S ection 5 discusses the behavior of
sound outdoors, and the effect of
that behavior on sound systems.
Outdoor environments are essen-
tially free of reflecting surfaces or ob-
structing objects, and the principles
presented in this chapter therefore as-
sume "free field" conditions. The
behavior of sound indoors is presented
in Section 6.
Doubling the radius (a-b)
spreads the power over
four times the surface
area, so SPL falls off
by the inverse square
of the distance from
the source.
Figure 5-1. Acoustic power or
sound pressure:
the inverse square law
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The inverse square law describes the
relationship between sound pressure
level and distance from the source. The
law assumes:
a) A point source of sound (omni
directional radiator)
b) Free field conditions (no reflective
boundaries).
The inverse square law states that
the intensity ofthe sound varies with
the square of the distance. In other
words:
for each doubling of the distance
from the source, the measured
sound pressure will drop by 6 dB.
For example, if a loudspeaker's con-
tinuous output measures 100 dB SPL
at 10 feet, then at 20 feet the sound
pressure level will be 94 dB
(100 - 6 = 94).
A 6 dB difference in SPL corre-
sponds to a sound pressure ratio of two
to one. This is not a 2:1 loudness
difference, however; a 10 dB difference
represents about a 2:1 loudness change
(see Section 3.3). Therefore, if you are
twice as far from a point source as
another observer, the sound will be a
little more than half as loud for you as
it is for that observer. Figure 5-1
illustrates the reason for this 6 dB
decrease in SPL at twice the distance.
A point source of sound is located at
X. In Figure 5-1(a), a sphere with a
radius of 10 feet surrounds the point
source. The sphere represents an even
distribution of the acoustical energy of
the source in a free field. In (b), our
source is surrounded by a sphere with
a radius of 20 feet (double the dis-
tance). The area of this sphere is four
times that of the sphere in (a).
Consider a window of equal area in
each sphere. Since the acoustical
energy of the point source X is spread
over four times as much area in (b) as
it is in (a), one fourth as much acousti-
cal energy will pass through the
window in (b) as will pass through the
window in (a).
A 4:1 acoustical power ratio ex-
pressed in decibels is 6 dB, correspond-
ing to a 2:1 SPL ratio.
 SOUNd 5.2 EffECTS of 5.2.1 Wind
OUTdoORS
ENViRONMENTAL
Wind effects are divided into two
FACTORS classes - velocity effects and gradient
effects.
The effect of wind velocity is illus-
Sound propagated outdoors is trated in Figure 5-2 (below, left). A
subject to the influence of environ- crosswind will add a velocity vector to
mental factors that are not signifi- a propagating sound wave and can
cantly present indoors. Such influences shift the direction of propagation of the
can cause the behavior of sound sys- sound, making it appear to come from
tems to deviate from that predicted by a different location.
inverse square calculations. Wind velocity gradient effects occur
The principal factors affecting sound when one air layer is moving at a dif-
outdoors are wind, temperature gradi- ferent speed than an adjacent layer;
ents, and humidity. The effects ofthese usually one layer is above the other.
factors are most noticeable in large- Such a gradient might be encountered
scale outdoor events, such as sports when the audience area is shielded
events or rock concerts. from the wind by a barrier, such as a
stand of trees or a wall. The effect of
Crosswind velocity gradients on sound is shown in
Figure 5-3 below.
Since wind velocity adds a vector to
the propagating sound wave, refraction
occurs when sound passes through a
Sound Resultant velocity gradient. Assuming horizon-
Vector Propagation tally stratified wind layers, when the
Vector sound is propagating against the wind,
it is refracted upward. When it propa-
gates with the wind, it is refracted
downward. With vertical propagation,
the sound will be refracted to the left
or right.
This said, the actual effect of wind is
minimal because (except in a hurri-
cane) wind speed, relative to the speed
of sound, is negligible. Drastically
shifting wind, though, can destabilize a
stereo image. Wind appears to have a
Sound greater effect because it often brings
Source temperature gradients with it, as
explained on the next page.
Figure 5-2. Sound and wind
vectors (exaggerated)

=HIGH VELOCITY WIND

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SOUNd REiNfoRCEMENT .. ---------------------------------.------.-----------------,
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Figure 5-3. Effect of wind velocity gradient on sound propagation
5.2.2 Temperature 5.2.3 Humidity SECTioN
Gradients
The speed of sound is also affected As sound propagates through air,
by temperature. Sound passes through the air absorbs energy from the sound
hot air (because it is less dense) faster wave, attenuating (weakening) it. The
than it passes through colder air. For effect is significant only at frequencies
this reason, temperature gradients also above 2 kHz, and increases with
cause refraction effects. frequency. This is the reason why,
Figure 5-4 illustrates the effects of when we hear thunder in the distance,
temperature gradients on sound out- it is only a low rumble. The high fre-
doors. In (a), the upper air is warm quency "crack" has been attenuated
while the lower air is cold. Such more rapidly than the low frequency
conditions may be found in the morn- portion of the noise.
ing, when the ground is still cool from The attenuation of sound in air is af-
the previous night and the upper air is fected by the relative humidity. Dry air
warmed by the sun. Under these absorbs far more acoustical energy
conditions, sound tends to "bounce" than does moist air. This is because
between the gradient and the ground, moist air is less dense than dry air
forming regions of higher and lower (water vapor weighs less than air).
sound intensity. Figure 5-5 shows the absorption of
In Figure 5-4(b), the opposite case is sound energy by the air, graphed in
shown. Such conditions may occur in relation to relative humidity.
the evening, when the ground is still
warm. Sound in this case tends to
refract upward.
SOUND
WARM AIR PROPAGATION

COLD AIR WARM AIR

A A A A h A h h h h h
h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

(A) (B)
Figure 5-4. Effect of temperature gradients on sound propagation

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Absorption of sound in air HANdbook
vs. relative humidity PAGE 46