Reservoir Modelling

 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

 Hydrocarbons Initially In Place

 Material Balance

 Secondary Recovery – Water Injection

 Numerical Reservoir Simulation

 Reserve Classification
 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
• Hydrocarbon recovery classified into three main methods:

 Primary Recovery

Secondary Recovery

Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery, EOR)

 Primary Recovery
• This recovery utilises natural energy available in reservoir and aquifers

• Producing mechanism is expansion of fluids in the reservoir

• Expansion is determined from isothermal compressibilities of each fluid

c= isothermal compressibility
c  -
1 dV p= pressure
V dp
V= volume

• For a pressure drop dp, the expansion is dV = volume produced from the
reservoir

• dV=cVdp
Secondary Recovery
• Energy is added to the reservoir by injecting water or reinjecting gas
• Helps maintain reservoir pressure (pressure maintenance)
• Displaces oil towards the production wells

 Enhanced Oil Recovery, EOR

• Injection of steam, carbon dioxide, liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
 Classifications of Primary Recovery
• Solution Gas Drive

• Gas Cap Drive

• Water Drive

• Compaction Drive
 Solution Gas Drive
• Recovery mechanism is a result of gas coming out of solution as p falls below
pb
• expansion of the reservoir oil and its originally dissolved gas.

• Characterised by rapid decline in reservoir p and an increase in producing

GOR

• Usually results in a low oil recovery

• Gas has lower viscosity than oil and flows to the producing wells much
faster

• it is assumed that there is no initial gascap, thus m = 0, and that the aquifer is
relatively small in volume and the water influx is negligible.
Two phases can be distinguished, as shown in fig, when the reservoir oil is

• (a) undersaturated and

• (b) when the pressure has fallen below the bubble point and a free gas phase
exists in the reservoir.

Above the bubble point, all the gas produced at the surface must have been
dissolved in the oil in the reservoir.

Below the bubble point pressure gas will be liberated from the saturated oil
and a free gas saturation will develop in the reservoir.
 Gas Cap Drive
• Oil at the gas-oil contact, GOC is at bubble point or saturation pressure
• Drive mechanism is the expansion of the gas cap
• Gas cap expands and displaces oil downwards towards the producing wells
• Solution gas drive is also active in the oil column:
• Low production rates:
-gas released migrates upstructure to gas cap due to gravity segregation
-requires a favourable permeability to flow in up dip direction
-requires high structural relief
-leads to higher oil recovery
• High production rates:
- more mobile gas bypasses leading to higher producing GOR’s
- leads to lower oil recovery
• Oil recovery from a gas cap drive is production rate dependent
 Water Drive
• Water expands into the reservoir as the pressure declines

• Rate of water influx depends on aquifer geometry relative to the oil or gas
zone

• Degree to which it can maintain reservoir pressure depends on

 how quickly it can replace produced fluids

• Most water drive reservoirs are rate sensitive

• Ultimate recovery depends on the rate of production

 Compaction Drive
• Occurs when the reservoir rock compacts
• due to reduction in pore volume as reservoir pressure declines

• arises when the pore volume compressibility cf is large

• Results in subsidence at the surface

 General Material Balance Equation
• Zero dimensional material balance concept defined as:

• Production = Expansion + Water Influx (All units are expressed in reservoir)

barrels

Volume of fluids taken out of a reservoir must equal: the expansion of the fluids
in the reservoir plus any water influx
 Material balance equations are used to:
• Calculate hydrocarbons initially in place
• Define reservoir drive mechanisms
• History match production performance
• Estimate recoverable reserves
Common Units Applied
 Hydrocarbons Initially In Place
Stock Tank Oil Initially in Place (STOIIP)

V (1 - Swc )
STOIIP  N  stb
Boi

V = net rock volume in bbls

Ø = average porosity
 Hydrocarbon Pore Movable Oil Volume (MOV)
Volume (HCPV)
V (1 - Sor - Swc )
HCPV  Oil Initially In Place MOV  stb
Boi
 NBoi

 V (1 - Swc ) rb

• Sor is the residual oil saturation

 Recoverable Oil Gas Initially In Place (GIIP)

V (1 - Swc )
GIIP  G  V (1 - Swc ) E i scf
Recoverable Oil  x RF
Boi

 N x RF stb

RF = Recovery factor
 GOR (R), Rp and Rs
The producing (or instantaneous) GOR, R
- relationship between the oil rate and the gas rate at a particular point in time

R = Solution (Dissolved) Gas + Free Gas

R = Rs + (R – Rs) scf/stb
Rp is the ratio of cumulative gas produced to cumulative oil produced
Relationship between Rp and the producing GOR, R can be approximated as:
Rp 
R i Δ N pi
Np
Pressure Drop (dp = pi – p)

•At any given time the reservoir pressure is uniform throughout the system
and the reservoir behaves like a tank

•The pressure used at any time is the volumetric average reservoir pressure, ‘P’

• All reservoir fluid properties in material balance evaluated at ‘P’

- Average pressures are determined from individual development well pressures

• Development well pressures obtained from routine pressure buildup tests

– represent the average pressure within the drainage area of the well.
 Material balance applied to oil reservoir
• Schilthuis material balance equation – used for interpreting and predicting
reservoir performance.

• Material balance equation, for any hydrocarbon system:

• a volume balance which equates the total production to the difference
between the initial volume of hydrocarbons in the reservoir and the
current volume.

• Separate cases
• no water influx into the reservoir
• when there is a significant degree of influx.
 Production
• Pressure drop (dp) = Pi - P
For a pressure drop in the reservoir, the production term can be defined as:

- Oil plus Dissolved Gas Production plus Free Gas Production plus Water
Production

Production (rb)

• Oil plus Dissolved Gas Production

• NpBo
• Free Gas Production
• Np(Rp – Rs)Bg
• Water Production
• WpBw
 Expansion

The expansion term can be defined as:

• the expansion of the oil plus originally dissolved gas

• the gas cap expansion
• the connate water expansion
• the pore volume reduction

Oil plus Dissolved Gas Expansion

N (Bo - Boi )  (R si - R s )Bg 
Gas Cap Expansion –

Connate Water Expansion -

 Pore Volume Reduction -

Water Influx (rb) - WeBw

 Oil reservoir with a gas cap and aquifer and assuming no water or gas
injection

Production
N p  Bo   R p - R s  Bg   Wp B w 

Expansion
N  Bo - Boi    R si  R s  Bg   NmBoi
 Bg


 1 
1  m  NBoi  c w Swc  c f Δp
B  1 - Swc
 gi 
Water Influx
 We B w
If there is water or gas injection into the reservoir (secondary recovery)
- volumes are added to the right hand side of the GMB as:

Wi = cumulative water injected, rb (Bw = 1, the injected water is free of gas)

Gi Bgl = cumulative gas injected, rb (Bgl = FVF of injected gas)

FVF-formation volume factor

 Material Balance Equation as a Linear Function
F  N p Bo  R p - R s  Bg   Wp B w  Production, rb

E o  Bo - Boi   R si - R s  Bg  Expansion of oil plus dissolved gas, rb/stb

 Bg 
E g  Boi   1  Expansion of free gas, rb/stb
B 
 gi 

c S c 
E f, w  1  m  Boi  w wc f Δp
 1 - Swc 
 Expansion of connate water and pore volume reduction, rb/stb

F  N E o  mE g  E f, w   We B w
 Application
• For a reservoir with no initial gas cap and no water influx
neglecting the formation and connate water compressibilities:

F  N Eo

• Plot of F (production, rb) vs Eo (Expansion, rb/stb) is not linear with slope N

then drive mechanism may include water influx

F W
 N  e
Eo Eo

• Plot of F / Eo versus We / Eo - straight line of unit slope and intercept N

• Undersaturated reservoir with water influx and accounting for the formation
and connate Water compressibilities

F We
 N 
E o  E f, w E o  E f, w

Plot of F / (Eo + mEg) vs We / (Eo + mEg)

- straight line of unit slope and intercept N
- if the correct value of We is included.
• Reservoir with an initial gas cap and no water influx
- neglecting the formation and connate water compressibilities
F  N E o  mE g 
Plot of F vs (Eo + mEg)-straight line of slope, N if the correct value of m is included
Or if N known such a plot can help determine m
- the initial gas cap volume to initial oil volume ratio
 Material Balance Applications
• Volumetric depletion fields
• Gas cap drive
• Water influx
• Gas fields
 Volumetric Depletion Reservoirs
• Applied to the performance of a reservoir means;
that as the pressure declines, due to production, there is an insignificant
amount of water influx into the reservoir from the adjoining aquifer.

• This, in turn, implies that the aquifer must be small. Thus the reservoir
volume occupied by hydrocarbons (HCPV) will not decrease during depletion.

This explains the solution gas drive

 Volumetric Depletion Fields
Undersaturated reservoir and depletion above the bubble point the following
parameters can be omitted:

initial gas cap volume

m   0
initial oil volume

We = Water Influx = 0

Also no gas will be released from solution therefore

Rp = Rs = Rsi and Bt = Bo + (Rsi – Rs) Bg = Bo

 Production Expansion

N p Bo  Wp B w
 Bo - Boi
 NBoi  
c w Swc  c f  
p 
 Boi 1 - Swc 

Including the effective compressibility, ceff:

c oSo  c w Swc  c f
c eff 
1 - Swc
And the isothermal oil compressibility (as defined in the Reservoir Fluid
Properties Section)
Bo - Boi
co 
Boi p
• Since there are only two fluids in the reservoir, oil and connate water, then the
sum of the fluid saturations must be 100% of the pore volume, or
• So + Swc = 1, which gives:

or

N p Bo  Wp B w  NBoi c eff p
• If no water production the stock tank oil initially in place, N is:

N p Bo
N 
Boi c eff Δp

Np Bo

N Boi c eff Δp
• Depletion below the bubble point in an undersaturated reservoir
- solution gas is liberated from the oil and the solution gas drive process begins.

Production Expansion

 (c w Swc  c f )Δ p 
N p Bo   R p - R s  Bg   N  Bo - Boi   R si - R s  Bg  Boi 
 1  Swc 

Fractional recovery:
(c w Swc  c f )Δ p
Bo - Boi   R si - R s  Bg  Boi
Np 1  Swc

N Bo  R p - R s  Bg
 Example 1
• Determine the fractional oil recovery, during depletion down to bubble point
pressure,
for which
• cw = 3.0 × 10-6 / psi Swc = .20, cf = 8.6 × 10-6 / psi, pi = 4000 psi, Boi = 1.2417
rb/stb, pb = 3330 psi, Bob = 1.2511 rb/stb

• average compressibility of the undersaturated oil between initial and Bubble

point pressure is
The recovery at bubble point pressure can be calculated using
Np Bo

N Boi c eff Δp
 Example 2 – Below Bubble point pressure
• The reservoir described in first exercise will be produced down to an
abandonment pressure of 900 psia.
• 1) Determine an expression for the recovery at abandonment as a function of the
cumulative gas oil ratio Rp.
What do you conclude from the nature of this relationship?
• 2) Derive an expression for the free gas saturation in the reservoir at
abandonment pressure.
• For a solution gas drive reservoir, below the bubble point, the following are
• Assumed; m = 0; no initial gascap, negligible water influx
• Bo = 1.0940 rb/stb, Rs=122 scf/stb and Bg= 0.00339 rb/stb

This clearly demonstrates that there is an inverse relationship between the oil
recovery and the cumulative gas oil ratio Rp,
The conclusion to be drawn from the relationship is that, to obtain a high
primary recovery, as much gas as possible should be kept in the reservoir, which
requires that the cumulative gas oil ratio should be maintained as low as
possible. By keeping the gas in the reservoir the total reservoir system
compressibility in the simple material balance dV = cV Δp
Two ways of enhancing the primary recovery:
Water injection, is usually aimed at maintaining the pressure above bubble point,
or above the pressure at which the gas saturation exceeds the critical value at which the
gas becomes mobile.

• Illustrating two ways in which the primary recovery can be enhanced; by

• downdip water injection and updip injection of the separated solution gas
 Gas Cap Drive
• No water influx and neglecting the pore and connate water compressibilities:

 Bo - Boi   R si  R s  Bg  Bg  
N Bo  R p - R s  Bg   NBoi   m  1 
 B B 
 oi  gi 

 Bg 
Bt - Boi   mBoi   1 
Np  Bgi 

N Bo  R p - R s  Bg

Bt = Bo + (Rsi – Rs)Bg
 Example 3
• A gascap reservoir is estimated, from volumetric calculations, to have had an
initial oil volume N of 115 × 106 stb. The cumulative oil production Np and
cumulative gas oil ratio Rp are listed in table 3.1, as functions of the average
reservoir pressure, over the first few years of production.

The size of the gascap is uncertain with the best estimate, based on geological
information, giving the value of m = 0.4. Is this figure confirmed by the
production and pressure history? If not, what is the correct value of m?
• material balance for a gascap drive reservoir can be expressed as
• F = N (Eo + mEg )

The theoretical straight line for this problem can be drawn in advance as the line which,
passes through the origin and has a slope of 115  106 stb, fig. 3.7 (b). When the plot is
made of the data in table 3.2 for the value of m = 0.4, the points lie above the required
line indicating that this value of m is too small. This procedure has been repeated for
values of m = 0.5 and 0.6 and, as can be seen in fig. 3.7 (b), the plot for m = 0.5
coincides with the required straight line. Application of this technique relies critically
upon the fact that N is known. Otherwise all three plots in fig. 3.7 (b), could be
interpreted as straight lines, although the plots for m = .4 and .6 do have slight upward
and downward curvature, respectively.
• m = 0.4 N = 132 × 106 stb
• m = 0.5 N = 114 × 106 stb
• m = 0.6 N = 101 × 106 stb
 Water Influx
• Bottom water drive or edge water drive
As p declines with production and propagates into aquifer:
- water expands moving towards area of lower pressure

Water influx is time dependent – unsteady state process

• Amount of water influx and influx rate requires an aquifer model

- properties and geometry of the aquifer

- pressure-time behaviour along the reservoir-aquifer boundary

• Methods of calculating We:

- van Everdingen and Hurst

- Fetkovich
- Carter Tracy
• Cumulative water influx then included in material balance equation to determine:

- N, the STOIIP
- confirm the aquifer model chosen.
• Reservoir with water influx and no initial gas cap
- pore and connate water compressibilities often neglected:
F We
F  N E o  We or  N 
Eo Eo
• If pore and connate water compressibilities are included:
F We
 N 
E o  E f, w E o  E f, w

• With initial gas cap:

F We
 N 
E o  mE g  E o  mE g 
 Gas Fields
Primary drive mechanism is expansion of gas
No water influx and neglecting pore and connate water compressibilities:
Gas produced for a decline in average reservoir pressure at standard
conditions:
Production = GIIP – Unproduced Gas

G
Gp  G - E
Ei

35.37p
Gas Expansion factor = E 
ZT

p pi  Gp 
 1 - 
Z Zi  G 
 p / Z Vs the cumulative gas produced, Gp - linear
 Extrapolation of the linear trend gives G, the initial gas in place

 If plot is not linear then drive mechanism may include water influx
p / Z versus Gp / G the recovery factor at abandonment can be determined
for the assumed abandonment pressure conditions
 Secondary Recovery – Water Injection
One Dimensional Fluid Displacement
• Water injection increases oil recovery by:
– maintaining reservoir pressure
– displacing the oil towards the production wells

• Displacement of oil by water is an immiscible process

– two fluids do not mix and there is always an interface between them

• The basic theory of waterdrive:

– Buckley-Leverett Displacement theory developed for a core flooding experiment

• Describes immiscible displacement for a homogeneous system in one dimension

– Assumes diffuse flow conditions

• Diffuse flow conditions:

– Saturations across the vertical plane are uniformly distributed

Theory also applicable to oil/water displacement in heterogeneous reservoirs

• Efficiency of water-oil displacement in one dimension determined by
calculating mobility ratio,
• M – the ratio of the mobility of water to oil
• - derived from Darcy’s Law as:

k ' rw k ' ro
M 
μw μo

k’rw is the end point relative permeability to water

k’ro is the end point relative permeability to oil and
µ is the viscosity of the fluids.
• Mobility ratio, M < 1 - water cannot travel faster than oil - piston-like behaviour

• Mobility ratio, M > 1- displacement unstable - premature water breakthrough

• (a) Piston-like displacement (M < 1) (b) unstable displacement (M > 1)

Buckley-Leverette Displacement Theory
• Fractional flow of water in the reservoir, fw or watercut
qw
fw 
qw  qo
qo and qw are the reservoir flow rates of oil and water
For horizontal flow in one dimension defined using Darcy’s law as
1
fw 
μ w k ro
1
μ o k rw

krw is the rel perm to water

kro is the rel perm to oil and µ is the viscosity of the fluids.
• Rel perms are functions of water saturation

• Fractional flow curve developed which relates fractional flow of water to water
saturation:
• Water saturation profile as function of distance at any time
• calculated from Buckley-Leverette Equation
 Buckley-Leverette Displacement Theory
• Developed for a one dimensional core flood

• Describes immiscible displacement for a homogeneous system

• Assumes diffuse flow conditions

• Can be developed for segregated flow - two dimensional problem

 Heterogeneous Reservoirs
• Oil recovery is a product of the vertical and areal sweep efficiencies

• Vertical sweep efficiency determined by the vertical permeability

variation across reservoir

• Areal sweep efficiency assessed during the history matching

phase of 3D reservoir simulation models.
 Vertical Permeability Distributions
• Displacement of oil by water under segregated flow is two dimensional
problem

• Assumes sharp interface between the fluids but distribution of fluids governed
by gravity forces

• Vertical Equilibrium condition occurs if vertical permeability high and

• High degree of pressure equilibrium across reservoir section

• Segregated flow – stable conditions:

• Dietz
-Gravity number, G
-Mobility ratio, M

• Oil recovery calculated for segregated flow by:

• Reducing two dimensional system to one dimension
• Generate ‘pseudo’ relative permeability functions over entire thickness
• Buckley-Leverette/Welge methods then used to calculate oil recovery

• In stratified reservoirs where there is no pressure communication between layers and piston like
displacement occurs in each layer:

• Oil recovery determined using method developed by Stiles

• Reservoir layers are ordered in the sequence in which water will break through
• Pseudo relative permeability curves generated for heterogeneous system
• Buckley-Leverette/Welge methods then used to calculate oil recovery
 Material Balance Method (Reservoir Modelling)
• Combination of :
• Stock Tank Oil
• Surface Gas
• Stock Tank Water
• Obeys Law of Conservation of Mass
• [ Overall Mass Finally] = [Overall Mass Initially] – [Overall Mass Produced]

• ASSUMPTIONS
• Isothermal Reservoir Condition
• 3-Phase Fluids etc
• In more general terms
• MB can be stated as :
• [Free Gas Expansion ] + [Free Oil Expansion] + [Free Water Expansion] + [Rock
Matrix Expansion] + [Water Influx] = [Net Gas Withdrawal] + [Net Oil
Withdrawal] + [Net Water Withdrawal]

• Free Gas Expansion = Gfgi*Eg

• Free Oil Expansion = Nfoi*Eo
• Free Water Expansion = W*Ew
• Rock Matrix Expansion = Vpi*Ef
• Water Influx = We
  Bg  Bo Rv 
Net Gas Withdrawal  G p  GI  
 1  Rv Rs 
 Bo  Bg Rs 
Net Oil Withdrawal  N p  
 1  Rv Rs 
Net Water Withdrawal  W p  WI Bw

Gfgi = Initial surface volume of
surface gas component in the
free gas phase
Eg = Total gas expansivity
Nfoi = Initial surface volume of
stock-tank oil in free-oil phase
Eo = Total oil expansivity
Ew =Total water expansivity
Vpi =initial pore volume
= W*Bwi+Gfgi*Bgi+Nfoi*Boi
Ef = Expansivity of rock matrix
W = Stock tank water in place
We = Water Influx
Gp = Cumulative produced surface
gas
Units
GI = Cumulative injected surface
gas
Bg= Gas formation volume factor
Bo = Oil Formation Volume Factor
Bw= Water Formation Volume
Factor
Rv = Volatilized Oil-gas ratio
Rs = Solution Gas -Oil ratio
Np = Cumulative produced stock
tank oil
Wp = Cumulative produced stock
tank water
WI = Cumulative injected stock-
tank water
 General Material Balance Equation
Gfgi* Egwf + Nfoi*Eowf + We = F

• F = Net Fluid Withdrawal [Reservoir volume unit]

• Nfoi = Initial surface volume of stock tank oil in free-oil phase
• Eowf = Composite oil/water/rock matrix expansivity
• Egwf = Composite gas/water/rock matrix expansivity
• Gfgi = Initial surface volume of surface gas component in the free gas phase
• We = Cumulative encroached water [Water Influx]
 Material Balance for Reserve Estimation
 For Undersaturated Oil Reservoir

F (t )  We (t )  N * Eowf ((t )

F = Net Fluid Withdrawal[ Reservoir Volume Unit]

We(t) = Water influx as function of time
N = OOIIP = Original Oil Initially in Place
G = OGIP = Original Gas initially in Place= N*Rsi
Rsi = Initial Solution Gas-Oil Ratio

ALTERNATIVELY
N*Eo + W*Ew + Vpi*Ef + We = Np*Bo + (Wp-WI)*Bw
RF = Np/N
 For initial Undersaturated Oil Reservoir
For each set of F, We, Eowf, N can be
computed
N = OOIIP = Slope of Graph.
Can also be solved by regression
method.
Find G = Associated Gas in Place
= N* Rsi
 MB for Gas Reservoir
• G*Egwf + We = F

G = GIIP

ALTERNATIVELY

G*Eg + W*Ew + Vpi*Ef + We = Gp*Bg + (Wp - WI)*Bw

RF = Gps/G
 Material Balance for Gas Reservoir Reserve Estimation
F – We = G*Egwf
Egwf =Composite gas/water/rock
matrix expansivity
G = GIIP = Slope of Curve
N = G*Rvi
Rvi = Volatilized Oil-gas ratio
 Material Balance for Initially Saturated Reservoir Reserve
• F(t) – We(t) = Gfgi*Egwf(t) + Nfoi*Eowf(t)
Or
• F = Gfgi*Egwf + N*Eowf + We
• N = OOIIP
• This includes effects of pore volume contraction and water expansion

For Saturated Black Oil

• F = Gps*Bg + Np*(Bo – Bg*Rs) + (Wp – WI)*Bw

• Gps = Cumulative produced surface sales gas

 Numerical Reservoir Simulation
• Overview

• Model Construction

• History Matching

• Prediction
 Overview
• Describes flow of multiple phases in complex heterogeneous reservoir

• Models describe reservoir as 2D or 3D network of gridblocks

• Each gridblock assigned rock and fluid properties

• Material balance is a fundamental part of reservoir simulation

• Model equations are essentially material balance equations for each fluid phase
and each gridblock

Equations are coupled with flow equations (Darcy’s Law) and solved numerically
to calculate flow between gridblocks based on their pressure differences
 Reservoir Simulation
Dynamic reservoir model used to:

• Assess different field development options

• Predict reservoir performance and

• Determine location and distribution of unswept hydrocarbons

 Model Construction
Construct 3D geological model of reservoir structure and stratigraphy
(Earth model or Static Geomodel)

Static model generated from log and core data and defines:

• The top surface structure and reservoir layering

• The thickness and net to gross of each reservoir layer

• The porosity and permeability of each layer

• The presence of faults or shales (barriers to flow)

 Model Construction
• Fine scaled static 3D models built can consist of millions of cells
• Usually upscaled to coarser 3D grid to define flow units for simulation
• Reservoir simulation gridblock dimensions x, y and z (for 3D) specified

• Define:
• Fluid properties (PVT data)
• Relative permeabilities and capillary pressure data as functions of saturation
• Pore volume compressibility

• Specify initial reservoir pressure at chosen datum level

• Include production and injection well locations

• Horizontal, deviated or vertical wells represented in the 3D grid

• Analytical or numerical aquifers also included
 History Matching
• Process of comparing simulated with actual reservoir performance

• Data compared:

• Pressure
• Water cuts
• GOR’s

• Adjustments made to parameters consistent with known reservoir properties

and geological concepts to improve the history match.
 Prediction
Excellent tool for predicting outcome of reservoir management decisions

Model used for many different studies:

• Assess development options based on well or facilities constraints

• Predict future reservoir performance

• Determine the location of infill wells

• Assess benefits of an enhanced oil recovery programme.

Field Development Process
Well Testing
We need to know :
Is there a reservoir ?

What does it contain ?

At what rate will it produce ?

For how long ?

What are the reservoir properties?

What facilities will be required and when ?

What hazards are there ?

 Pre-Drilling phase
Data Source Possible Analysis
Seismic Identify possible Accumulations
Regional Information Qualitative Accumulation size and
shape using assumed Velocity Profile
Hydrocarbon Prospectivity
(Seismic oddities / regional information)

Degree Of Development Uncertainty = Very High

 Drilling a Well
• Data Source Possible Analysis

• Mud Log Lithology

• Hydrocarbon Shows Geological Profile
• Core Samples Depositional Environment
• MWD Logs Qualitative presence of Hydrocarbons
Pressure Regime (Qualitative)
Formation Characteristics at the wellbore
Fluid Contacts
Near-wellbore petrophysical parameters

Degree Of Development Uncertainty = High

 Open Hole logging
Data Source Possible Analysis

Well Logs Near-well formation characteristics

VSP [Vertical Seismic Profile]
RFT Samples
Hydrocarbon Contacts
Lithology
Qualitative HC mobility
Qualitative presence of Hydrocarbons (HC)
Confirm Seismic velocity profile
Firm-up structure mapping
Quantitative Pressure regime
Qualitative HC PVT analysis

Degree Of Development Uncertainty = High

 Inflow Test
• Data Source Possible Analysis

• Transient Pressure Response Near-well formation characteristics

• Samples Near-Well Productivity Index
Additional qualitative PVT analysis

Degree Of Development Uncertainty = High

 Conventional Well Testing
Data Source Possible Analysis

Transient pressure response Bulk reservoir properties

Pseudo Steady State Response
Bulk HC Samples
Near-well boundaries
Ideal Productivity Index
Extended HC PVT Analysis
Trace Element analysis (qualitative)
Processing characteristics of the HC
Formation Integrity (sanding tendency
under high drawdown)

Degree Of Development Uncertainty = Medium

 Extended Well Testing
Data Source Possible Analysis

Steady State Pressure Response Establish Reservoir extent

Surface Process Monitoring Pressure support mechanisms
Wellsite Chemistry Development Strategy
Optimise Process Facility design
Measure Completion Performance
Calibrate design
programs, etc.
Stabilised trace element analysis
(H2S, etc)

Degree Of Development Uncertainty = Medium / Low

(is decreased further only with additional wells)
 Purpose of Well Tests
• Determine the ability of formation to produce reservoir fluids

• Determine the nature of fluids and fluid contacts

• Evaluate reservoir pressure, permeability, skin

• Obtain representative fluid samples

• Investigate well productivity

• Identify reservoir barriers and limits

 Well Test Planning
 Preparation is the key t a safe and successful well test

 Routine well test, 2-3 months from expected TD

 For unconventional operations (HPHT, EWT, stimulation etc), 6-12 months

 Testing operations commence once the well has its fi al casing/liner string in
place and final logs have been completed.
 Surface Equipment
• Actual surface equipment supplied dependent on the following:-

• Type of Environment
• Type of Rig - Fixed / Floating
• Well Conditions
• High or Low Pressure
• High or Low Temperature
• Gas or Oil or Water or some combination
• H2S or CO2 or both
• Viscous, waxy or foaming crude oil
• Well Productivity
 Function of well test equipment
• Management of pressure reduction from well to disposal system

• Heating if required of produced fluids

• Removal of any produced solids

• Separation of produced oil, water & gas

• Disposal of produced fluid

• Data acquisition, rates, pressures & fluid samples

Well test equipment
 Choke manifold
• Function
• Primary pressure drop , flow control
• Consists of an “adjustable” and a “fixed” choke
• Size of choke is usually given in 64ths of an inch, equivalent bore
• Adjustables used for clean-up period
• Fixed used once pressure has stabilised

ADJUSTABLE CHOKE TIP Adjustable choke

DIRECTION OF FLOW
Fixed choke
 Heater
Function

• To increase the temperature of the produced fluid downstream of the choke

manifold
• Improved separation efficiency

• To provide a choke in a heated environment

• Avoidance of hydrate formation

• Two main types, direct & indirect

 Separator
Function

• Separation of produced oil, water & gas

• Rate measurement of produced fluid
• Provision of sampling points for re-combination samples
Horizontal separator
Vertical separator

Horizontal separators
Primarily used for high liquid content
wells

Vertical separators
Primarily used for high gas content wells
 WELL TESTING
• Estimation of Formation Permeability
• Estimation of Skin
• Estimation of Reservoir Pressure
• Estimation of Reservoir Boundary
• Estimation of Reservoir Fluid Type
• Estimation of Reservoir Depletion Profile
• Identification of Faults
• Estimation of Drive Mechanisms
• Estimation of Flow Potential
• Estimation of potential communication between reservoirs
 WELL TEST PROCESS & CATEGORISATION
• Procedure
• Well allowed to flow and corresponding BHP monitored with pressure bomb
or memory gauge over time
• Step change in pressure and flow monitored
• Pressure vs time data analysed
• Sampling for PVT [Pressure, Volume, Temperature, Time]

• Categories
• In accordance with operational procedure
• In accordance with Data Analysis
• In accordance with applications
• In accordance with development process
WELL TESTING PROCESS
 WELL TEST CATEGORIES
• Stabilised Well Tests
• Data acquired when
• Well is flowing in a stabilized flow when pressure in the drainage area are
constant – Steady State Flow
• Well flowing in stabilized flow with pressure changing linearly with time –
Semi or Pseudo-steady state
• Single values of Pwf & Flow rate recorded

• Transient Well Tests

• Data acquired over a range of time

• Possible in exploratory, production & injection wells

• In Exploratory Wells
• Transient
• Stabilised
• DST [Drill Stem Testing]

• In Development Wells
• Transient not very useful but Drawdown can help
• Stabilised flow
• DST

• In Injection Well
• Stabilised flow
 TEST TYPES
• Closed Chamber Test
• Constant Pressure Flow Test
• Drillstem Test [DST]
• Exploration Well Test
• Formation Test
• Horizontal Well Test
• Impulse Test
• Multilayer Transient Test
• Multirate Test
Production Log Test
Pulse Test
Pumped Well Test
Test While Perforating
Stabilised Flow Test
Interference Test
Production/Injection Well Test
Extended Well Test [EWT]
Repeat Formation Test [RFT
 TEST TYPE
CLOSED CHAMBER TEST CONSTANT PRESSURE FLOW TEST

• Specialised DST Step change in pressure instead of flow

• Uses additional valve in DST + rate
water cushion
Measurement of flow rate with spinner
tool
• Conducted in open hole or
perforated completions
EXPLORATION WELL TEST
• Determination of well flow
potential
• Sampling for PVT analysis
• Stabilised flow test to find q
@ Pwh
• Transient reservoir
characterisation
• P, k, heterogeneity and
reservoir limit
FORMATION TEST
• Not a traditional well test
• Wireline formation test
-Sidewall testing with fluid
flow to tool
-Pressure build-up when flow
stops
• Data Generated
-PR vs Depth
-Static pressure profile
HORIZONTAL WELL TEST
• Test tool above lateral
section[As shown]
• Useful for kv/kh analysis
 IMPULSE TEST
• Applied in underbalanced perforating
• Function of step rate change as a
function of time
MULTILAYER TRANSIENT TEST MULTIRATE
• Combination of multirate, • Pressure monitoring for a
production logging, stabilised succession of flow rates @
testing & analysis surface

• Useful to distinguish
apparent skin from rate
dependent skin [Turbulent
skin]
MULTIWELL INTERFERENCE TEST
• Involves 1 active well and 1 or
more observation wells
• Active well is flowed
• Gauges in observation well
record changes in active well
conditions
• No response = No
communication!
PRODUCTION/ INJECTION WELL TEST
• Transient test involving use of
downhole shut-in tools instead of
surface
• Data:
K, PR, s determined in short period!
<10hrs?
PRODUCTION LOG TEST PULSE TEST
• Combines PLT acquired while • Multiwell interference test in which
flowing well or shut-in with active well is repeatedly pulsed with
drawdown & pressure build-up each drawdown/build-up sequence
• Transient tests for which P & q lasting a few hours.
are measured continuously @
sand face
• PLT provides velocity & fluid
phase
• Helps determine formation
thickness and penetration ratio
 TEST WHILE PERFORATING
• Perforation gun run with DST

• Tubing conveyed or Wireline testing

• Well tested after perforating

• Memory gauge monitor completion performance

• Data Output:
• PR, k, & completion skin
 STABILISED FLOW TEST
• Measures Pwf @ one or more surface rates
• Example:
• Flow-after-flow tests : Series of flow tests at a succession of surface rates
• RFT – Repeat formation testing
• EWT – Extended well test
• When stability is achieved then Pwf is recorded
• Applied to liquid flow
• For Gas Flow test
• Called Back pressure test
• Direct measurement of IPR, PI for single phase reservoirs
• Can also quantify non-Darcy flow coefficients in production wells as well as
parting pressures in injection wells
• ISOCHRONAL TEST : When pressure measurements are carried out in equal
flow durations
 STABILISED FLOW ANALYSIS
qs 7.08kh
PI  
P  Pwf  Pskin   re  
Bo  ln   s 
  rw  
qs Bo 
Pskin  *s
7.08kh

Bo,  obtained from sampling & PVT data analysis

rw is known
k, re, s are unknown – Obtained from Transient well test
 TRANSIENT WELL TESTS
• Unsteady state flow conditions
• Pressure measurement over transient time
• Examples :
• Pressure Build-up or Falloff Test
• Measuring pressure variation after shutting in the well
• Pressure Drawdown or Injection Test
• Measuring pressure variation with well flowing @ constant rate
or at stepped up rates
 EXAMPLE SUMMARY OF WELL TESTS
• Periodic Production Test
• To determine relative quantities of oil, gas and water produced under
normal producing conditions
• Productivity/Deliverability Test
• Performed on initial completion to determine the capability of a well
• Transient Pressure Tests(PBU, PDD, Well Interference, Multirate Test
• To determine formation properties
• Drive mechanisms
• Formation Damage, etc
• Drill Stem Testing
• Temporary completion of a well to determine productive characteristics of
a specific zone.