EE 467 – POWER SYSTEMS

OPERATION AND CONTROL

Section 3: Voltage Control And

Reactive Power Management

Dr. E. K. Anto
Objectives
 Understand the concept of automatic excitation
(AEC),
 Understand the dependence of power system voltage
and losses on reactive (or VAR) power flows
 Appreciate how reactive power flows affect voltage
profile or regulation
 Appreciate the method of compensation adopted to
minimize flow of reactive power in transmission lines,
 Understand how to decongest transmission lines or
increase transmission capacity, as well as reduce losses
 Solve examples on reactive power flows in lines, and
voltage regulation
3.1: Control of Voltage
Itis an issue of reactive power balance between
generation & demand

The voltage control at the generating station is

achieved by means of automatic excitation
control (AEC), also referred to as automatic
generation control (AGC)of the individual
generators.

A typical AEC system is shown in the figure

below
ReactivePower Management
in Generation System
3.2 The AEC System

 The generator bus voltage is sensed and compared in a

voltage sensor-comparator with the reference voltage
 The error voltage given by
 This is amplified by the transducer and sent on as an
actuating signal to the field current source.
ReactivePower Management
in Transmission System
3.3 Voltage Regulation-Control of
Reactive Line Power Flows
 Refer to the deduced reactive power flow equations
2
V 1  V 1 V 2 cos  V 1
Q1   V 1  V 2 cos  
X X

 Deductions
 The reactive line power flow on a line depends in magnitude
and direction on the difference in magnitudes of the end-
point voltages
 The reactive line power flow tends to be from higher to
lower voltage, and the greater the voltage difference, the
stronger the flow.
 Line reactive power flows thus cause voltage regulation
problems
3.4 Example 1: Reactive power
flows calculations
 Let us refer to Example 2.1 and study the reactive
power flow in a transmission line of impedance
0.2041 p.u., where a real power flow of 100 MW
(1.00 p.u) was transmitted.

 Let us treat the following three cases:

 (i) V1  V2  1.00 pu (flat voltage profile)

 (ii) and
 (iii) and
3.4.1 Solution 1: Reactive power flows
calculations
 (i) The power angle  = 11.780 had earlier been computed

Applying the equations,

3.4.1 Solution 1: Reactive power flows
calculations (2)
 ii) For the different voltage levels at sending- and
receiving-end, we first recompute the new load angle
from the equation:

 Having calculated the new load angle, the new reactive

power flows as a result of the voltage levels would be
calculated
3.4.1 Solution 1: Reactive power flows
calculations (3)
 (iii)
Even though voltage levels at sending- and receiving-
ends are different, the load angle will be the same as in (ii).
 The new reactive power flows are

Notes:
(a) The signs of the reactive power flows in (iii) have
changed to negative, compared to (ii)
(b) That is, reactive power flow is now flowing from bus 2
(with higher voltage of 1.20 pu) to bus 1 (with lower
voltage of 1.00 pu)
3.5 Summary on VAR Flows
 VARs are required in an AC power system due to
capacitive and inductive reactances of power system
transmission lines, equipment and customer loads.
 VARs in excess of those required to satisfy circuit
requirements represent an incremental power loss
in the system.
 VAR-generating sources (e.g. capacitors)can be used
to limit VAR flows and to control voltages on
station buses – concept of compensation
 Proper selection of transformer taps at
interconnected stations will minimize VAR flows
between the stations and reduce the attendant drops
and losses.
3.5 Summary on VAR Flows (2)
 Ifproper reactive power balance can be maintained, the
voltage profile will remain controlled.

 However, if the proper reactive power balance is not

maintained, the voltage profile will drift (just like the
frequency will drift if real power balance is not maintained).

 The voltage change as a result of reactive power imbalance

is particularly noticeable during night hours.

 The reason is that, the reactive generation in the shunt

capacitors of the lines tend to provide a reactive power surplus
(during the day hours; and this reactive power is consumed in
the motor loads). Consequently, the bus voltages tend to
increase.
3.6 Voltage Control in
Interconnection System
 Besides the control of the real power flow in the line,
there is the issue of voltage regulation in the
interconnected system network or of the alternator
terminal.
 As previously analysed, there is a strong correlation
between the reactive line power flows and voltage
magnitudes.
 The reactive power flows in the power system always
cause an increase in losses in the system.
 Refer
3.6 Voltage Control in
Interconnection System (2)
At heavy loads on a line, the losses due to
VAR flows can become very significant.
In addition, as a result of the increased
VAR flows, the voltage drop due to the
line impedance is greater, and so
voltage regulation is poor or voltage
control is disturbed.
3.7 Ferranti Effect – Voltage rise at
end of long lines
 The inductance of a line is distributed throughout its length,
 Also, capacitance exists between conductors (line
capacitance) and also between conductors and ground
(referred to as ground or earth capacitance).
 Due to the line and ground capacitances, a capacitive
VAR input is required in a line of appreciable length,
even with unity-power-factor load, to supply the charging
current of the line
 Under normal load, there must be a supply-demand balance
of reactive power at the load bus.
 At the receiving-end of a long line, a sizeable amount of
VAR is impinged upon the load bus, made up mainly of the
line and ground capacitances, as well as those to meet the
reactive load demand.
3.7 Ferranti Effect – Voltage rise at
end of long lines (2)
 At light loading times (say, during the night), the
demand reduces at the receiving-end bus
 But the line and ground capacitances continue to
impinge VARs at the receiving-end bus, leading to a
voltage increase at the bus.
 This phenomenon of voltage rise at the end of a ling
transmission line during light load conditions on account
of impinging of excess VARs, is called Ferranti Effect.
 To reduce the Ferranti-induced voltage rise, the
excess VARs must be absorbed using reactors.
 This explains why reactors are used as compensating
devices usually at the end of long lines to regulate the
voltage during light-loading conditions.
3.8 Reactive Power Compensations
 For effective voltage control, there is the need for reactive-
power regulating devices (generating or absorbing) that
compensate for a controllable generation, reception and
reallocation of the reactive power.
 The controllable generation and reception of reactive power
is attained by means of generators and synchronous
compensators.
 Capacitor banks are used to provide for the controllable
generation of reactive power only.
 In addition to generators and synchronous compensators, use is
made of reactors in the case of the controllable reactive
power reception.
 The controllable reallocation of reactive power is carried out
by means of supply transformers equipped with automatic on-
load tap changing facilities, and line regulators
3.8.1 Compensating Equipment and
Their Purposes
3.8.2 Summary of Location and
Purpose of Reactive Compensation
3.9 Voltage Drop in Interconnected
System
 The voltage drop in the interconnection system may be
accommodated in a number of ways. These include

1). Adjusting the substation busbar voltages (through increased

excitation of the generator field windings) This method, however,
has the disadvantage that, the loads connected to those busbars
whose voltages have been adjusted, will be affected.

2). Use of automatic on-load tap-changing facility for power

transformers in the interconnection systems

3). Employing a synchronous phase modifier to adjust the

relative phase of the voltages at the sending and receiving end of
the interconnector link,
3.10 Voltage Regulation at Alternator
Terminal
The following accounts for the deviation
of the alternator terminal voltage from
its normal value:

 Change in speed of the alternator

 Variations of the load of the alternator
 Change of power factor of the load, etc.
Reactive Power Management
in Distribution System
3.11 Power Factor Correction –
Reactive Power Control
 The following are some of the causes of low power factor:

1). All AC motors (except overexcited synchronous motors and

certain types of commutator motors) and transformers operate at
lagging power factor.
2). Due to typical characteristics of the arc, arc lamps operate at
low p.f.
3). Arc and induction furnaces etc., operate at a very low lagging
p.f.
4). Due to improper maintenance and repairs of motors, the p.f
at which motors operate fall.
5). When there is increase in supply voltage, which usually occurs
during light load periods, the magnetising current of inductive
reactances increase and the p.f. of the electrical plant as a whole
decreases.
3.11.1 Power Factor Correction Using
Capacitor Banks
 If for a given load, the phase angle between the current
is to be reduced from to , the capacitor must provide
a leading current of magnitude equal to the reactive
component to neutralize this lagging component.
3.11.2 Power Factor Correction Using
Synchronous Motor (SM)
Besides being used as a power factor-correcting
device, the synchronous motor has the added
advantage of driving a load.
Consider a typical Example 2.
 The machining operations in an industrial plant require 500
kW at 0.5 lagging.
(a) What is the required kVA rating of a capacitor to improve
the power factor to 0.9?
(b) If a 500-hp 89% efficient synchronous motor operating at
0.8 leading pf is installed in place of the capacitor, calculate the:
(i) synchronous motor kVA rating
(ii) resulting or overall kVA of the system
(iii) resulting pf of the system
3.11.2 Power Factor Correction Using
SM – Solution 2
Solution (a)

 Thus kVA rating of the capacitor = 624 kVA

3.11.2 Power Factor Correction Using
SM – Solution (2)
Solution (b)(i)

Power intake by motor

 Thus kVA rating of the synchronous motor = 524

kVA
3.11.2 Power Factor Correction Using
SM – Solution (3)
 Solution (b)(ii)

 Reactivelagging power intake by the plant before correction

by synchronous motor is

 The leading reactive power supplied by the synchronous

motor is

 Hence the lagging kVAr allowed after correction by

synchronous motor is
3.11.2 Power Factor Correction Using
SM – Solution (4)
 Solution (b)(ii)&(iii)

 The synchronous motor does extra work and must draw

power from the system. And so with the installation of the
synchronous motor, the total power intake of the overall
system is
 Thus the overall or resulting kVA of the system is

 The resulting (improved) power factor of the system is

3.12 Exercises
 1) A 110-kV transmission line between towns A and B, and
having a reactance of 25 ohms per phase transmits 260 MW
of power. Determine the reactive line flows for the
following voltage profiles:
 (i) V A  V B  110 kV
 (ii) and
 (iii) and
 2) Explain the principle of Ferranti Effect.
 3) State where and why series and shunt compensations
are applied in a power system.
 Give THREE causes of poor power factor in a power system
 5) Outline THREE methods of voltage control in a
power system
3.12 Exervises (2)
 6) A simple 2-bus power system having a line reactance
of between the buses has two synchronous
generators at the buses and share the active load equally.
If the two buses are maintained at voltage profiles of
and and the load demand at the buses
are:

(i) What is the power angle of the line?

(ii) Find the reactive flows and in each end of the line
(iii) Determine the reactive generations and .
End of Section 3