1

• Power quality can be referred to a wide area of

parameters, such as voltage and frequency fluctuations,
voltage sags & swell, voltage and current imbalance,
harmonics, reactive power, etc.
• The most found power quality issues in railway power
systems are:
➢ Voltage unbalance
Introduction ➢ Voltage fluctuations
➢ Harmonics
➢ Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

2
 • Since the beginning of railway electrification,
power quality has been a main problem in
railway networks because of their special
Voltage characteristics.
Fluctuations • Due to the dynamic inherent characteristics of
traction loads, voltage fluctuation is inevitable.
and voltage
• Sudden shifts of traction loads give instantaneous
sags rise to step changes in voltage that causes the
voltage fluctuations on the grid and lead to
flicker.
• Excessive loading of locomotives on traction line
can result in voltage sags.

3
 Voltage
Fluctuation • Traction motors and other related loads in
trains are designed to function properly with
+10% and -24% amplitude based on IEX-
6850 and EN-50163.
• Nevertheless, the excessive loading could
trigger the protective devices and causes
the nuisance tripping.
4
• Furthermore, the voltage fluctuation could
result into flicker, which affecting the lighting
systems.
 Reactive • Traction systems are composed of reactive
power characterized equipment like traction
issues transformer, smoothing reactors, traction
motors, air cooling fans and auxiliary motors
for compressors
• The amount of reactive power is altered
according to the number of operating
5
locomotives.
• Capacitive power can be observed when
the trains is not operating at midnight.
• Low power factor results in low utilization
rate of power supply equipment, increasing
power loss and voltage drop.
 • Voltage unbalance is the most serious problem in AC
electric railway because the traction loads are
connected to two-phase supply.

Voltage • Voltage unbalance will produce a large amount of

negative sequence current in the grid.
Unbalance • In addition, voltage unbalance also causes the
overload of neutral cables because unbalance current
will flow through it.

6
Causes of Voltage unbalance
• The major cause of voltage unbalance is the uneven distribution of
single-phase loads, that can be continuously changing across a three-
phase power system.
• Example problem areas can be rural electric power systems with long
distribution lines, as well as large urban power systems with heavy
single-phase demands.
• AC traction system causes a serious voltage unbalance because the
traction loads are connected to two-phase supply.

7
Effects of voltage unbalance
• Unbalanced voltages can result in adverse effects on equipment and
on the power system, which is intensified by the fact that a small
unbalance in the phase voltages can cause a disproportionately larger
unbalance in the phase currents.
• Under unbalanced conditions, the power system will incur more
losses and heating effects and be less stable because when the
phases are balanced, the system is in a better position to respond to
emergency load transfers.

8
Voltage unbalance
• There are 2 approaches to mitigate it:
1. The phase-shift method is the most common approach
to address the voltage unbalance issues in railway
systems.
2. To connect the TPSS to nodes or industrial HV network
lines with sufficiently high values of short-circuit power.

9
Feeding a single-phase The adjacent feeder stations use different phase
combinations. For example, feeder station 1 uses Red-
railway from a 3-phase Blue, feeder 2 uses Blue-Yellow, and feeder 3 uses Yellow-
supply Red.

10
Voltage imbalance

• Direct connection of these adjacent systems would cause the short-circuit.

• Hence, a short section of dead OLE, a neutral section, is used to keep the
phases electrically separate.
• Trains shut off power before the neutral section by mean of an automatic
trip, and coast through the neutral section before the power is on again.

11
3-phase supply

• In order to evenly distribute the single-

phase loads on the 3-phase network
having line voltage Vp, it is necessary to
insert 3 transformers.
• The secondary terminal of each
transformer is connected to the track.
• The balance would only be guaranteed
when the 3 transformers have identical
instantaneous loads.

12
 Primary
3-phase supply

• The transformers are configured in

Delta-star.
• The 3 voltages available for the line
circuit’s power supply would form a star Secondary
with the effective value: V = Vp/h,
where h is the transformation ratio.

13
 • The ratio between the negative sequence component of
line voltage Vi and the positive sequence component Vd
can be expressed as,
u = Vi/Vd = K = Psp/ Psc
where Psc is the short-circuit power of the 3-phase network
when the single-phase power Psp requested is taken.
The coefficient K is a vector quantity that represents the
3-phase supply maximum percentage value within which the differences in
individual line voltages are contained, with respect to their
average value.
The limits for 3-phase industrial motors :
K<1% in continuous operation
K<1.5% for a few minutes

14
Voltage unbalance

• There are two definition of voltage unbalance.

• NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) standard definition:
• The maximum deviation from the average of the three-phase line voltages
or currents, divided by the average of the three-phase line voltages or
currents, expressed in percent.

15
Example

Calculate the VUF for the supply as follows using NEMA definition:
Va = 420 V; Vb = 433 V; Vc = 415 V

Solution
• Avg = 422.67V;
• Dev: |Vavg – VA| = 2.67V; |Vavg – VB| = 10.33V; |Vavg – VC| = 7V
Max dev = 10.33V
• %VUF = 10.33/422.67 = 2.44%

16
Voltage unbalance
• According to IEC 61000-2-2: Electromagnetic compatibility, voltage
unbalance is the ratio of the negative sequence voltage to the
positive sequence voltage.

TNB Electricity
Supply Application
Handbook (ESAH)
17
Distribution Code says:
1. The maximum negative phase sequence component of the phase voltage on
the Distribution System (Voltage Unbalance) shall remain below 1% unless
abnormal conditions prevail.
2. Infrequent short duration peaks with a maximum value of 2% are permitted for
Voltage Unbalance, subject to the prior agreement of the Distributor under
the Connection Agreement. The Distributor will only agree following a specific
assessment of the impact of these levels on the Distributor’s other Users’
Equipment.
3. At the terminals of a User’s installation the unbalance voltage shall not exceed
1% for 5 occasions within any 30 minutes time period.

18
Symmetrical components of 3-phase voltage
• In 1918, Dr C.L. Fortescue described how an unbalance 3-phase voltage could be
transformed into 3 sets of balanced 3-phase components.
• This method reduces the complexity in solving for electrical quantities during
power system disturbances.

19
Symmetrical components of 3-phase voltage
• The phase voltage, Vp, for a balanced 3-phase with phase sequence
abc are:

• The line voltage, VLL, are written as:

20
Phasor
diagram of
the line and
phase
voltages

21
Symmetrical components of 3-phase voltage
• The current can be calculated as:

• The phase current in the balanced 3-phase case are:

22
Symmetrical components of 3-phase voltage
• For the positive sequence, Vb1 always lags Va1 by 120o and has the
same magnitude as Va1.
• Similarly, Vc1 leads Va1 by 120o . The equation can be expressed as:

23
Symmetrical components of 3-phase voltage
• For negative sequence • For zero sequence components,
components,

24
Symmetrical components of 3-phase voltage
• the total voltage of any phase is equal to the sum of the
corresponding sequential components in that phase.

(1)

• We may further simplify the notation by defining:

25
• Substitute (2) into (1):

• These equations may be manipulated to solve for V0, V1 and V2.

26
27
Example
• Find the symmetrical components for

28
Solution

The magnitude of Va1 and Vb1 is the same.

To find the angle for Vb1, -120
To find the angle for Vc1, +120 29
 The magnitude of Va1 and Vb1 is the same.
To find the angle for Vb1, +120
To find the angle for Vc1, -120, because –ve sequence acts
anti-clockwise. Leave your answer in obtuse angle (0<θ
<180)
The phasor diagram for the sequential components are as follows:

122

30
Example
i) Find the symmetrical components and draw its phasor diagram for
𝑉𝑎 = 410∠2, 𝑉𝑏 = 398∠ − 129, 𝑉𝑐 = 420∠112
ii) Calculate the VUF for the following line voltage using:
a) NEMA standard
b) IEC standard

What is the difference for the VUF calculated with different standards?
What could possibly cause the difference?

31
Solution
𝑉𝑎 = 410∠2, 𝑉𝑏 = 398∠ − 129, 𝑉𝑐 = 420∠112

Positive sequence components:

1
𝑉𝑎1 = 410∠2𝑜 + (1∠120𝑜 × 398∠ − 129𝑜 ) + (1∠240𝑜 × 420∠112𝑜 )𝑉
3
= 407.8∠ −5𝑜
𝑉𝑏1 = 407.8∠ −125𝑜
𝑉𝑐1 = 407.8∠115𝑜

Negative sequence components:

1
𝑉𝑎2 = 410∠2𝑜 + (1∠240𝑜 × 398∠ − 129𝑜 ) + (1∠120𝑜 × 420∠112𝑜 )𝑉
3
= 18.52∠81.16𝑜
𝑉𝑏2 = 18.52∠ −158.8𝑜
𝑉𝑐2 = 18.52∠ −38.84𝑜
32
Solution
Zero sequence components:

1
𝑉𝑎0 = 410∠2𝑜 + (398∠ − 129𝑜 ) + (420∠112𝑜 )𝑉
3
= 31.48∠88.8𝑜
𝑉𝑏0 = 31.48∠88.8𝑜
𝑉𝑐0 = 31.48∠88.8𝑜

33
Solution
(ii) NEMA
Vavg = (410+398+420)/3 = 409.33V (ii) IEC
IEC VUF = -ve seq/ +ve seq x 100%
|Vavg – Va| = |409.33 – 410| = 0.667 V =18.52/407.8 x 100%
= 4.54 %
|Vavg – Vb| = |409.33 – 398| = 11.333V
|Vavg – Vc| = |409.33 – 420| = 10.667 V
|max dev| = 10.667 V

NEMA VUF = |max dev| / Vavg x 100%

=10.667/409.333 x 100%
= 2.61 %

Difference = 4.54% - 2.61% = 1.93%

The difference is caused by the deviation of phase angle among the 3-
phase voltage
34
Harmonics in Railway
Electrification systems

35
 Harmonics

• Harmonic is a mathematical definition, generally used when talking about Integral orders
of Fundamental frequencies.
• Power system harmonics: currents or voltages with frequencies that are integer multiples
(h=0,1,2,…N) of the fundamental power frequency.

1st harmonic: 50Hz

2nd harmonic: 100Hz
3rd harmonic: 150Hz

36
Harmonics

37
 • Power system harmonics: presenting deviations from a
perfect sinusoidal-waveform (voltage or current waveform).
• The distortion comes from a Nonlinearity caused by
saturation, electronic-switching and nonlinear electric loads,
Arc Converter, PV inverter, VSD.

How are
Harmonics
Produced ?

38
Effects of harmonic issues
• Harmonic distortion and harmonic resonance problems have been widely concerned and
reported in railway electrification systems (RESs) due to the harmonic injection from the
nonlinear electric train, especially high-speed, high-capacity, and large power trains.
• The harmonic problem mainly consists of the background harmonics brought from the
utility system, resonance-region harmonics interacted by capacitive and inductive
network elements, and characteristic harmonics generated from the switching process of
the onboard power conversion system.

39
 Effects of harmonic issues

• The harmonic currents, generated from the thyristor- or pulse-width modulation (PWM)-
controlled converters in an electric train, flowing through the catenary network are one of
the largest concerns.
• As a distributed RLC circuit, the catenary network can experience series or parallel
resonances at one or more specific frequencies that amplify harmonic currents.

40
The
measured
voltage and
current
waveforms
under a
resonance

41
 Effects of harmonic issues

• The highly distorted waveforms may lead to the electromagnetic

interference in adjacent communication lines and the railway signaling
system, overheating of transformers, overload of neutral cables, damage of
power capacitors, and mal-operation of the protective devices.
• With the growing density of electric trains and increasing requests for
power demand, harmonic pollution and resonance have become a major
concern in both utility power system and RES.

42
 • Harmonics produced by the
semiconductor converter in steady-
state can be expressed as:
h = pn ± 1
Where h = harmonic order
Harmonic p = number of pulses per cycle
sources in n = an integer 1,2,3,…
• For instance, a 6-pulse bridge will
Railway produce:
Electrical • n =1 ➔ 6±1 ➔ 5,7
Systems • n =2 ➔ 12±1 ➔ 11,13
• n =3 ➔ 18±1 ➔ 17,19
• n =4 ➔ 24±1 ➔ 23,25
• ……

43
 Characteristic harmonics of electric train
• Characteristic harmonics are the harmonics
generated by electric train due to the dynamic
behavior of the train's movement.
• For the thyristor-controlled train, the harmonics
Harmonic are characterized by rich low-frequency odd
harmonics such as 3rd, 5th and 7th harmonics.
sources in
• For the PWM-controlled 4-quardrant converter
RES (4QC) that is usually used for the high-speed
trains, the lower order harmonics has been
reduced remarkably due to the high switching
frequency of the converter. However, the high
frequency components near to the switching
frequency remain serious.
44
 • Short-circuit ratio – at a particular location, the ratio of the
available short-circuit current to the load current.
• Total demand distortion (TDD) – the ratio of the root mean
square of the harmonic content, considering harmonic
components up to the 50th order and specifically excluding
interharmonics, expressed as a percent of the max demand
Terminologies current.
• Total harmonic distortion (THD) – the ratio of the root
mean square of the harmonic content, considering
harmonic components up to the 50th order and specifically
excluding interharmonics, expressed as a percent of the
fundamental.

45
THDv

Where Vn is the single frequency rms voltage at harmonic n

N is the maximum harmonic order to be considered;
V1 is the fundamental line to neutral rms voltage.

46
Standards for
Voltage Harmonic Limits (OLD)
Harmonics
Limitation Bus Voltage Voltage THD-v (%)
Harmonic
• IEEE STD 519-1992 Standard:
Recommended Practices and
limit as (%)
Requirements for Harmonic of
Control in Electrical Power
Systems (Voltage Distortion Fundamental
Limits).
69kV and 3.0 5.0
• This standard has been
replaced by an updated below
version ➔ IEEE STD 519- 69 – 161kV 1.5 2.5
2014
161kV and 1.0 1.5
above
47
IEEE STD 519-2014 for voltage limits(latest)

48
THD vs TDD
• Current distortion levels can be characterized by a THD value but it
can be misleading when the fundamental load current is low.
• A high THD value for input current may not be of significant concern if
the load is light, since the magnitude of the harmonic current is low.
• To avoid such ambiguity, a total demand distortion (TDD) factor is
used instead.

IR = Load current
49
 Example A load consumes the current (IR) of 40 A when it
is connected to a 3-phase power supply. The
harmonic currents are measured as follows:
I1 = 27 A; I3 = 3.3 A; I5 = 2.7A, I7 = 2.3A; I9 = 1A;
Determine THDi and TDDi.

50
Solution

THDi = (√3.32 + 2.72 + 2.32 + 12) / 27 = 18.3%

TDDi = (√3.32 + 2.72 + 2.32 + 12) / 40 = 12.4%

51
 Example A 3-phase purely resistive load of 50 kW is
supplied directly from a 3-phase, 415 V, 50 Hz
supply. At the time of measuring, the load was
consuming 41.5 kW and the voltage waveform
contained the 5th harmonic of 11 V, and 7th
harmonic of 8V.
Assume that the load resistance varies with the
52
square root of the harmonic order h, the
following steps are used to calculate the THDv,
THDi and TDD at PCC.
 Solution
The calculations are based on the per phase values because harmonics are
considered as a per phase measurement.
For TDD later 𝑃= 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 For pure resistive load, pf = 1

53
Solution

54
Standards for Harmonic Current limit (OLD)
Harmonics
Limitation
• IEEE 519-1992 Standard:
Recommended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power
Systems (Current Distortion
Limits for 120V-69kV
Distribution Systems)
• This standard has been
replaced by an updated
version ➔ IEEE STD 519-
2014

55
IEEE STD
519:2014 for
current limit
(latest)
for 120V –
69kV

56
 IEEE STD
519-2014 for
current limit
(latest)
for >161 kV

IL = I R

57
Sequence of harmonics
❑Harmonics of the order 3h + 1 have positive sequence.
❑Harmonics of the order of 3h + 2 have negative sequence.
❑Harmonics of the order 3h are of zero sequence.

• All triplen harmonics generated by nonlinear loads are zero sequence

phasors. These add up in the neutral.
• In a 3-phase,4-wire system, with perfectly balanced single-phase
loads between the phase and neutral, all +ve and –ve sequence
harmonics will cancel out, leaving only the zero sequence harmonics.

58
Harmonic sources in • Characteristic harmonics of electric train

RES

59
 Harmonic resonance
• Harmonic resonance is aroused
through the interaction of capacitive
and inductive elements/parameters,
and excited by the current injection of
the nonlinear train.
Harmonic • Two conditions required to stimulate a
harmonic resonance are as follows:
sources in RES a) The system inductance and
capacitance match with each other at
some frequencies.
b) A harmonic source, connected to the
system, covers one or more of these
resonance frequencies.
60
61
 Harmonic resonance
• Resonance will amplify the injected harmonic current from
the train through the catenary network lines.
• Generally, harmonic resonances can be categorized as series
resonance and parallel resonance.
• Figure below shows that the capacitor is in parallel with the
Harmonic harmonic source.

sources in
RES

62
 Harmonic resonance
• If the harmonic current coming from
the non-linear load is near the parallel
resonance frequency between the
capacitance and inductance of the
overhead lines or transformers, then
Harmonic the harmonic may be magnified
significantly.
sources in RES • Series resonance between the
capacitance and grid inductance may
magnify background harmonic current
and worsen the harmonic current
distortion at point of common
coupling.

63
Harmonics and resonance
• Background harmonics – generated from aggravated harmonic
injections of available nonlinear devices connected to the utility
power system, eg,5th, 7th , 11th , and 13th .
• Characteristic harmonics – generated from the integer switching
frequencies of the PWM-controlled 4-quadrant converter of high-
speed train.
• Harmonic resonance – is aroused through the interaction of
capacitive and inductive elements, and excited by the current
injection of the nonlinear train.

64
Harmonic
and
resonance
problem in
traction
power
supply
system

65
Methods for harmonic mitigation
Delta-delta and delta-wye transformers
This configuration uses two separate utility feed transformers with
equal non-linear loads.
This shifts the phase relationship to various 6-pulse converters through
cancellation techniques.
Similar technique is also used in 12-pulse front end of the drive.

66
Methods for harmonic mitigation
Isolation transformers
An isolation transformer provides a good solution in many cases to
mitigate harmonics generated by nonlinear loads.
The isolation transformer provides a neutral grounding reference for
nuisance ground faults.
This approach suites to the application that use SCR as bridge rectifiers
for drives.

67
Methods for harmonic mitigation
Use of reactors
The use of reactor is a simple and cost-effective method to reduce the
harmonics produced by nonlinear loads and is a better solution for
harmonic reduction than an isolation transformer.
Reactors are usually used for VFD and available in a standard
impedance ranges such as 2%, 3%, 5%, and 7.5%.
The characteristics of reactor is useful in limiting the harmonic currents
produced by electrical VFD and other nonlinear loads.

68
Methods for harmonic mitigation
Passive harmonic filters (or line harmonic filters)
Passive filters are also known as harmonic trap filters.
It is used to eliminate a dominant lower order harmonics specifically
5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th .
The passive filter comprised of a passive L-C circuit which is tuned to a
specific harmonic frequency which needs to be mitigated.
Their operation relies on the “resonance phenomenon” which occurs
due to variations in frequency in inductors and capacitors.

69
Methods for harmonic mitigation
Passive harmonic filters (or line harmonic filters)
The resonant frequency for a series and parallel resonant circuit is:
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

70
Methods for harmonic mitigation
Passive harmonic filters (or line harmonic filters)
The passive filters are usually connected in parallel with nonlinear loads
as shown.

71
Methods for harmonic mitigation
Passive harmonic filters (or line harmonic filters)
Passive filters are susceptible to changes in source and load
impedances.
They attract harmonics from other sources. Hence, harmonic analysis
must be carried out to calculate their effectiveness and to explore
possibility of resonance in a power system.

72
Methods for harmonic mitigation
12-pulse converter front end
The front end of the bridge rectifier circuit uses 12-pulse diodes instead
of 6.
The advantages are the reduction of the 5th and 7th harmonics to a
higher order where the 11th and 13th become the predominant
harmonics.
This will minimize the magnitude of these harmonics but will not
eliminate them.

73
Methods for harmonic mitigation
12-pulse converter front end

74
Methods for harmonic mitigation
Active filters
Unlike passive filters, active filters do not present potential resonance
to the network and are unaffected to changes in source impedance.
Active filters comprised of IGBT bridge and DC bus architecture similar
to that seen in AC PWM drives.
The DC bus is used as an energy storage unit.

75
Methods for harmonic mitigation
Active filters
The active filter measures the distorted current wave shape and then
fed to the controller to generate the corresponding IGBT firing patterns
to replicate and generate the compensation current, which is injected
into the load in anti-phase (180 degree displaced) to compensate the
harmonic current.

76
 Quiz

Which of the following waveform indicates a harmonic distortion?

A. B.

C. D.

77
Electromagnetic
Interference
(EMI)

78
The Electromagnetic Fields
• EM fields consist of the electric field (E) and the magnetic
field (H).
• E is due to electric charge while H is due to electric current.
• E and H fields are related by the well known Maxwell’s Equations.

I  D = 
 B = 0
Conductor B
E E = −
H + t
-
V D
A current (flow of charge) Electric charges H = J +
produce electric field t
produces magnetic field

79
Electric and magnetic
fields

In general, the intensity of H and E at a

specific point in space depends on:
• current
• voltage
• frequency
Increasing any of these will
result in higher intensity of EM field.

80
 • Under static (dc) condition the E and H fields can
exist separately.
• Under time varying (ac) condition E and H fields are
intimately related. A changing E field results in a
changing H field and vice versa. This time varying
field may propagate through free space -
Electromagnetic wave.

Electromagnetic
Wave

81
The EM Wave
82
 The EM
Spectrum

83
84
Electromagnetic
Noise and
Disturbance

85
EM Noise

• Man-made noise is higher than most

naturally occurring noise (except local
lightning).
• Atmospheric noise is mainly due to
distant lightning discharges, occurring
around the earth almost continuously.

86
Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI)

• Electromagnetic emissions
from a device or system that
interfere with the normal
operation of another device or
system
• Also referred to as Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI)

87
• The EM environment is composed of both radiated and conducted
EM energy.
• At near field: Inductive and capacitive coupling.
• Coupling of EM energy from one electrical device to another may be
either intentional or unintentional.
• EMI refers to the unwanted effect of an electrical device towards
another device through exchange of radiated and conducted EM
energy.

88
Intentional and Unintentional
Emitters and Receptors

89
Elements of EMI
• For an EMI problem to exist:
✓System/Device that generates interference
✓System/Device that is susceptible to the interference
✓Coupling path

90
 • Reduce interference levels generated by culprit
• Increase the susceptibility (immunity) threshold of the victim
Mitigation of EMI • Reduce the effectiveness of the coupling path
Issues • Combination of the above

Source (Culprit) Coupling Path Receiver (Victim)

Modify Signal Routing Increase Separation Modify Signal Routing
Add Local Filtering Shielding Add Local Filtering
Operating Freq Selection Reduce No. of Interconnections Operating Freq Selection
Freq Dithering Filter Interconnections
Reduce Signal Level

91
EMI Paths

92
Coupling Paths: Conducted and Radiated

93
EMI in Railway System

94
 • Motors, generators, relays, and in general, any device that
switches large current.
• Voltage spike L di/dt can cause problems in another circuit
due to L of interconnecting wires (common-impedance
coupling)

EMI in Railway
System I
L L

M
Digital
Circuit

L L
95
 • Magnetic / electric field from coil / charge body --> hum
• Spark discharges and arcs - radiate EMP which is rich in
spectral content.
• High-frequency signal sources - radiation
• Binding posts and long pins act as dipole antennas.
• Current loops act as loop antennas.
EMI Sources • EMI source usually cannot be eliminated because, for
example, HF energy is required for fast processing in a PC.
• The undesired EMI coupling to other nearby electronic
system can be attenuated along the coupling path by a
suitable EMI reduction technique.

96
EMI Victims
• RF signal intentionally conducted or radiated from a telecommunication
transmitter may undesirably affect some devices - RFI. The emission must
be prevented from reaching the unintentional receiver.
• Inadvertent receptors are much less sensitive than intended receptors.
• Stray sources are much weaker than deliberate sources.
• EMI occur when receptor is near to source or when the EMI source is
strong.
• Reciprocity: design techniques that reduce emissions will also reduce
susceptibility.

97
Intra-System
and Inter-
System EMI

98
 • RF Reception
• Annoying noise
• Loss of sensitivity
• Jamming
• Data upset
• Data link disruption
• Control signal errors
• Power variations
Impact of EMI • Power levels outside range
• Sense line feedback errors
• Analog signal errors
• Measurement errors
• Signal-to-noise degradation
• Equipment damage
• Circuit malfunction
• Physical damage
99
TV RECEPTION: INTERFERENCE
• Two Interfering Signals Injected into TV.

100
Normal reception “Ghosting", double images of a TV program.
Poor signal reception
Caused by the TV signal being reflected off of
a tall building or mountains

TV RECEPTION INTERFERENCE
101
ELECTROSTATIC Interference (ESD)

103
Examples of Electromagnetic Interference

• Occurrence of “lines” across the face of a television screen can result

when blender, vacuum cleaner or other household device containing
a dc motor is turned on.
• Powered wheelchair reportedly drive off kerbs when police vehicles,
harbour patrol boats, or amateur radios were in the vicinity.
• In Germany, a particular make of car would stall on a stretch of
Autobahn opposite a high-power broadcast transmitter.
• When a piezo-electric lighter was lit near a car park barrier control
box, the barrier opened, and drivers were able to park free of charge.

104
 EMI MITIGATION
separation in SPACE
separation in TIME
separation in FREQUENCY

MINIMISING EMI:
1. Isolation (physical separation)
2. Limiting circuit bandwidth
3. Filtering
4. Grounding
5. Shielding
105
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

106
Electromagnetic Compatibility
(EMC)

• The ability of equipment or system to function satisfactorily in its

Electromagnetic Environment (EME) without introducing
intolerable electromagnetic disturbance to anything in that
environment
• The goal of EMC is the correct operation of different equipment in
a common electromagnetic environment.

107
 Ability of two or more electrical devices to
operate simultaneously without mutual
interference. An electronic system must ...

Be able to function properly in its

Electromagnetic intended electromagnetic environment -
Compatibility no intra-system interference.

(EMC) means:
Not be a source of electromagnetic
pollution to that environment.

Be able to tolerate a reasonable amount

of inflicted noise.
109
 How radio
transmitters
and electronic
systems can
interfere with
each other

110
Aspects of
EMC

111
Technology
changes

112
The pathway
towards EMC

113
 Trends of
Digital ICs -
Reduced
Immunity
Margin

114
Concerns for EMC
• Products that are susceptible to EMI cannot perform satisfactorily - less
attractive or competitive.
• Products that function acceptably but emit excessive amount of stray noise
may cause other equipment to malfunction - EMI emission must be
regulated by laws.
• IEC formed CISPR in 1934 to deal with emerging EMI problems.
Measurement techniques and recommended emission limits were
proposed.
• USA and some European countries adopted some publications of CISPR as
national standards. Some variations were made.
• Electronic products must meet the EMC requirements before they can be
advertised and marketed.

115
TYPICAL RAILWAY EMC ISSUES
• Touch voltage - high touch voltages usually lead to equipment malfunction or
failure, they also lead to electric shock.
• Traction package harmonics - modern traction packages cause very high order
harmonics of the main frequency. The high frequency can lead to crosstalk and
radiation problems.
• Feeding arrangements - the design of the feeding arrangements has a very great
effect on the EMC properties of the railway. The EMC properties of a particular
design can sometimes be forgotten when designers become focused on other
issues such as greater power transmission, mechanical reliability or lower cost.
• Harmonics, flicker and unbalance - both AC and DC railways are not an ideal
load for an electricity supply network operator. Significant disturbance can be
created to the electricity supply if planning rules are not followed.
116
TYPICAL RAILWAY EMC ISSUES
• Signalling and communications equipment - the frequencies and field strengths
that signalling and communication equipment require should be planned so that
sufficient EMC is allowed between them and known harmonic frequencies from
traction arrangements.
• Cable management; various types of cables are usually laid down next to each
other. These include high and low voltage cables, data cables and signalling and
telecommunications cables. Data corruption in sensitive cables can occur due to
nearby high-voltage cables.
• Zoning and equipment approvals; making sure that equipment supplied is
approved, compliant and suitable for use. Note that Network Rail PADS is not
in itself sufficient for ‘proving’ EMC.

117
The EM
interactions
between electric
multiple units
(EMU) and on-
board train
control system

118
Structure
diagram of the
on-board train
control system
and layout

119
Measurement setup and the result
of the pantograph arcing
Communication signals

121
Symptoms of Bad EMC
• Crosstalk between traces in printed circuit board (PCB).
• Ringing of digital signals.
• False triggering of digital logic circuits.
• Excessive noise at circuit, for instance at amplifiers.
• Excessive conducted and radiated emission.
• Unstable system performance, system integrity depends
• on environment.

122
Damage of CCTV located beside the OCL
123
Mitigation Approaches
• System Approach
• Proper circuit layout and grounding (source, victim, space) - Design for
Emission Control and Design for Immunity.
• Defensive programming and system design (time & Frequency, eg. TDM &
FDM).
• Components selection.
• Filtering and screening of cables, interfaces.
• Shielding.
• Crisis Approach
• Hand-wired bypass capacitors.
• Application of shielding “bandage”.

124
 125

EMC Analysis
Methods
Circuit Theory Approach

126
 • All products are designed to function in their
intended electromagnetic environment, and they
must not unduly pollute the environment.
Practical • EMC concerns with not only the functionality of
the equipment but also on its reliability.
Product • The reliability specifications may include the
Design ability to tolerate electrostatic discharge,
electrical fast transient, surge, voltage
dip/interruption/ variation, and radiated EMI.
• Emission of unintentional EM wave must be
limited.

127
The EMC Challenges • Increasing features in equipment (or
complexity)
• Better performance (functional and
reliability)
• Higher speed (in digital processing)
• Lower cost
• Miniature size (more compact design)

128
Incorporating EMC into Addressing EMC issues...
• Addressing EMC early in the product development
cycle is easier and more cost effective.
• Packaging and circuit layout are subjected to fewest
constraints.

Why EMC is not widely appreciated…

• Most designers favour digital than analog.
• Unfamiliarity with EM and circuit theory.
Design

• Perceived EMC as a cost rather than benefit.

129
 • The control of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and assurance
of EMC comprises a series of related disciplines:
• Characterizing the threat.
• Setting standards for emission and susceptibility levels.
• Design for standards compliance.
• Testing for standards compliance.
EMC Control
Plan • Characterization of the problem requires understanding of:
• The interference source and signal.
• The coupling path to the victim.
• The nature of the victim both electrically and in terms of the
significance of malfunction.

130
 EMC
Management
Plan
 The first thing to do is ….

• Identify the EMI source: intentional signal

source to one use is unintentional to
another
Design of EMC • identify the coupling path: through air,
transmission line
• identify the victim: which part of the circuit
gives rise to the interference phenomena

132
Design Process
 Starts with a System/Device Specification
- Describes the applicable EMC Requirement(s)
 Develop and Implement an EMC Control Plan
- Details EMC Requirements and clarifies interpretation
- Lists applicable documents
- Defines management approach
- Defines the design procedures/techniques
- EMC design is most efficiently accomplished when considered
early in the program
 Process Example
- Intended for large railway system
- Can easily be tailored for smaller system or a single device.

133
 • Management and Control Plan
• Risk Assessment
EMC Design • Procurement Review
• Design Review and Cable Studies
Documentation
• Test Reports (on-Site test and Laboratory)
for Rail Projects
• Final Compliant Documentation
• Timelines

134
 EMC Design Flow Diagram

System/Devi • EMC Engineer may need to be involved with

SOW and/or specification prior to contract
ce award.
Specificatio
n

Generate • EMC Requirements from System/Device

Specification and clarifies interpretation
EMC/EMI
• Summarize applicable documents, specifications
Control Plan and standards
• EMC Program Organization and Responsibilities
• Defines design procedures and techniques

Mechanical Design Electrical Design System Design

Chassis/ Bonding Hardware PWB Layout Power Signal

Enclosure and Partitioning and Conversion Distribution
and Location Construction and
Grounding Distribution
• Shielding • Micro-strip, • Single Ended,
• Single vs. Multi
• Material stripline • Conversion Differential
Point Ground • Number of layers • Logic Family
Selection Topology Linear,
• Chassis • System functional • Ground layers • Connector Selection
• Gasketing Resonant, PWM
component allocation
• Covers • Separation of • Connector Filter/Non-Filter
bonding • Separation of analog, RF, Selection • Filter location/type
analog, RF, digital and power Filter/Non-Filter • Cable harnessing and
digital and power
• Filter shielding
location/type • Signal Spectrum
135
Typical EMC Engineer’s Involvement
 Prepare EMC Section of Proposal Pre-Award
 Contract/SOW Review and Recommendations
 Interference Prediction Design
 Design Testing
 Interference Control Design
 Preparation of EMC Control Plan
 Subcontractor and Vendor EMC Control
 Internal Electrical and Mechanical Design Reviews
 EMC Design Reviews with the Customer
 Interference Testing of Critical Items
 Amend the EMC Control Plan, as Necessary
 Liaison with Manufacturing Manufacture
 In-Process Inspection During Manufacturing
 Preparation of EMC Test Plan/Procedure Test
 Performance of EMC Qualification Tests
 Redesign and Retest where Necessary
 Preparation and Submittal of EMC Test Report
or Declaration
136
 International CISPR 11 (IEC 61000-3-11): ISM equipment
(CE) EMC CISPR 12 (IEC 61000-3-12): Spark ignition engines
Emission
CISPR 13 (IEC 61000-3-13): TV receivers and audio
Standards equipment
CISPR 14 (IEC 61000-3-14): Electrical motor operated
and thermal appliances,
electric tools and similar
137 apparatus
CISPR 15 (IEC 61000-3-15): Electrical lighting and
similar equipment
CISPR 16 (IEC 61000-3-16): CISPR measurement
methods and apparatus
CISPR 19 (IEC 61000-3-19): Microwave ovens
CISPR 22 (IEC 61000-3-22): Information technology
 • IEC 61000-4-2 Electrostatic discharge (ESD)
• IEC 61000-4-3 Radiated EM Field

IEC Immunity • IEC 61000-4-4 Fast transient/burst

• IEC 61000-4-5 Surge
Standards • IEC 61000-4-6 Conducted disturbance
• IEC 61000-4-11 Supply dips and variations

138
 139

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