number of kings and place-names were mentioned in the Greek text,
and though these were in Greek, their position in the text enabled a rough guess
to be made as to where they were to be found in the other portions of text on
the Rosetta Stone. However, this relied on the assumption that one hieroglyph or
demotic symbol was equivalent to one Ancient Greek word. This method was
not 100% reliable, and was not used by everyone trying to decipher the two
remaining portions of text.
Another approach was to translate Ancient Greek words on the stone into Coptic
(the language of the Egyptian Christians), and this was taken further by a
Swedish linguist, Johan David Åkerblad, who managed to identify all the Greek
proper nouns in the Stone’s demotic section, as well as the words ‘temples’ and
‘Greeks’. Unfortunately, due to the fact that he erroneously believed that the
demotic text was composed of individual letters, Åkerblad was unable to get any
further.
Still, the use of Coptic was a step in the right direction, as a seventeenth-century
German linguist had already surmised that Coptic was the same language used
in Ancient Egypt, and thus integral to deciphering hieroglyphs, a theory that was
further developed by both Jean-François Champollion of France, and Dr Thomas
Young of England. Amongst the breakthroughs Young and Champollion made
(separately) was Champollion’s realisation that there were three times as many
hieroglyphs as there were Greek letters, and Young’s realisation that whilst
demotic was not entirely alphabetical, it did use alphabetic characters to spell
out foreign words such as ‘Ptolemy’. A large chunk of the hieroglyphic segment
of the Rosetta Stone was missing, meaning that it was sometimes useful to
measure one’s progress by attempting to decipher segments of other
hieroglyphic texts. This was when Champollion was able to make another
breakthrough.
One day in 1822, when he was looking at copies of texts 1500 years older than
the Rosetta Stone, he looked for the cartouches that denoted royal names, and,
as he had already deciphered the word ‘Ptolemy’ on the Rosetta Stone, he could
read some of the hieroglyphs on the more ancient texts too. Another text at his
disposal was that of an obelisk known as ‘the Bankes obelisk’, and Champollion
noticed that the ‘T’ was written differently in the word ‘Ptolemy’ from in the word
32 \ hogeita hamabi
‘Cleopatra’. Champollion realised that this meant that hieroglyphs contained

homophones – letters with the same sound which could be written in different
ways. A language has to be highly complex to include these sorts of details.
After his untimely death ten years later, Champollion’s papers were (eventually)
bought by the French state.
Though he had not enabled the decipherment of every single hieroglyphic text,
he had made great advances. One question he did not answer, though, is that of
whether you should talk about ‘hieroglyphics’ or ‘hieroglyphs’! In fact, both terms
are correct – whilst Egyptologists prefer ‘hieroglyphs’, because it was the term
used by the Ancient Greeks when they entered Egypt in the late 4th Century BC
– ‘hiero’ means ‘sacred’, and glyphs’ means ‘carvings. But ‘hieroglyphics’ is just
the adjectival form of ‘hieroglyphs’.
Professor Ghil’ad Zuckermann: Dead Languages or ‘Sleeping Beauties’?
The study of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics (and, in particular, the importance of
the Rosetta Stone) does raise a number of questions – why, for example, was
the Bankes’ Obelisk referred to by Champollion so called? The short answer is
that it belonged to William Bankes, an early nineteenth century Egyptologist who
had had the good fortune to come across an obelisk inscribed in both
hieroglyphs and Ancient Greek. Bankes’ own insistence that the obelisk should
go to his own estate of Kingston Lacy in Dorset rather than to the British Museum
raised eyebrows, but some might say that it was really no different from the
expectation that artefacts like the Rosetta Stone should go to the British
Museum rather than staying in Egypt to be studied.
One person who has considered these questions is Professor Ghil’ad

Zuckermann, an Israeli professor of linguistics who has been based in Australia
for a number of years. As a native speaker of Hebrew, he was already familiar
with a reconstructed language, but as an adult he became increasingly aware
that languages are reconstructed for many different reasons: his own was
reconstructed both to link the present Jewish inhabitants of the Holy Land with
the Ancient Israelites, and to produce a language that was useable in the
modern world.
The same could not be said for Australian Aboriginal languages, 250 of which
were spoken before Europeans arrived. The ‘stolen children’ policy of taking
33 \ hogeita hamahiru
light-skinned Aboriginal children away from their communities to be brought up

by white families, speaking English, was just one way of suppressing Aboriginal
culture and identity. The reclamation of identity is an important component, and
one reason why ‘linguicide’ – the killing of language – is one of ten forms of
genocide recognised by the United Nations.
To address their still-unequal status in Australian society, Zuckermann gathered

together a group of people from Bargarla country in Southern Australia, and
together they reconstructed the Barngarla language, the last native speaker of
which died in 1960. Their basis was a Barngarla dictionary compiled in 1844 by
Robert Schürrmann, a Lutheran missionary, and they also pooled together words
that they had heard their parents and grandparents use, and discussed how they
could make Barngarla relevant to the modern world. The resulting language, like
Hebrew, could not be the same as its ancient forbear, but it is one that modern
speakers can feel proud of, especially in light of the sustained attempts to
eradicate it.
34 \ hogeita hamalau
GLAGOLITIC
God’s song-like language and a
linguist’s personal devil
By Joana Atanasova
35 \ hogeita hamabost
When you Google “Glagolitic alphabet” and click on “Images” you’ll be stunned by the
sheer beauty of the glyphs that will come up before you. Round script, elements of
triangles and crosses throughout every letter – truly an alphabet made for the word of
God, its originally intended use, especially when skilfully copied by a monk with
outstanding calligraphy skills.
Created around 855 to 863CE by brothers Cyril and Metodius, the purpose of the alphabet
was a follow up to the Christening of the Bulgarians and creation of an independent
church, detaching itself completely from the Greek Orthodox church at the time.
Now, don’t get me wrong, it sounds absolutely gorgeous, especially when you’re learning
the alphabet itself as the different letters are represented by different words rather than
phonemes, but the devil is in the detail, here are some examples so you can experience it
for yourself:
And it continues for the rest of the 40 letters, in fact, when saying the separate letters in
the alphabet, you involuntarily say this beautiful piece of text, creatively interpreted by
Stoyan Radulov to make a consistent and understandable text, which translates in
English to:
‘I, knowing the words, will know how to speak! It’s good to live firmly on the ground!
Because as people think, He is our support! Say the words firmly! Upwards and anyone
can fly! Go! Avoid the worm (note: ‘worm’ – as in ‘low life’)! Conquer the heights! You,
man, you, youth, you people! Person! With wits and smarts! In the right direction and a
clear mind! Forward! Glory!’
The Glagolitic alphabet was made, not only for functional use, but as a statement of
freedom and independence, a declaration of a desire to be remembered, to leave
something behind and tell the generations to come that here stood Bulgarians, proud of
their heritage and who they are. In the 9th century, Bulgarians relied on the Greek
alphabet for archiving and religious texts as we were under the govern of the Greek
Orthodox Church, however after some tumultuous events, the then khan Boris I, later
turned tzar after the enforcement of Christianity, assigned the creation of a Bulgarian
alphabet to brothers (later turned saints) Cyril and Metodius.
36 \ hogeita hamasei
The alphabet ended up being the base that all Slavic languages used at the time, that was
the catalyst for turning into the individual languages we know today, as it spread like
wildfire throughout the Slavic tribes and nations, which now allows us to, albeit not
knowing our neighbours’ language, to be able to loosely understand each other and
communicate! I’ve found that with people from Western Europe and those, whose mother
tongue is English, unless someone has studied or knows more than one Latin–based
language, they don’t have the odd little superpower of the Slavic nations (aside from the
renowned squat, which you’ll be surprised to know is an anthropological trait, called the
Dalmatian hip) – you don’t have to know any other language aside from your native one,
in order to understand Macedonians, Serbians, etc.
For example, if you're Bulgarian, with your starting point being Bulgaria, the further west
you travel through the Slavic countries, the more complicated it gets to understand your
neighbour, but not completely impossible -you’ll have a harder time understanding
Bosnians than Serbians, but if they speak slower and you know a lot of dialect words,
you’ll be able to understand the general meaning of what they have to say to you, without
you personally knowing another language aside from your own. You can apply that rule
with any other Slavic country by traveling in the other direction and it works.
Why ‘knowing more dialect words’ is something that matters in this case? Simple, dialect
words are formed from the common, non-dictionary language, from one person to
another – kind of like tradition. These words are usually formed way before the official
recording of the language and their roots are very, very old, surviving through folklore
songs and tales. As we already know, all Slavic languages share the same roots, and those
roots are very, very old as well, so the more dialect words you know in your native Slavic
language, the closer you get to understanding the root language. In fact, when we studied
Glagolitic in class, the kids that knew more dialect words, understood more and rarely
reached for the dictionary when translating.
Why is it a linguistic hell, you ask? Simple – unfortunately due to many cataclysmic
historical events, the sources and most of the grammar was lost. Most, if not all the
sources that remain for it are Eastern Orthodox Christian texts, Bible copies, life stories of
saints, and some stone monoliths, which unfortunately don’t give us enough information
to thoroughly have its grammar finished and organized – some words remain
untranslated, some grammatical rules are unknown as to why this is written the way it is,
and many others.
37 \ hogeita hamazazpi
This creates chaos with the learning process, as you need to check up on your notes about
every single thing, you’re not sure of, because hey, this word might only be written like
this in this tense and mean this exact thing and nobody really knows why. Which is an
absolute shame, as it’s one of the few alphabets, in my opinion, that is not only
representing an extremely useful language, if you’re keen on Slavic culture, but it’s also
aesthetically pleasing in all aspects – from writing to speaking the language it represents.
The alphabet itself is beautiful and holds the spirit of one of the oldest nations on the
continent of Europe, however the fact that it was eventually replaced by the Cyrillic
alphabet, which is basically a transcript of the Greek alphabet with added sounds that are
obligatory for the language like ‘Ч’, ‘Ш’, ‘Щ’, 'Ъ' etc. doesn’t help the poor linguist that has
decided to dedicate time and effort into learning it. Why? Simply because texts stopped
being written in Glagolitic and, like we mentioned before, sources are scarce.
That being said, learning to write the letters is… a surreal experience. Now, due to my
education, I was forced to learn that as well as Ancient Greek the year before, which
naturally entails learning how to write down the letters by hand. I swear to God, I had an
easier time learning how to write the Greek letters in cursive, than to learn how to write
in Glagolitic and I have a feeling that it’s mainly because it was intended to look beautiful
when copied. Which is all good and great if you’re a monk, living in a monastery with a
significant amount of free time to write down each and every letter to perfection, but
when you’re living in 2021, juggling work, hobbies, family, pandemics and your personal
sanity, you can see how it might be troublesome. If, however, you find the time to devote,
learning to write this beautiful alphabet down and actually start writing texts in it, and
you manage to do it as it was intended, you’ll find true linguistic satisfaction, that I’ve
personally found there.
If you decide to learn the language, of course keep in mind it’s a dead one, and worry not!
You won’t have to use the Glagolitic alphabet if you don’t want to, because, like I
mentioned, it relatively quickly switches to the Cyrillic, which is easier. What you’ll get
from it? Aside from the cultural and ethnical insight that each individual language gives
you, you’ll get the neat skill of loosely understanding a large part of all modern Slavic
languages like Bulgarian, Serbian, Bosnian, Russian etc. as they share this ancestor, but
the Dalmatian hip doesn’t come with :)
38 \ hogeita hemezortzi
DOES
LANGUAGE
AFFECT THE
WAY OUR
BRAIN
WORKS ?
By Brenda Lee Intignano
39 \ hogeita hemeretzi
H ave you ever thought about how

your native language shapes the way
A striking example of how the
language you speak molds your brain
you think, how your brain processes in understanding concepts without
data and how it expresses concepts even being fully aware of them, is
when talking to someone else? the use of Chinese language and
their philosophy when talking
Scientists and linguists have been quantum physics.
interested in this topic for a long
time, and many studies have claimed If you’re familiar with the ancient
that the language we were born in Chinese worldview, you probably
makes us see the world in a already know about the Tao symbol:
different way compared to the the black and white representation
vision of another language’s native of opposites such as, for example,
speaker. positive and negative and their
coexistence to maintain balance in
The examples are everywhere: try to the creation; feminine and
think about how Italians have masculine energy, good and evil,
different ways to say “I love you” and so on. Positive and negative
according to the relationship they are also present in magnetism, and
have with their interlocutor – the Chinese have a specific word to
romantic/deeply connected or just describe the magnetic tension
friendly – or how the Guugu between Yin and Yang, the two
Ymithirr tribe from Northern dependent opposite forces of the
Australia have no concept of “left” Tao: qi, a term also widely used in
and “right” since their vision of the study of Chinese martial arts.
the world is not centred on their
position, but focuses instead on The word qi (/ˈtʃiː/ CHEE simplified
the environment – using cardinal Chinese: ⽓; traditional Chinese:
directions to express locations. 氣 ; pinyin: qì qì) has been
imported in western culture under
So, whilst in Italy might be much different names, from “ether” to
easier to detect whether you are in “vital force”, and lastly, thanks
the friend-zone or not, the Guugu to British biochemist and historian
Ymithirr people develop an Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery
astonishing spatial memory and Needham - whose life was dedicated
navigation skills at a very young to the research and writing on the
age. history of Chinese science and
technology - the word translated as
Although knowing more than a “matter-energy”. Although it seems
language does not – generally that the ancient Chinese did not
speaking – improve your mental theorise about gravity, one of the
ability, there definitely are many quantum forces, their character to
perks in becoming part of the represent it in pictograms is the
polyglot family, like understanding lovechild between “heavy” and
some every day phenomena even “force”, which pretty much sums up
without being particularly the concept without going deeper in
knowledgeable in the topic. the mechanics of physics.
40 \ berrogei
Asian languages have something else In India, for example, relationships

to teach us, and it’s that language are very important – so much, in fact,
is culture and culture is language. that a close friend or a family member
Through the words that we learn when can be considered like an extension of
learning another language, we can one’s self. Their way of thinking is
understand many aspects of the way of far more collective than in western
life of its native speakers: Chinese cultures, and certain politeness can
language and its many idioms give a sense of estrangement when
regarding family show us how this misused with family and friends. For
value is important in their culture. instance, the Indian website dedicated
In Italy, a country well known for to tourism in India, teaches us that
its history and art, there are dozens in their country if you thank a close
of differently named colours, and friend of yours that just gave you a
this shows how important is in their lift to the train station, this would
culture to describe and represent make it look as if you’re treating
things in their true tones. Russia, your friend like a cab driver, since
similarly, has for example two very in Indian culture it is assumed that
different categories of “blue”; the being friends means being there for
light blue shade is called goluboy, each other, and formality would only
whilst the darker shade is named mean that you do not feel comfortable.
siniy.
So, ultimately, do languages actually
This distinction tends to be learned affect the way we think and approach
very early by Russian children, and the rest of the world? Lera
it positively affects their ability Boroditsky, cognitive scientist and
to quickly distinguish colours when professor in the fields of language
competing against speakers of a and cognition, tells us that this is
language that doesn’t teach that one of the questions between the major
distinction to its children. controversies in the study of the
mind. Her research at Stanford
Another thing that the Italian and University and MIT (Massachusetts
Russian languages seem to have in Institute of Technology) has helped
common, is that they tend to say reopen the question that many before
“thank you” less. A case of rudeness? her left partially unanswered, and by
Not at all. Instead, it seems that collecting data around China, Europe,
culturally wise, cooperation is Indonesia, South America and
considered a basic expectation when Aboriginal Australia she was able to
interacting with fellow humans in determine that people that speak
need. So no need to thank – for some different languages do indeed have
people, helping is simply a pleasure different ways to think, and how even
and one of the many things we give the slightest difference in our
and receive. Similarly, in some other grammatical choices can change the way
places, “please” and “thank you” we see the world.
don’t follow the same etiquette of
English related cultures.
41 \ berrogeita bat
Voc abulary
Items
The Squatters
of the Brain
By Kateřina Fuková
42 \ berrogeita bi
L ook at the picture below. Imagine you are having a conversation in your native language and
your talking partner asks you what the image depicts. Your brain would instantly know the correct
answer and let you say it out loud at once – if you are a native English speaker, it is a ‘cat’. If your
mother tongue is Czech – like in my case – you see a kočka, and if it is Vietnamese, you would call
this ‘con mèo’.
Whatever your first language (L1) is, this image is strongly connected to, or maybe almost
interchangeable with, the couple of letters and sounds that make up your language’s variant of ‘cat’.
It seems like a very natural process of transmitting what we see with our eyes to the brain, and
sending it out again through the mouth.
But what if this bizarre chat – pun totally intended – about animal doodles was not led in your L1,
but a certain second language (L2) you are learning? The information must surely take a bit of a
different route when you are having this discussion in English. For example, Turkish intuition might
be screaming kedi, but you likely end up succeeding and saying ‘cat’. How we get from our L1 word to
its L2 equivalents has been a discussion in linguistics for many years, especially recently since
multilingualism has seen such an increase in the last century or so. Contemporarily, experts give a
variety of possibilities of how this way from one word to another could be happening in our heads.
Let us consider the individual options in the context of an English L1 and a Māori L2 – let us keep the
‘cat’ and therefore employ the counterpart ngeru.
Giving languages their space
Especially in the early stages, many second language learners will need to think of the word in their
L1 first, in order to reach the corresponding element of the target language. Some linguists think this
could possibly be a general pattern for any route. The information travels to where you store your
English words to pick up ‘cat’ and then takes a bridge from there straight to where you keep ngeru in
the Māori store. This kind of hints at the fact that you keep your English words somewhere else than
your Māori words.
In a similar manner, languages might be completely disengaged in the mind, each totally separate
from the other, but without any interaction between them at all. That would mean that if you see a
cat, knowing the word ‘cat’ will not help you – or make you – think of ngeru, as this realisation is
independent of your native word. You would have to think of it without the connection. That sounds
pretty rough.
43 \ berrogeita hiru
A multilingual mishmash
More likely, there is some overlapping contact between the bundles of words we keep in our heads. In
a perfect world, we would have one space for all languages we know. ‘Cat’ and ngeru would then be
bound together so closely that with one, the other comes instantly, and vice versa. The words are of
one entity, together in a little bubble of meaning. Realistically, this complete integration is rather
unlikely – but in contrast, a partial overlay seems highly plausible. Some words might be connected
and symbolize the meaning equally, and some not – therefore, we must try a bit harder a look where
they are hiding.
Recent studies have really been arguing for the credibility of the last proposition. One finding showed
that we likely do not “turn off” one language, when communicating in another, meaning they must
be rather close to each other for this to be possible. This proximity could also be supported by the
fact, that sometimes by learning an L2 we also change our L1. All one’s language regress and
progress as one studies them. This surely would not be possible, if our mind kept the ability to speak
them in very different places.
What if they leave me?
Nevertheless, either of these options remain very hypothetical because we have still not figured out a
way to measure and access these internal routes empirically. It is only a theory, indeed, and one with
some flaws, already. One might point out that this supposed principle somewhat assumes that
learning new words is a one-time thing, which it obviously is not.Sometimes you need to be in
contact with a vocabulary item up to 100 times, in order for it to finally stick, and even then, I
guarantee you a very high chance the word will not stay with you forever. Since there is so much
dynamism in the process, I find it hard to believe this potential for change would not project into
how the stores of words are maintained.
Regardless of which theory is more likely to be true, one thing is sure already. Engaging in
multilingualism – in this case, having to figure out how to find what you need in the mess you have
created for yourself – does not only increase your skills of a linguistic sort, but in entirely non-
linguistic disciplines, too. Your efforts improve your abilities to learn and control other stuff way past
the scope of languages making you perform statistically better than monolingual speakers on top of
that. Needless to say, this fact adds some extra points in the friendly competition of past time and
learning activities. If you study languages, your brain will be getting better and better, it will stay
healthy and support you endlessly!
44 \ berrogeita lau
The
RELOCATING BASQUE CULTURE
Light
IN ITS
of the
EVERYDAY VOCABULARY
Dead
Photo by Kamila Maciejewska on Unsplash
45 \ berrogeita bost
By Tanya Newton
Welcome to the Spanish Basque
Country. Rolling mountains, sometimes Visit one of the fishing towns or
topped with fog or snow, look over a mountain villages, and you might come
coastline sprinkled with picturesque across a large, many-petaled flower
fishing towns, old mines, and ex- hung on a door. Perhaps you would
industrial cities. Verdant forests, deep recognise it as a Carlina, a type of daisy.
caves, and craggy cliffs shape the Here in the Basque Country, however,
landscape — and the language. it’s an eguzkilore, a protective symbol
whose name is made up of two words:
The Basque people can seem more eguzki (sun) and lore (flower). Yet Eguzki
severe, less inclined to smile, but that’s is more than just the sun. She is also
only until you know them. Then, they one of the two daughters of Mari, the
invite you to eat pintxos, delicious Basque goddess.
snacks served in pubs and cafés, and to
go hiking with them. When they speak Mari is the earth, the caves, and the
Spanish, they tend towards a sing-song goddess of all nature. She is also the
accent with heavy /r/s. Often, however, principle Basque deity. She gave birth to
they speak their local language instead: her daughters, Eguzki and Ilargi, the sun
Euskara (Basque). and the moon, and is served by sorginak
(witches) and lamiak, water spirits who
Basque could be the oldest living you might mistake for women.
language in Europe. Its origins are
mysterious: we don’t know when it was Sorginak, or in its singular form, sorgin,
first spoken and cannot find any combines two other words: sor (to be
languages related to it. Although studies born) and gin (to create/to do). Finding
have shown that the Basques were new meaning hidden inside Basque
living in modern-day Spain around words, like with eguzkilore and sorgin, is
5,000 years ago, euskara has proven common. The language is agglutinative:
harder to trace. words are often the combination of
other morphemes, which is to say
Yet one thing is certain: it was spoken in linguistically meaningful units, from
pre-Christian times, when nature deities entire words through to suffixes and
were worshipped and night-time feared. prefixes.
From left: Photos by Damien DUFOUR Photographie, Dimitry B, Kylie Paz & Eneko Uruñuela on Unsplash
46 \ berrogeita sei
Other agglutinative languages include Some versions of Basque mythology say

Japanese, Hungarian, Bantu languages that humans begged the goddess Mari to
such as Swahili, and Dravidian help protect them from spirits. That’s
languages such as Kannada and Tamil. why she created her daughter Ilargi, the
But if you’ve never learnt one of these light in the darkness. Yet Ilargi’s light
languages, you might find it easiest to wasn’t strong enough, and so Mari made
think of the Newspeak of ‘1984’, in which Eguzki, the sun. And to help protect
everyday English words were removed against the night-time monsters that
from the dictionary and replaced with appeared when Eguzki disappeared, she
prefixes (doubleplus-, un-) and suffixes (- created the eguzkilore, the flower that
wise, -ful) to make it easier to control looked like the sun and whose many
how people thought. A terrible petals would distract the monsters and
situation? Doubleplusungood. spirits as they tried to count them all.
While agglutination was used in George Other versions, however, say that the
Orwell’s dystopian tale to remove night-time was always reserved for the
linguistic richness, it lends Basque a dead and terrifying spirits. Ilargi would
reputation for being poetic. Take ilargi light their path as they roamed the
(moon). It’s composed of two parts: argi earth, until sunrise came and they
(light) and il (darkness). It is the light in returned to their subterranean world.
the darkness.
We don’t know if the word ilargi
Another translation, while debated by originates from “the light in the dark” or
linguists, is also popular: argi (light) and “the light of the dead”. But language is
il from the homophone hil (dead/the not set in stone. It is something that we
dead). “We don’t just say ‘moon’, we say return to in order to both find and create
‘the light of the dead’,” Basque people meaning.
will tell you, proud of their language’s
beauty. Basque heritage is important in Euskal
Herria (the Basque Country). Tattoos of
Hil features in lots of Basque words: eguzkilore are commonplace. Popular
hilerri (the cemetery) literally means the books and films include lamiak and
town of the dead. Hilaldi (a time of creatures such as the basajaun (wild
suffering) combines hil with aldi (a lord/wild man), a mythical creature of
period of time). Hilabete (month) adds the forest. Although these stories and
bete (full) to hil (moon). Hilaur (foetus) words were born thousands of years
can be converted into a verb, hilaurtu or ago, they give identity to the Basque
hilaur egin (to have an abortion). people.
47 \ berrogeita zazpi
Basque people haven’t always been able to

celebrate their culture. The language was
outlawed during the Francoist dictatorship
(1936– 1975), with cruel punishments for
those caught speaking it: jail time, fines, the
shaving of women’s heads – or worse. The
threat of torture and execution always hung
over people’s heads, and slowly, the Basque
language stopped being used. Children grew
up speaking gaztelania (Spanish), and Basque
names gave way to Spanish ones.
Later, Basque became the language of

terrorism. The ETA’s — Euskadi Ta Askatasuna
(Basque Country and Liberty) — roots were in
anti-Francoism, but Basques and Spaniards
alike were murdered and kidnapped by the
group. Attitudes towards ETA in the Basque
Country remain complicated, with regular
protests calling for jailed ETA members to be
moved closer to home.
Yet today, the use of the Basque language — in

Spain, at least — is growing. Speaking Euskara
is no longer a political act but a cultural one, a
recognition of past identities. And Basque
speakers are keen to celebrate the inherent
beauty of the language. Whether ilargi really
originally meant “the light of the dead”
perhaps matters less than the fact that this
translation is meaningful to Basque people.
From top: photos by Thibault Mokuenko, Jochem Raat & Arno Senoner on Unsplash
48 \ berrogeita zortzi
smehcoJ emoreJ yB
Bananas, wires,
and long-distance
relationships
Words in a sentence may be apart, but they are

never alone. Like how people are connected across
the globe through video calls, words engage in long-
distance relationships across a sentence. But unlike
in a video call, a word’s position (in a sentence)
matters.
Photo by Berkin Üregen on Unsplash
49 \ berrogeita bederatzi
‘A person eats a banana’ means – Ambiguity

thankfully – something different from
‘a banana eats a person’. So, the
meaning of words depends on – and Alice and Bob are both ‘a person’,
interacts with – the context in which but context is needed to pinpoint to
they appear. The question is how. What whom it refers (the referent).
is this magical interaction between Quantum mechanics calls this ‘in
words that native speakers somehow limbo’ state superposition.
intuitively understand?
Schrödinger’s famous thought
Meet Alice and Bob. Alice eats a
banana, but Bob does not. This means
experiment makes superposition
that our sentence ‘a person eats a easier to understand by lifting it
banana’ is true, because Alice is such a from particles to larger objects.
person. In general, ‘a person’ could Let’s put a cat in a box with some
refer to Alice or Bob, but in this radioactive material that may or
context it can only be Alice. The may not kill the cat based on the
meaning of ‘a person’ is, thus, state of a superposed particle.
determined in interaction with ‘a When we close the box, the cat ends
banana’, even though those words are up in a superposed state too: it
apart. How does that work?
could be dead or alive (and
Linguistics may have found an unlikely quantum mechanics often goes as
ally in quantum mechanics. Don’t flee far as saying it’s both dead and
in terror just yet, for it is mostly the alive). The cat is in a state of limbo
notion of entanglement we’re until we open the box and observe
interested in. When two quantum its condition. Similarly, words are in
particles are entangled, they are limbo until we look at the context
linked; you cannot know what one that pinpoints their meaning.
particle is up to without knowing what
the other one is doing, no matter the
distance between them. Words are
In our two-person universe where
similar. Here, ‘a person’ is entangled the only people are Alice and Bob,
with ‘a banana’. Entangled words can the following phrases all mean the
occur anywhere in a sentence, and same:
generally all words in a sentence are
entangled to some degree. -Alice
-a female person
-a person that eats a banana
The moment we add a third person,

say Carmen, who is female, ‘a
female person’ again becomes
ambiguous (superposed). Likewise,
if Bob were to eat a banana too,
then ‘a person that eats a banana’
would become ambiguous.
50 \ berrogeita hamar
Diagrams
The mathematical models underpinning quantum mechanics help us

understand how meaning is clarified by context. Thankfully, some quantum
theorists have developed diagrams to make our lives easier. These diagrams
distil pure meaning from sentences. Lines – which we’ll call wires – visualise
entanglement across sentences.
Based on a phrase’s syntactic role (noun, verb, etc.), it has a grammatical

type. This type denotes two properties: (1) what kind of phrase is this, and (2)
what kind of phrases is it entangled with?
Nouns have type n. A transitive verb like ‘eats’ has type nr s n l ; in a simple
sentence, it occurs to the right of a noun phrase (the subject) and to the left
of another noun phrase (the object). Its output is a well-formed sentence –
hence s. An intransitive verb like ‘walks’ has a simpler type, nr s, because it
expects only one noun (e.g. ‘a person walks’).
Diagrams consist of building blocks and wires. Blocks are reserved for
content words, which contribute meaning to a sentence, while words with a
purely syntactic function are modelled as wires only. This way, semantics
and syntax are neatly separated.
51 \ berrogeita hamaika
Meaning of a sentence
We have seen that the meaning of noun phrases is determined by its (potential)
referents, but what about entire sentences? According to quantum models, a
sentence can be true, false, or somewhere in between. Consider:
-a person eats a banana

-a person eats an apple
-people eat a banana
The first sentence is true, as we know, because Alice eats a banana. The second
sentence is false, because neither Alice nor Bob eats an apple. What about the third
sentence? It makes sense to say it is 50 percent true, because half of our people eat
a banana (Alice, but not Bob). If our universe had ten people with only Alice eating
a banana, the third sentence would be 10 percent true.
These examples can be extrapolated to real life. For example, ‘people live in
Europe’ is only 9.8 percent true, because that’s the proportion of the world
population living in Europe, not to be confused with ‘all people live in Europe’ and
‘some people live in Europe’, which are false and true, respectively.
These degrees of truth are called truth values. They are typically expressed as
numbers between 0 and 1, ranging from 0 percent true (i.e., false) to 100 percent
true. ‘People eat a banana’ is slap bang in the middle with 0.5 or 50 percent.
We can do two things with a loose sentence wire. Either we tie a knot in it, or we
attach it to a different sentence. In the first case, the result is the truth value of the
sentence. The second case allows us to calculate the degree of similarity of
sentences (again, between 0 and 1), but it’s usually more interesting to calculate
degrees of similarity of phrases (of the same type, like two nouns). This is how we
can show that ‘Alice’ and ‘a female person’ are synonymous in our two-person
universe; if we connect their loose noun wires, the degree of similarity is 1.
Photo by Alex Andrews from Pexels
52 \ berrogeita hamabi
The power of diagrams
In English, adjectives can be used in two syntactically different positions:
-as head of a noun phrase (attributive)

-linked to a noun phrase by a copula (a linking verb like ‘to be’, which is predicative)
The position of an adjective does not change the meaning of the adjective or its
effect on the noun it modifies. So, there should be no difference in meaning between
e.g., ‘female person’ and ‘person that is female’. Can we can prove this using
diagrams? For that, we need to know the types of adjectives (‘female’), copulas (‘is’),
and relative pronouns (‘that’).
An adjective has grammatical type n n l , because it occurs to the left of a noun

phrase (when used attributive, as in ‘female person’) and returns a modified noun
phrase. We use a square block for an adjective to emphasise that it modifies a noun
(wire), i.e., restricts its meaning.
Let’s look at the copula for our predicative adjective, the linking verb ‘is’. A copula is
different from most verbs, because it is syntactic in nature. Its only function is to
entangle an adjective and a noun. A copula has type n r s nll n l ; it comes to the right
of a noun, generates a sentence, and expects an adjective on its right. An adjective
generates a noun phrase, supplied to the copula’s n l , but this predicative adjective is
missing a noun to its right. This explains the complicated type of the copula: the
copula links the missing noun to the adjective via nll occurring to the left of the
adjective’s n l . For example:
53 \ berrogeita hamahiru
Once we have connected our entangled phrases through wires, these wires can
be turned and twisted in any way we like. Quantum theorists have proved that
bending wires, splitting them, and moving blocks around all obey the laws of
quantum mechanics. For us, this means we can simplify our diagram without
changing its meaning. So, we can make an equivalent, simpler diagram with two
unconnected components.
The left component reduces to a number (we have tied a knot in the wire) that
shows the degree to which ‘a person’ is female, which is 1 (100 percent true),
because Alice is female.
A relative pronoun that functions as a subject of a relative clause has type nr n s l

n; it comes to the right of the noun it modifies and to the left of a sentence. It has
two outgoing noun wires, because the entire phrase ‘person that is female’ is
itself a noun but the relative pronoun also functions as a (subject) noun in the
relative clause. Let’s see how the pronoun interacts with our adjective.
54 \ berrogeita hamalau
We can finally prove that attributive and predicative adjectives modify a noun
phrase in the exact same way, i.e., that ‘female person’ and ‘person that is female’
are equivalent. Like before, straightening the wires simplifies our diagram.
Now we can go haywire with the wires. Knots and splits do not add meaning, so
we can eliminate those in the large component. The small component has no
outgoing wires and becomes the number 1, so we eliminate that too. Lo and
behold, we uncover the diagram of ‘a female person’ we saw earlier. Because
everything we did preserved the meaning of the diagram, ‘person that is female’
must mean the same as ‘female person’.
What’s the point?
Our reshuffling of diagrams has proved that ‘female person’ and ‘person that is
female’ mean the same. Meanwhile, ‘a person eats a banana’ (true, Alice does)
and ‘a banana eats a person’ (stuff of nightmares) have different meanings and,
therefore, diagrams. Quantum linguistics helps us answer the question: when
does syntax affect meaning?
Some applications of quantum linguistics rely on a specific universe. It remains

to be seen how far our two-people universe can be scaled up. Computational
linguists often build the meaning of individual words from parts of related base
words (there could be hundreds of them). Sometimes this is accurate, like when
we say that green is 50 percent blue and 50 percent yellow, but it gets less
precise when have to model verbs like ‘skates‘(perhaps 20 percent walking, 40
percent running, 40 percent gliding?). More base words make the model more
accurate but also harder to work with.
55 \ berrogeita hamabost
Regardless, much like how quantum mechanics introduced a new way of

thinking for physicists and computer scientists, it could provide linguists with
new insights into the interaction between syntax and semantics. These quantum
models are dynamic – rather than static like syntax trees – and highlight the
long-distance relationships between constituent phrases. Besides, semantic
ambiguity fits perfectly into quantum theory’s superposition.
Perhaps the most compelling reason to go bananas about this: quantum linguistics
is unexpected and elegant. Plus, you get to draw and play with wires, knowing
that every move you make obeys the laws of quantum mechanics. Pretty neat.
PS: This article has taken some liberties to make the topic accessible. A great
starting point for learning more about quantum theory – through diagrams – is
Picturing Quantum Processes: A First Course in Quantum Theory and
Diagrammatic Reasoning by Bob Coecke and Aleks Kissinger.
56 \ berrogeita hamasei
DISPATCHES FROM LINGUISTS
Speech
Therapy
Observation
By Tiffany Marcum
This month’s dispatch comes from Tiffany Marcum, who takes us

through her experiences learning how American Sign Language is used.
I found a job that let me use my special skill- American Sign Language! The
position was Habilitation Technician and I would work with adults with serious
developmental delays. As new employees, they put us through an extensive 2 day
brush up on common signs for our patients. Basic needs like a shower, toilet, eat
were covered. In the breaks when the instructor left the room, others showed off
extra words like bull crap and jackass. I would say that those patients were more
non-verbal than deaf or hard of hearing.
As part of a normal shift, we had to do extensive documentation. The individuals

usually had therapeutic speech and/or sign goals. One lady relied on sign
language as she only knew neurological grunts. Her daily goal was to mimic signs
for “eat” and “toilet”. The signs for which are simple. Eat is a hand motion
toward your mouth. A toilet is a shaking of the letter “T” (thumb between index
finger, fist. This shows the letter “T” swishing, as in toilet.).
“Dorit, do you need to use the bathroom?” (Closed palm, with the thumb sticking
between the index and middle finger, with a wrist twist.)
Photo by Diana Polekhina on Unsplash
57 \ berrogeita hamazazpi
She leaned forward with a grunt of interest. “Oh. Interesting concept! Career induced
She stretched out her left palm and banged hearing and speech loss.”
her right fist against it. After the assisted
trip, I asked her one more important The first patient entered the almost
question. recording style studio and applied specific
headphones. Her back was turned to gauge
“Dorit, are you ready to eat dinner?” (All 4 effectiveness. I watched as the Doctor took
fingers resting on the thumb, pointed at the her stance with a microphone. The
mouth, resembling eating.) Audiologist read a small list of common
words with extreme clarity at different
With another bounce forward, she replied volumes. She was to repeat the word as she
by tapping 4 fingers against her chin. Staff processed it. If I would have pursued that
knew that was her way of saying yes and career, that meant I would’ve needed a
interpreted the language puzzle successfully. serious diction coach for my Appalachian
twang. Then, varying tones were then
During different parts of my career, I transmitted at different frequencies. We
considered foraying into Communication recorded her response of a quick hand raise
Sciences and Disorders. That would have as “satisfactory”.
entailed more school once again and adding
a Master of Science to my Bachelor of Arts I noticed all the interesting material on the
in Social Sciences. Ultimately, I couldn’t walls. Models of the ear, inner ear, and
bear the rigorous schedule on top of vocal cords. Colorful charts for children
working full time and a fresh student loan. with speech disorders. Speech Pathology
had come a long way to give individuals
For my edification, I emailed a local Speech their independence back.
and Language Therapist about an
observation opportunity. I wanted to see “Are you fluent in sign language? I am
what they do in the office day-to-day. pretty knowledgeable.”
Thankfully, she replied, and I met her the
following morning. “I am not fluent. It’s not a necessity in
certain programs.
“Welcome! I am thrilled to have you!” she
greeted warmly. I left the office that day with more
knowledge and knowing that my language
“Thank you! I am very interested in the skill entered the program. I had a notion
field.” I followed through a calmly lit and that I must master ASL before applying.
silent office. Some people had discouraged my attempts
in Speech Pathology. An acquaintance once
“This morning, I have a patient coming in told me, “I asked my neighbor who is a
for a hearing and language evaluation. She Speech Pathologist, and she said you would
has a concern about hearing loss because of just be cleaning hearing aides all day.” Not
her career as a hairstylist. The many years of the case at this office.
loud hairdryers have weighed on her.”
58 \ berrogeita hemezortzi
How to
Pronounce
Knife
A REVIEW
By Holly Gustafson
When Souvankham Thammavongsa’s new book, How to Pronounce

Knife, was published in the spring of last year, I was eager to pick it up –
I’m always on the lookout for works by fellow Canadians, and the fact
that its title hinted at the book being – at least to some extent – about
language, was a bonus. And How to Pronounce Knife certainly did not
disappoint.
Raised and educated in Toronto, Thammavongsa is best known in

Canada for her award-winning poetry. Born in the Lao refugee camp in
Nong Khai, Thailand, she and her parents moved to Canada when she
was just one year old. How to Pronounce Knife is Thammavongsa’s first
work of fiction, following several collections of poetry, but each story in
the book is written with such candor and vulnerability that it reads
almost like a collective memoir. While every story features Lao
characters, each one explores the world through his or her own unique –
and achingly honest – perspective; the result is an anthology of distinct
voices that tell a shared tale.
59 \ berrogeita hemeretzi
Several of Thammavongsa’s stories tell the tale of a mother, trapped in

domesticity, learning English through the ordinariness of her daily life. In
“Randy Travis,” a woman learns English from listening to the country music
station, and from attending a church service whose pastor she hardly
understands: “she did not know exactly what he said, but he said it for a long
time.” In “Edge of the World,” a daughter recounts her mother’s obsession
with daytime television:
“My mother learned to speak English watching those soaps, and
soon she started practising what she learned…. When a sock
went missing from the dryer, she would ask where it went, and
when [my father] had no answer, she would accuse him of
having an affair.”
Many of the stories are told from the eyes of children, who are finding their
way in a new world and a new language without the advantage – or burden –
of age on their side. In “How to Pronounce Knife,” a young girl struggles with
the English language’s less than obvious orthography, while “Chick-A-
Chee!” tells the story of two children who experience their first Hallowe’en,
and the carefree magic of going door-to-door throughout an unfamiliar
neighbourhood, yelling “Trick or treat!”
In “The Universe Would Be So Cruel,” a man who runs a small printing

company claims that he can predict how long a marriage will last (and if it
will happen at all), simply by the quality of the paper, and, if the couple is
Laotian, the amount of Loa orthography included in the invitation. He insists:
“You can’t have a wedding without Lao letters on the invitation.

And you have to have your real given name on there. Yeah, it’s a
long name – but that’s your name. Why would you want to be
Sue when your name is really Savongnavathakad?”
(When his own daughter is left at the altar, he, and his invitations, willingly
take the blame.)
60 \ hirurogei
That theme of retaining and claiming one’s “real” name in a culture of the
unfamiliar is explored in several of Thammavongsa’s stories. In “The School
Bus Driver,” Jai, whose name means ‘heart’ in Loa, laments when his wife
starts calling him Jay instead, because, as she explains, “that is just the way
things are here.” And in “You Are So Embarrassing,” a thirteen-year-old
daughter insists that her mother call her not Chantakad, but Celine. “That’s
who I am now,” she says, consequently breaking her Lao mother’s heart. “I’m
Celine. And can you not talk to my friends, please?”
Thammavongsa’s book, How to Pronounce Knife, wasn’t quite what I thought

it would be. It is not a book primarily about language and language learning,
but rather, a gathering of narratives about the immigrant experience in
general, of which learning to navigate and communicate in a language
entirely different from one’s own is an enormous part. And although different
from what I expected, the book was anything but a disappointment; instead, it
is an illuminating collection of stories that each tell a unique tale about the
experience shared by millions of immigrants and refugees, one of longing to
be seen and heard, to understand, and to be understood.
Thammavongsa, Souvankham. (2020) How to Pronounce Knife. Toronto:

McClelland & Stewart.
We hope you enjoyed it!
Send any questions or comments you might have to

magazine@sillylinguistics.com,
Or see our twitter: @magazine_silly.
Do also get in touch if you fancy writing for us!
Check out Steve the Vagabond on Facebook at:

facebook.com/stevethevagabond,
also check out Silly Linguistics online at: Sillylinguistics.com
Silly Linguistics Magazine was brought to you by, Silly Linguistics Pty Ltd.
Editor: Ed Bedford
Graphic Designer: Kristel Ho
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SILLY LINGUISTICS THE MAGAZINE FOR LANGUAGE LOVERS

JARRING GERMAN: HOW

BANANAS, WIRES, AND LONG-

Cover and content page photo by Yasin Arıbuğa on Unsplash

Cover that fire! It’s the police’s hour!

If you want to know more…

We invite you to participate in our etymological adventure! If you’d like to read

In this article, we'll talk again about some wedding customs, as it

HOW TO SAY HELLO IN TIBET

HOW TO SAY HELLO IN OMAN AND NEW-ZEALAND

WEDDING CUSTOMS IN LAPLAND AND DENMARK

Thanks for reading!

Photo by Free To Use Sounds on Unsplash

stumbled upon Badisch, the aural equivalent of a mug of hot chocolate.

The third largest state in Germany, Baden-Württemberg is a 1950s conglomeration of pre-

existing states: Baden, Württemberg-Hohenzollern, and Württemberg-Baden. You can

heart of what it means to speak “Badisch.”

include variants of Allemanisch, which date back to the Alemanni — a confederation of

culture, well after the state was assimilated into Baden-Württemberg.

becoming Gued Nacht.

speak to other grown adults as they would to toddlers or excitable dogs…

Kitten/Small Cat Kätzchen Kätzle [Ket-sleh]

Small house Häuschen Häusle [Hoi-zleh]

Weggle, as if spoken without teeth.

British ear, this makes everything sound like slang to me.

Some words, in fact, bear no resemblance to Hochdeutsch (standard German) at all:

Scoops Kugeln Bolle [Bol-leh]

Bosch and Mercedes-Benz, the people of Baden-Württemberg have somehow attracted a

a double-edged sword, a means of preserving identity, yet inescapably bound to reductive

O ne of my favourite hobbies is reading the

Photo by Debby Hudson on Unsplash

This is a jazzy little phenomenon called trade-

Within language learners a common pattern seems to be intense interest and

In 2005 Zoltan Dörnyei, a Hungarian-born British Linguist specialising in the

Additionally, a sense of achievement and acknowledgement of progress in your

Good luck with your newly motivated language learning!

and How to Avoid Them

Of all the potential faux-pas in the German language, vergiften (to

Photo by Bernard Hermant on Unsplash

Admittedly it would be pretty rare for these

Photo by Jess @ Harper Sunday on Unsplash

Every day, our senses are bombarded with

Advertisers employ a plethora of strategies, to

Companies advertise their commodities

A common method utilised by advertisers is to

With countless commercials promoting and

put in effort in maintaining their looks. The

Photo by Priscilla Du Preez on Unsplash

Let’s have a look at how beauty is represented Scientific jargon

Coinages and compound words Lexical chains

In conclusion, advertisements are a tool to

Language is laden with ideology, going

Photo by Priscilla Du Preez on Unsplash

Photo by Matteo Vistocco on Unsplash

I n my previous article, I looked at ways of making films and television

The Rosetta Stone had been rediscovered by Napoleon’s troops in Egypt’s

‘Cleopatra’. Champollion realised that this meant that hieroglyphs contained

One person who has considered these questions is Professor Ghil’ad

light-skinned Aboriginal children away from their communities to be brought up

To address their still-unequal status in Australian society, Zuckermann gathered

H ave you ever thought about how

Asian languages have something else In India, for example, relationships

Other agglutinative languages include Some versions of Basque mythology say