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Contents

2.1 Power systems

2.2 Sensors
2.2.1 Types of sensors
2.3 Actuators
- Electromechanical actuators
- Electrical drive actuators
- Piezoelectric actuators
- Hydraulic actuators
- Pneumatic actuators
- MEMS

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Introduction to Power Systems
❑Power systems: are used to transmit and control power.

The following are the basic parts of a power system.

1. Source of energy, delivering mechanical power of rotary motion.

Electric motors and internal combustion engines (ICE) are the most
commonly used power sources. For special applications, steam
turbines, gas turbines, or hydraulic turbines are used.

2. Energy transmission, transformation, and control elements.

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Introduction to Power Systems
3. Load requiring mechanical power of either rotary or linear motion.
Classification of power systems
❑ In engineering applications, there exist different types of power systems:
mechanical, electrical, and fluid.

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1. Mechanical Power Systems
• The mechanical power systems use mechanical elements to transmit and
control the mechanical power.
• The drive train of a small car is a typical example of a mechanical power
system. The gearbox is connected to the engine through the clutch the
input.

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1. Mechanical Power Systems

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2. Electrical Power Systems
❑ These systems offer advantages such as high flexibility and a very
long power transmission distance, but they produce mainly rotary
motion.
❑ Rectilinear motion, of high power, can be obtained by converting the
rotary motion into rectilinear motion by using a suitable gear.
❑ An electric motor converts electricity into mechanical energy,
providing a power source for machinery. But, an electric generator
converts mechanical energy into electricity.

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3. Hydraulic Power Systems
❑ The hydraulic power systems transmit mechanical power by increasing the energy
of hydraulic liquids.
❑ Two types of hydraulic power systems are used: hydrodynamic and hydrostatic.
❑ Hydrodynamic (also called hydrokinetic) power systems transmit power by
increasing mainly the kinetic energy of liquid.
❑ Generally, these systems include a hydrodynamic pump, a turbine, and additional
control elements. The applications of hydrodynamic power systems are limited to
rotary motion

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3. Hydraulic Power Systems
❑ In the hydrostatic power systems, the power is transmitted by increasing
mainly the pressure energy of liquid. These systems are widely used in
industry, mobile equipment, aircrafts, ship control, and others.
❑ The hydrostatic power systems, which are commonly called hydraulic
power systems.

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Components of Hydraulic Systems
Elements of Hydraulic System:

• A movable piston connected to the output shaft in an enclosed cylinder

• storage tank
• Filter
• electric pump
• pressure regulator
• control valve
• leakproof closed loop piping.

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Components of Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic Pumps:
The combined pumping and driving motor unit is known as a hydraulic pump.
They can be of two types:
1. Centrifugal pumps: Centrifugal pump uses rotational kinetic energy to
deliver the fluid.
The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or electric motor.

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Components of Hydraulic Systems
2. Reciprocating pumps: The reciprocating pump is a positive plunger
pump.
• It is also known as positive displacement pump or piston pump. It is
often used where relatively small quantity is to be handled and the
delivery pressure is quite large. The construction of these pumps is
similar to the four-stroke engine.

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Components of Hydraulic Systems
• Hydraulic cylinder is a linear actuator which extend forward and retract
backward to transfer power by pressurized hydraulic fluid.
• Basic hydraulic system pneumatic system components Hydraulic
cylinder are consist of two main elements is barrel and piston attached
piston rod. There are also other elements like Rod end port, cap end port,
piston seal, tie rod, O-ring, Rod seal etc.

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Components of Hydraulic Systems

Fig: The schematic diagram of a simple hydraulic system

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 Hydraulic Systems – Working Principle

Hydraulic
System
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Advantages and disadvantages of Hydraulic Systems
Advantages of Hydraulic Systems:
• The hydraulic system uses incompressible fluid which results
in higher efficiency.
• It delivers consistent power output which is difficult in
pneumatic or mechanical drive systems.
• Hydraulic systems employ high-density incompressible fluid.
The possibility of leakage is less in a hydraulic system as
compared to that in a pneumatic system.
• The maintenance cost is less.
• These systems perform well in hot environmental conditions.
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Advantages and disadvantages of Hydraulic Systems
Disadvantages of Hydraulic Systems:
• The material of storage tank, piping, cylinder, and piston can be corroded
with the hydraulic fluid. Therefore one must be careful while selecting
materials and hydraulic fluid.
• The small impurities in the hydraulic fluid can permanently damage the
complete system, therefore one should be careful and suitable filter must
be installed.
• The leakage of hydraulic fluid is also a critical issue and suitable
prevention method and seals must be adopted.

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4. Pneumatic Power Systems
❑ Pneumatic systems are power systems using compressed air as a working
medium for the power transmission. Their principle of operation is
similar to that of electric power systems.
❑ The air compressor converts the mechanical energy of the prime mover
into mainly pressure energy of compressed air.
❑ This transformation facilitates the transmission and control of power. An
air preparation process is needed to prepare the compressed air for use.

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4. Pneumatic Power Systems
❑ The air preparation includes filtration, drying, and the adding of
lubricating oil mist. The compressed air is stored in the compressed air
reservoirs and transmitted through rigid and/or flexible lines.
❑ The pneumatic power is controlled by means of a set of pressure, flow,
and directional control valves. Then, it is converted to the required
mechanical power by means of pneumatic cylinders and motors
(expanders).

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Components of Pneumatic System: Air preparation

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Components of pneumatic Systems

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 Pneumatic System

Video

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Pneumatic cylinders

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Pneumatic cylinders

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Pneumatic Directional Control Valve

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Advantages and disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems
Advantages of Pneumatic Systems:
• Its design is simple.
• Efficient and High effectiveness.
• Availability of source is infinite.
• High reliability & durability.
• Safety aspects.
• Economical.
• Air can be stored.
• Simple selection of pressure & speed.
• Eco friendly.

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Advantages and disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems
Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems:
• Relatively low accuracy.
• Low loading.
• The processing required before use.
• Uneven moving speed.
• Needs air-producing equipment installation.
• Easy to leak.
• Less operating pressure.
• Simple condenses.

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Difference between Pneumatic and Hydraulic System
Pneumatic System
• The pneumatic system works
through air or gas.
• It generates less power.
• Simple to operate.
• Maintenance is easy.
• Initial & operating cost is less.
• Simple complexity.
• Excellent reliability.
• Less size.
• Fast speed
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Hydraulic System
• The hydraulic system works
through the fluid.
• It generates more power.
• Not simple to operate.
• Maintenance is not easy.
• Initial & operating cost is high.
• Medium complexity
• Good reliability.
• Very less size.
• Speed is slow.
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 Hydraulic Cylinder Force Calculation Formula

To calculate hydraulic cylinder force, multiply your cylinder’s

Pressure PSI(N/𝑚2 ) by the effective area (A) to determine force
(F):

F=PxA

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 Hydraulic Cylinder Force Calculation Formula
Example:
Hydraulic cylinder achieves a pressure of 10,000 psi. and, the
diameter of piston is 2.56”. Calculate the force applied on
cylinder.

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 Hydraulic Cylinder Force Calculation Formula
Example:
Hydraulic cylinder achieves a pressure of 10,000 psi. and, the
diameter of piston is 2.56”. Calculate the force applied on
cylinder.
Solution
F = PxA = ……….

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 Sensors

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Introduction to Sensors
In virtually every engineering application there is the need to measure
some physical quantities, such as displacements, speeds, forces, pressures,
temperatures, stresses, flows, and so on.

These measurements are performed using physical devices called sensors,

which are capable of converting a physical quantity to a more readily
manipulated electrical quantity.

Most sensors work by converting some physical parameter such as

temperature or position into an electrical signal.
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Introduction to Sensors
❑Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical phenomenon (temperature,
displacement, force, etc.) produces a proportional output signal (electrical, mechanical,
magnetic, etc.).

Physical Measurement
phenomenon Output

❑The term transducer is often used synonymously with sensors. However,

ideally, a sensor is a device that responds to a change in the physical
phenomenon.

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Introduction to Sensors
❑On the other hand, a transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another
form of energy.

❑Sensors are transducers when they sense one form of energy input and output in a
different form of energy.

❑For example, a thermocouple responds to a temperature change (thermal energy) and

outputs a proportional change in electromotive force (electrical energy). Therefore, a
thermocouple can be called a sensor and/or transducer.

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Terminologies of Sensor selection criteria
- Difference between the maximum and minimum value of the
sensed parameter
-The smallest change the sensor can differentiate
- Difference between the measured value and the true value
- Ability to reproduce repeatedly with a given accuracy
- Ratio of change in output to a unit change of the input
- A nonzero value output for no input
- The time lag between the input and output
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Sensor selection criteria
The frequency range between the lower and upper cutoff
frequencies.
The relationship between physical input signal and
electrical output signal.
- The range in which the sensor performs as specified.
- The range of input for which there is no output.
random fluctuation in the value of input that causes random fluctuation
in the output value.
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Types of Sensor
1. Acceleration Sensors
• Measurement of acceleration is important for systems subject to shock and
vibration. Although acceleration can be derived from the time history data
obtainable from linear or rotary sensors, the accelerometers whose output
is directly proportional to the acceleration is preferred.
• Two common types include the seismic mass type and the piezoelectric
accelerometer.

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Types of Sensor
• The seismic mass type accelerometer is based on the relative
motion between a mass and the supporting structure. The natural
frequency of the seismic mass limits its use to low to medium
frequency applications.
• The piezoelectric accelerometer is compact and more suitable for
high frequency applications.

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Types of Sensor
2. Pressure Sensors
• Pressure is defined as the force per unit area that one
material exerts on another.
• Pressure is exerted on the side walls of the container as
well as the bottom.
• Pressure sensors usually consist of two parts: The first
converts pressure to a force or displacement, and the
second converts the force or displacement to an electrical
signal.

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Types of Sensor
2. Pressure Sensors
• Pressure measurements are made only for gases and liquids.
The simplest pressure measurement yields a gauge pressure,
which is the difference between the measured pressure and
ambient pressure.
• At sea level, ambient pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure and is assumed to be 101.3 kilo Pascals (kPa).

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Types of Sensor
TYPES OF PRESSURE SENSOR

• Pressure sensors can be classified in terms of pressure ranges they

measure, temperature ranges of operation, and most importantly the type of
pressure they measure.
• Pressure sensors are variously named according to their purpose, but the
same technology may be used under different names

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Types of Sensor
1. Absolute pressure sensor– A sensor that measures input pressure in
relation to a zero pressure. For the Absolute Pressure Sensor it is obvious
that the pressure range needs to be greater than 115 kPa in order to exceed
the Zero Pressure Level of anywhere.
Use the absolute pressure sensor to calculate altitude.
The equation for converting pressure to altitude is:

 Pr essure 
Altitude = −26,216  ln 
 Zero Pr essureLevel 
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Types of Sensor
• Differ with gauge pressure which measure
pressure in the open atmosphere, the absolute
pressure should be measured in a relative
vacuum.
• Before measurement, if we call the vacuum as
reference point, so all absolute pressure we
measured will be bigger than the reference
point.
• On the other hand, we need to find way to
guarantee the measurement accuracy, so all
factors that can affect the precision need to be
taken into consideration.

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Types of Sensor
MPX4115 Absolute Pressure Sensor
Features
• Pressure Range From 0 to 115 kPa.
• 1.5% Maximum Error over 0 to 85 C.
• Ideally suited for Microprocessor or Microcontroller-Based
Systems.
• Temperature Compensated Over – 40 to +125 C.
• Maximum Power Rating of 50MW.
• High Sensitivity of 46 mv/kPa.

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Types of Sensor
2. Differential pressure sensor – A sensor that is designed to accept
simultaneously two independent pressure sources. The output is proportional
to the difference between the two sources.
• We will use the differential pressure sensor to calculate indicated airspeed.
• From pressure difference we can calculate air speed: The equation for
converting the pressure difference to airspeed is:

2  Dynamic Pr essure
Velocity = 2.237 
Density
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Types of Sensor
MPX5050D Differential Pressure Sensor
Features
• Pressure Range From 0 to 50 kPa
• 2.5% Maximum Error over 0 to 85 C
• Ideally suited for Microprocessor or Microcontroller-Based
Systems
• Temperature Compensated Over – 40 to +125 C
• Maximum Power Rating of 50 MW
• High Sensitivity of 90 mv/kPa that would be able to measure
velocity from 0-640 MPH
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Types of Sensor
Measuring principle of pressure sensor

Bourdon Tubes:
• A Bourdon tube is a short bent tube,
closed at one end. When the tube is
pressurized, it tends to straighten out. This
motion is proportional to the applied
pressure.

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Types of Sensor

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Types of Sensor
Force collector type - Pressure Transducer:
• These types of electronic pressure sensors generally use a
force collector (such a diaphragm, piston, bourdon tube, or
bellows) to measure strain (or deflection) due to applied force
over an area (pressure).

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Types of Sensor
Force collector type - Pressure Transducer:
• To calculate pressure, the pressure transducer contains a force
collector such as a flexible diaphragm which deforms when
pressurized and a transduction element that transforms this
deformation into an electrical signal.
• The shape and methods of transductions are optimized to the
requirements of the process that is being measured.

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Types of Sensor
3. Temperature sensor
• Temperature sensors give an output proportional to temperature.
• Most temperature sensors have a positive temperature
coefficient (desirable), which means that the sensor output goes
up as the temperature goes up.
• But some sensors have a negative temperature coefficient, which
means that the output goes down as the temperature goes up.

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Types of Sensor
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors
• The bimetallic temperature sensor consists of a bimetallic strip
wound into a spiral.
• The bimetallic strip is a laminate of two metals with different
coefficients of thermal expansion.
• As the temperature rises, the metal on the inside expands more
than the metal on the outside and the spiral tends to straighten out.
• These sensors are typically used for on-off control.
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Types of Sensor
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors: Bimetallic Thermometer

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Types of Sensor
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors: Bimetallic Thermometer
• Bimetallic thermometer consists of a
bimetallic strip , which
• Is constructed by bonding together
with two thin strips of two different
metals, such that, they cannot move
relative to each other.
• As the temperature applied to the strip
increases, there will be deflection of
free end of strip.
• Length of both metals will change
according to their individual coefficient
of thermal expansion.
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Types of Sensor
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors: Bimetallic Thermometer
Helix Type Bimetallic Thermometer
• Operating range: 30𝑜 𝐶 to 300𝑜 𝐶
• Bimetallic strip is wound in the form of helix.
• One end of helix is fastened to the casing of bulb
and another end is connected to pointer.
• When the bimetallic helix is heated, difference in
thermal expansion of metal causes it to unwound.
• Due to this, pointer moves or sweeps over a circular
scale to indicate the measured value of temperature.
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Types of Sensor
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors: Bimetallic Thermometer
Helix Type Bimetallic Thermometer

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Types of Sensor
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors: Bimetallic Thermometer
SPIRAL Type Bimetallic Thermometer
• Operating range: 30𝑜 𝐶 to 550𝑜 𝐶
• The spiral bimetallic element is attached to the
pointer mounted in housing with a scale.
• When the spiral bimetal is heated, it bends in the
direction of metal having low thermal coefficient of
expansion, rotates in clockwise direction.
• Thus, the pointer attached to it also moves on
calibrated scale, indicating the temperature reading.
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Types of Sensor
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors: Bimetallic Thermometer
SPIRAL Type Bimetallic Thermometer

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Types of Sensor

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Types of Sensor

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Types of Sensor

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Types of Sensor
Thermocouples
• A thermocouple is a device which is used to measure
temperature.
• It is essentially one of the temperature measurement sensors.
• It is used in all the industries where the control of
temperature or heat flow is required for the processes.

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Types of Sensor
Thermocouples - Application areas:
• Industries such as; chemical, • Also, used in regular everyday
process, oil and gas, metal appliances like stove, toasters,
extraction, petroleum, furnace etc.
petrochemical, pharmaceuticals,
cement, glass, ceramics, power
generation, paper and pulp and etc.

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Types of Sensor
Thermocouples
• Thermocouples are the most versatile, inexpensive, and have a
wide range (up to 1200 ˚C typical).
• A thermocouple simply consists of two dissimilar metal wires
joined at the ends to create the sensing junction.
• When used in conjunction with a reference junction, the
temperature difference between the reference junction and the
actual temperature shows up as a voltage potential.
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Types of Sensor

Principle of Thermocouple

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Types of Sensor
Working of Thermocouple
• The dissimilar metal wires in the thermocouple are
joined to form a junction. Joining them completes a
thermoelectric circuit. When the temperature at the
junction will increase then a current is produced.
• The junction at which temperature increases is called
the hot junction and there is one more junction at the
other end called cold junction. The cold junction will
also have a certain temperature.

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Types of Sensor
Working of Thermocouple
• Essentially there is a temperature difference in the circuit. The heat
flows from the hot side to the cold side, at an atomic scale the
charge carriers also diffuse from hot end to cold end.
• It means the temperature difference has created a voltage in the
circuit.
• The relationship between voltage and temperature difference can
be quantified and the thermocouple calibrated for use.

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Types of Sensor
Types of Thermocouple

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Types of Sensor
Advantages of thermocouple
▪ Simple
▪ High temperature operation
▪ Low cost
▪ Point temperature sensing
▪ Fastest response to
temperature changes
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Disadvantages of thermocouple
▪ Low sensitivity to small
temperature changes
▪ Wire may pick up radiated
electrical noise if not shielded
▪ Lowest accuracy
▪ It requires reference and
recalibration is difficult.
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Types of Sensor
Thermistors
• The word “Thermistor” is a combination of the words “Thermal” and
“resistor“.
• A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance changes with the
change in temperature.
• It is a passive component that does not require an extra power source to
operate. They are inexpensive and accurate in measuring temperature.
But they do not operate well in extreme conditions such as very high or
very low temperatures.

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Types of Sensor
Thermistors
• Temperature plays a vital role in the operation of any electronic circuit.
• Each electronic component has its thermal limit and safe operating
temperature range that needs to be maintained for smooth and precise
operation.
• To monitor the temperature, various sensors are used where a
thermistor is an efficient and cost-effective solution.

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Types of Sensor
Thermistors: Types

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Types of Sensor
Thermistors: Working
• The thermistor is used for measuring temperature. The working
principle behind the temperature measurement is its resistance.
• A thermistor is made of semiconductor material whose resistance
greatly depends on the surrounding temperature.
• They significantly vary with the temperature.
• Depending on the material used, the resistance may either increase
or decrease with an increase in temperature called the PTC and
NTC thermistor.
• This change in resistance can be calibrated and measured to
calculate the exact temperature of the environment in a circuit.

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Types of Sensor
Thermistors: Types of Thermistor
There are two types of thermistors
• PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor
• NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor
To understand the basic difference between PTC and NTC
thermistors we can use this linear equation for the relation between
the change in temperature and resistance.
dR = k dT

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Types of Sensor
Thermistors

• dR = Change in resistance
• k = Temperature Coefficient
• dT = Change in Temperature

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Types of Sensor
Thermistors
• They are good for very high sensitivity measurements in a limited
range of up to 100 ̊C.
• The relationship between the temperature and the resistance is
nonlinear.

Resistance
(Ohms)
Temperature (oC)
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Types of Sensor
Advantages of thermistors Disadvantages of thermistors

• High sensitivity to small • Limited temperature

temperature changes range
• Temperature • Some initial accuracy
measurements become “drift”
more stable with use • De-calibration if used
• Copper or nickel beyond the sensor’s
extension wires can be temperature ratings
used

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Types of Sensor
Infrared type sensors: An infrared (IR) sensor is an electronic device used
to measure and detect infrared radiation in its surrounding environment.
Infrared radiation - also known as infrared light - refers to electromagnetic
radiation that has wavelengths longer than those of visible light.
VCC - Voltage Common Collector

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Types of Sensor
Infrared type sensors: Infrared type sensors use the radiation heat to
sense the temperature from a distance.
• These noncontact sensors can also be used to sense a field of vision to
generate a thermal map of a surface. VCC - Voltage Common Collector

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Types of Sensor
Types of IR sensors
1. Active IR sensors and 2. passive IR sensors.
Active infrared sensors
• Active infrared sensors emit and detect
infrared radiation. They have two parts: there’s
a light emitting diode (LED) and a receiver.
• When an object comes close to the sensor, the
infrared light from the LED bounces off of the
object and is detected by the receiver.
• Active IR sensors thus behave as proximity
sensors, and are commonly used in obstacle
detection systems such as robots.

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Types of Sensor
Types of IR sensors
1. Active IR sensors and 2. passive IR sensors.
Passive infrared sensors
• Only detect infrared radiation; they do not
emit it from an LED. PIR sensors are mainly
used in PIR-based motion detectors.

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Electrical circuit and Components
Advantages of Infrared sensor
• No contact with the product
required
• Response times as fast or
faster than thermocouples
• No corrosion or oxidation to
affect sensor accuracy
• Good stability over time
• High repeatability
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Disadvantages Infrared sensor
• High initial cost
• More complex - support electronics
required
• Measuring accuracy affected by dust,
smoke, background
• Radiation, etc.
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Types of Sensor
4. LOAD SENSORS
• Load sensors measure mechanical force.
• The forces can be large or small for example, weighing heavy
objects or detecting low-force tactile pressures.
• Once the amount of tension (stretching) or compression
(squeezing) displacement has been measured, the force that
must have caused it can be calculated using the mechanical
parameters of the system.
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Types of Sensor
4. LOAD SENSORS
FORCE SENSORS: Force is proportional to displacement.

➢ Forces are commonly measured by the measurement of displacement:

Eg: A spring balance
The main types of force sensors are
➢ Mechanical types.
➢ Hydraulic & pneumatic types.

➢ Electrical strain gauge & capacitance load cell.

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Types of Sensor
4. LOAD SENSORS
Mechanical types
• Measuring systems involving some form of
spring such as in a simple spring balance scale.
• The deflection of a spring is directly
proportional to the applied force so if the
movement is shown on a scale, the scale
represents force.

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Types of Sensor

The ratio of the force to deformation is a constant for each material, as

defined by Hooke’s law. F= KX
where
K= spring constant of the material
F= applied force
X= extension or compression as result of force

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Types of Sensor
What are the Different Types of Load Cells?
There are four common types of these sensors; they are:
– Pneumatic
– Hydraulic
– Strain gauge
– Capacitance
• Capacitance is the
ability of a component
or circuit to collect and
store energy in the form
of an electrical charge.

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Types of Sensor
Their Working Principles

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Types of Sensor
4. LOAD SENSORS
Hydraulic types
• Referred to as hydraulic load cells.
• The cell is a capsule filled with liquid.
• When the capsule is squeezed, the liquid
becomes pressurized.

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Types of Sensor
4. LOAD SENSORS
Hydraulic types
• The pressure represents the force
and may be indicated with a
calibrated pressure gauge.
• The pressure produced is given by
P = F/A where F is the force and A
the piston area.
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Types of Sensor
Hydraulic Load Cell

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Types of Sensor
4. LOAD SENSORS

• A load cell is a force gauge that

consists of a transducer that is used
to create an electrical signal whose
magnitude is directly proportional
to the force being measured.

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Pneumatic Load Cell: Working Principles

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Strain gauge Load Cell
A typical load cell consists of a metal
cylinder with strain gauges fixed to it.

When the cylinder is stretched or

compressed, the strain gauges convert
the force into a change in resistance
and hence voltage.
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Strain gauge Load Cell

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4. LOAD SENSORS

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Capacitance Load Cell

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5. FLOW SENSORS
• Flow sensors measure the quantity of fluid material passing by a point in a certain time.
Usually, the material is a gas or a liquid and is flowing in a pipe or open channel.
• The flowing of solid material, such as gravel traveling on a conveyer belt, will not be
considered here.
• The best type of flow sensor is pressure type flow sensor. This type of flow sensor is
based on the fact that pressure in a moving fluid is proportional to the flow.
• The pressure is detected with a pressure sensor; based on the physical dimensions of the
system, the flow can be calculated.

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• The simplest flow sensor is called the orifice plate, and is simply a restriction
in the pipe that causes a pressure drop in the flow, much like a resistor that
causes a drop in voltage in a circuit.
• This sensor requires two pressure ports, one upstream and one downstream
of the restriction. The flow is proportional to the pressure difference between
these ports .

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Example

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Example

Solution

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5. LIQUID-LEVEL SENSORS
• Liquid-level sensors, which measure the height of a liquid in a container, have two
classifications: discrete and continuous.
• Discrete-level detectors can only detect whether the liquid is at a certain level.
• The continuous-level detector provides an analog signal that is proportional to the
liquid level.
Discrete-Level Detectors

• Discrete-level detectors determine when a

liquid has reached a certain level.

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Continuous-Level Detectors
Continuous-level detectors provide a signal that is proportional to the liquid
level. There are a number of ways in which this can be done. One of the
most direct methods(used in the gas tank of your car) is a float connected to
a position sensor.

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Proximity Sensors
• They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to another object.
• They usually provide a on or off signal indicating the presence or absence of an
object.
• Measures the closeness of the auto body to obstacles (both animate and inanimate)
that may not be visible to the driver or that the driver may yet not have realized.

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Example

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Example

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ARDUINO
The Arduino Uno is a microprocessor, a microcontroller board based on the
ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output a USB connection, a power jack
and a reset button.
It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect
it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with an AC-to-DC adapter or
battery.

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To get started you have your ARDUINO UNO board in front of you, a
computer and a standard USB cable (A plug to B plug): the kind you would
connect to a USB printer.
The open-source Arduino environment makes it easy to write code and
upload it to the I/O board. It runs on Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. The
environment is written in Java and based on Processing, and other open
source software
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Connecting the board
The Arduino Uno automatically draws power from either the USB connection of a
computer or an external power supply. Connect the Arduino board to your computer
using the USB cable. The green power LED (labelled PWR) should turn on.

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Installing software
• Before you connect your Arduino board to the computer, make sure you have
installed the Software and drivers needed to run with the board.
• You can download the latest release of the Arduino integrated development
environment (IDE)software by going to http://arduino.cc/download/ and
click the “Download” link in the top menu.
• Download and run the latest version of the Arduino IDE

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Install drivers
• If you used the zip-file or unchecked the “install driver” part during the
installation, you might have to manually install the drivers to connect the
Arduino board. Installing drivers for the Arduino Uno with Windows 7/8, Vista
or XP.
• Plug in your board and wait for Windows to begin its driver installation
process. On some computers the drivers will install automatically. If not, follow
the steps below.

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Click on the Start Menu, and open the Control Panel. While in the Control Panel, navigate
to System and Security.
Next, open the Device Manager which you will find under System. Look under Ports (COM
& LPT). You should see an open port named "Arduino UNO (COMxx)“.
In some cases you won’t find “Arduino Uno”, instead you will find “Unknown device” at
the top.

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Right click on the "Arduino UNO (COMxx)" port and choose the "Update Driver Software“
option. Next, choose the "Browse my computer for Driver software" option. Finally,
navigate to and select the Arduino Uno's driver file, named "ArduinoUNO.inf", located in
the "Drivers" folder of the Arduino Software download (not the "FTDI USB Drivers
"subdirectory).
Windows will finish up the driver installation from here. Cases you won’t find “Arduino
Uno”, instead you will find “Unknown device” at the top.
Windows will finish up the driver installation from here.

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Select your board
You’ll need to select the entry in the Tools → Board menu that corresponds to your
Arduino. Otherwise you won’t be able to communicate with the Arduino Uno board.
Select your serial port
Select the serial device of the Arduino board from the Tools → Serial Port menu. You will probably
have several COM-ports available. The Arduino will most likely be the highest COM-port number. To
make sure, you can disconnect your Arduino board and re-open the menu; the entry that disappears
should be the Arduino board. Reconnect the board and select the correct serial port After all code the
program then upload to the Arduino.

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Measuring temperature by using microprocessor (Arduino Uno) &
Temperature sensor
There are two voids in the program
Void setup: the microcontroller execute once
Void loop: Microcontroller execute many times depend on the number of
data.

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Material required – Arduino Force Sensor (Practical)
In this tutorial, we are going to learn:
- How force sensor works
- How to connect the force sensor to Arduino
- How to program Arduino to read the state from
the force sensor
- How to use the force sensor with Arduino

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Material required – Arduino Force Sensor (Practical)
P. No. NAME Specification Quantity Units 1. Breadboard • Package Dimensions: 8.66 x 5.51 x 2 Pieces
1. Arduino UNO or • Rev 3 4 Pieces 2.36 inches; 11.99 Ounces
Genuino UNO • RAM = 32KB DIYables 3pcs
Solderless • Item model number: DIY-
• Color: Green
BREADBOARD-830-3
• Connectivity: USB type A/B Breadboard 830
Point Prototype for • Manufacturer: DIYables
• Included components: microprocessor
Arduino, ESP32,
• Operating system: Arduino • ASIN: B0BDFHX1DW
ESP8266,
• Wireless type: Bluetooth Raspberry Pi
• Compatible devices: 1
• Operating Voltage: 5V 1. Jumper Wires • Package Dimensions: 4.8 x 3.31 x 1.3 2 Pieces
• Digital I/O Pins: 14 inches; 3.53 Ounces
• Analog Input Pins: 6 DIYables 120pcs
• Clock Speed: 16 MHz Multicolored Jumper • Item model number: DIY-JUMPER-
1. USB 2.0 cable type • USB 2.0 Cable Type A/B: 2 pieces 6 Pieces Wires for Prototyping WIRES-3
A/B • USB cable can be used for data Electronic Projects • Manufacturer: DIYables
communication and power supply Arduino, ESP32,
ESP8266, Raspberry Pi • ASIN: B0BDFML3XD
• USB cable works with Arduino Uno,
Arduino Mega, Arduino 101
• USB cable length: 50cm (1.64 feet) 1. 9V power adapter for • 2-flat-pin plug 2 Pieces
• Standard USB 2.0 cable Arduino (Optional) • 110V input voltage / 9VDC 1A output
1. Force Sensor • Product Dimensions: 2 x 3 x 0.25 2 Pieces voltage
inches; 0.16 Ounces • For use with Arduino Uno, Mega and
• Manufacturer: Pololu MB102 Power supply boards
• ASIN: B00B887CLS • Connector size: 5.5 x 2.1mm
• Center or Tip is positive, sleeve is negative

1. Resistor • Package Dimensions: 4.72 x 3.15 x 1.97 10 Pieces 1. Screw terminal block • Package Dimensions: 4.8 x 3.23 x 1.26 2 Pieces
inches; 4.59 Ounces shield for Arduino inches; 2.4 Ounces
(Optional) • Item model number: DIY-SCREW-
• Item model number: DIY-RESISTOR-
KIT-30 SHIELD-UNO

• Manufacturer: DIYables • Manufacturer: DIYables

• ASIN: B0BPG13L4Y • ASIN: B0BPG2H4V2

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Material required – Arduino Force Sensor (Practical)
1. Arduino UNO or Genuino UNO
• Great for learning the basics of how sensors and
actuators work, and an essential tool for your rapid
prototyping needs
• Arduino UNO Rev3 is the most used and documented
board in the world
• "Uno" means one in Italian and was chosen to mark the
release of Arduino Software (IDE) 1.0, now evolved to
newer releases
• Arduino is an open-source hardware, software, and
content platform with a worldwide community of over
30 million active users
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Material required – Arduino Force Sensor (Practical)
2. USB 2.0 cable type A/B
• USB 2.0 Cable Type A/B: 2 pieces
• USB cable can be used for data
communication and power supply
• USB cable works with Arduino Uno,
Arduino Mega, Arduino 101
• USB cable length: 50cm (1.64 feet)
• Standard USB 2.0 cable

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Material required – Arduino Force Sensor (Practical)
3. Force sensor
• This force-sensing resistor (FSR) from
Interlink Electronics is a passive component
that exhibits a decrease in resistance when
there is an increase in the force applied to
the 0.58″-diameter (1.5 cm) active area,
allowing you to create a sensor that is able
to detect force or pressure.
• With a force sensitivity range of a few grams
to a few kilograms, this sensor is optimized
for use in human touch control applications.
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4. 10kΩ resistor

• A resistor is an electrical
component that limits or
regulates the flow of electrical
current in an electronic circuit.

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Material required – Arduino Force Sensor (Practical)
5. Breadboard
• A breadboard, solderless breadboard,
or protoboard is a construction base
used to build semi-permanent
prototypes of electronic circuits.
• Unlike a perfboard or stripboard,
breadboards do not require soldering
or destruction of tracks and are hence
reusable.

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Material required – Arduino Force Sensor (Practical)

6. Jumper Wires
• A jumper wire is an electric wire
that connects remote electric
circuits used for printed circuit
boards.
• By attaching a jumper wire on the
circuit, it can be short-circuited and
short-cut (jump) to the electric
circuit.

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Material required – Arduino Force Sensor (Practical)

How it Works
• The force sensor has two pins. Since it is a kind of
resistor, we do not need to distinguish these pins. They
are symmetric.
• The forces sensor is basically a resistor that changes its
resistance depending on how much it has been pressed.
• The harder you press on the sensor, the lower the
resistance between the two terminals will be.

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Material required – Arduino Force Sensor (Practical)
Wiring diagram as below.

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Software integration

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Code
How to program for force sensor:
• Arduino UNO’s pin A0 to A5 can work as the analog input.
• The analog input pin converts the voltage between 0v and VCC
into integer values between 0 and 1023 called ADC value or
analog value.
• By connecting a pin of the force sensor to an analog input pin, we
can read the analog value from the pin by using analogRead()
function and then we can know how much it has been pressed.

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#define FORCE_SENSOR_PIN A0 // the FSR and 10K pulldown are connected to A0
Code void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

void loop() {

int analogReading = analogRead(FORCE_SENSOR_PIN);

Serial.print("Force sensor reading = ");

Serial.print(analogReading); // print the raw analog reading

if (analogReading < 10) // from 0 to 9

Serial.println(" -> no pressure");

else if (analogReading < 200) // from 10 to 199

Serial.println(" -> light touch");

else if (analogReading < 500) // from 200 to 499

Serial.println(" -> light squeeze");

else if (analogReading < 800) // from 500 to 799

Serial.println(" -> medium squeeze");

else // from 800 to 1023

Serial.println(" -> big squeeze");

delay(1000);

}
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Temperature sensor(LM35) with Arduino Uno
void setup()
Code {
pinMode(A0, INPUT);
Serial.begin(9600);
}
void loop()
{
unsigned long startTime;
startTime = millis();
int Temperature = analogRead(A0);
float new_Temperature = (5*Temperature*100)/1023;
Serial.print(startTime/1000);
Serial.print(" ");
Serial.print("TEMPERATURE: ");
Serial.print(Temperature);
Serial.print("˚c");
Serial.println();
delay(1000);
}
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Pressure sensor (MPX4115A ) with Arduino Uno
void setup()
Code {
pinMode(A0, INPUT);
Serial.begin(9600);
}
void loop()
{
unsigned long startTime;
startTime = millis();
int pressure = analogRead(A1);
float new_pressure = ((pressure/1024)+0.095)/0.0009;
Serial.print(startTime/1000);
Serial.print(" ");
Serial.print("PRESSURE: ");
Serial.print(pressure);
Serial.print("millibar");
Serial.println();
delay(1000);
}
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Continued…

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