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5/31/23, 9:06 AM Sea - Wikipedia
Sea
A sea is a large body of salty water. There are

particular seas and the sea. The sea commonly
refers to the ocean, the wider body of seawater.
Particular seas are either marginal seas, second-order
sections of the oceanic sea (e.g. the Mediterranean
Sea), or certain large, nearly or completely landlocked
(e.g. the Caspian Sea).
The salinity of water bodies varies widely, being lower

near the surface and the mouths of large rivers and
higher in the depths of the ocean; however, the relative
proportions of dissolved salts vary little across the Coastal sea waves at Paracas National Reserve,
oceans. The most abundant solid dissolved in seawater Ica, Peru
is sodium chloride. The water also contains salts of
magnesium, calcium, potassium, and mercury,
amongst many other elements, some in minute concentrations.
The ocean moderates Earth's climate and has important roles in the water, carbon, and nitrogen
cycles. The surface of water interacts with the atmosphere, exchanging properties such as particles
and temperature, as well as currents. Surface currents are the water currents that are produced by the
atmosphere's currents and its winds blowing over the surface of the water, producing wind waves,
setting up through drag slow but stable circulations of water, as in the case of the ocean sustaining
deep-sea ocean currents. Deep-sea currents, known together as the global conveyor belt, carry cold
water from near the poles to every ocean and significantly influence Earth's climate. Tides, the
generally twice-daily rise and fall of sea levels, are caused by Earth's rotation and the gravitational
effects of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, of the Sun. Tides may have a very high range in bays or
estuaries. Submarine earthquakes arising from tectonic plate movements under the oceans can lead to
destructive tsunamis, as can volcanoes, huge landslides, or the impact of large meteorites.
A wide variety of organisms, including bacteria, protists, algae, plants, fungi, and animals, lives in the
seas, which offers a wide range of marine habitats and ecosystems, ranging vertically from the sunlit
surface and shoreline to the great depths and pressures of the cold, dark abyssal zone, and in latitude
from the cold waters under polar ice caps to the warm waters of coral reefs in tropical regions. Many
of the major groups of organisms evolved in the sea and life may have started there.
The seas have been an integral element for humans throughout history and culture. Humans
harnessing and studying the seas have been recorded since ancient times, and evidenced well into
prehistory, while its modern scientific study is called oceanography and maritime space is governed
by the law of the sea, with admiralty law regulating human interactions at sea. The seas provide
substantial supplies of food for humans, mainly fish, but also shellfish, mammals and seaweed,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea 1/45
whether caught by fishermen or farmed underwater. Other human uses of the seas include trade,
travel, mineral extraction, power generation, warfare, and leisure activities such as swimming, sailing,
and scuba diving. Many of these activities create marine pollution.
Definition
The sea is the interconnected system of
all the Earth's oceanic waters, including
the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Southern
and Arctic Oceans.[1] However, the word
"sea" can also be used for many specific,
much smaller bodies of seawater, such
as the North Sea or the Red Sea. There is
no sharp distinction between seas and
oceans, though generally seas are
smaller, and are often partly (as
marginal seas or particularly as a
Oceans and marginal seas as defined by the International Maritime
mediterranean sea) or wholly (as inland
Organization
seas) enclosed by land.[2] However, an
exception to this is the Sargasso Sea
which has no coastline and lies within a circular current, the North Atlantic Gyre.[3]: 90 Seas are
generally larger than lakes and contain salt water, but the Sea of Galilee is a freshwater lake.[4][a] The
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea states that all of the ocean is "sea".[8][9][b]
Legal definition
The law of the sea has at its center the definition of the boundaries of the ocean, clarifying its
application in marginal seas. But what bodies of water other than the sea the law applies to is being
crucially negotiated in the case of the Caspian Sea and its status as "sea", basically revolving around
the issue of the Caspian Sea about either being factually an oceanic sea or only a saline body of water
and therefore solely a sea in the sense of the common use of the word, like all other saltwater lakes
called sea.
Physical science
Earth is the only known planet with seas of liquid
water on its surface,[3]: 22 although Mars possesses ice
caps and similar planets in other solar systems may
have oceans.[11] Earth's 1,335,000,000 cubic
kilometers (320,000,000 cu mi) of sea contain about
97.2 percent of its known water[12][c] and cover
approximately 71 percent of its surface.[3]: 7 [17] Another
2.15% of Earth's water is frozen, found in the sea ice
Composite images of the Earth created by NASA
covering the Arctic Ocean, the ice cap covering
in 2001
Antarctica and its adjacent seas, and various glaciers
and surface deposits around the world. The remainder
(about 0.65% of the whole) form underground
reservoirs or various stages of the water cycle, containing the freshwater encountered and used by
most terrestrial life: vapor in the air, the clouds it slowly forms, the rain falling from them, and the
lakes and rivers spontaneously formed as its waters flow again and again to the sea.[12]
The scientific study of water and Earth's water cycle is hydrology; hydrodynamics studies the physics
of water in motion. The more recent study of the sea in particular is oceanography. This began as the
study of the shape of the ocean's currents[18] but has since expanded into a large and multidisciplinary
field:[19] it examines the properties of seawater; studies waves, tides, and currents; charts coastlines
and maps the seabeds; and studies marine life.[20] The subfield dealing with the sea's motion, its
forces, and the forces acting upon it is known as physical oceanography.[21] Marine biology (biological
oceanography) studies the plants, animals, and other organisms inhabiting marine ecosystems. Both
are informed by chemical oceanography, which studies the behavior of elements and molecules within
the oceans: particularly, at the moment, the ocean's role in the carbon cycle and carbon dioxide's role
in the increasing acidification of seawater. Marine and maritime geography charts the shape and
shaping of the sea, while marine geology (geological oceanography) has provided evidence of
continental drift and the composition and structure of the Earth, clarified the process of
sedimentation, and assisted the study of volcanism and earthquakes.[19]
Seawater
Salinity
A characteristic of seawater is that it is salty. Salinity is

usually measured in parts per thousand ( ‰ or per
mil), and the open ocean has about 35 grams (1.2 oz)
solids per litre, a salinity of 35 ‰. The Mediterranean
Sea is slightly higher at 38 ‰,[22] while the salinity of
Salinity map taken from the Aquarius Spacecraft. the northern Red Sea can reach 41‰.[23] In contrast,
The rainbow colours represent salinity levels: red
some landlocked hypersaline lakes have a much higher
= 40 ‰, purple = 30 ‰
salinity, for example, the Dead Sea has 300 grams
(11 oz) dissolved solids per litre (300 ‰).
While the constituents of table salt (sodium and chloride) make up about 85 percent of the solids in
solution, there are also other metal ions such as magnesium and calcium, and negative ions including
sulphate, carbonate, and bromide. Despite variations in the levels of salinity in different seas, the
relative composition of the dissolved salts is stable throughout the world's oceans.[24][25] Seawater is
too saline for humans to drink safely, as the kidneys cannot excrete urine as salty as seawater.[26]
Although the amount of salt in the ocean remains relatively constant within the scale of millions of
years, various factors affect the salinity of a body of water.[27] Evaporation and by-product of ice
formation (known as "brine rejection") increase salinity, whereas precipitation, sea ice melt, and
runoff from land reduce it.[27] The Baltic Sea, for example, has many rivers flowing into it, and thus
the sea could be considered as brackish.[28] Meanwhile, the Red Sea is very salty due to its high
evaporation rate.[29]
Temperature
Sea temperature depends on the amount of solar

radiation falling on its surface. In the tropics, with Major solutes in seawater (3.5% salinity)[25]
the sun nearly overhead, the temperature of the Solute Concentration (‰) % of total salts
surface layers can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F) while
near the poles the temperature in equilibrium with Chloride 19.3 55
the sea ice is about −2 °C (28 °F). There is a Sodium 10.8 30.6
continuous circulation of water in the oceans.
Sulphate 2.7 7.7
Warm surface currents cool as they move away
from the tropics, and the water becomes denser Magnesium 1.3 3.7
and sinks. The cold water moves back towards the Calcium 0.41 1.2
equator as a deep sea current, driven by changes in
Potassium 0.40 1.1
the temperature and density of the water, before
eventually welling up again towards the surface. Bicarbonate 0.10 0.4
Deep seawater has a temperature between −2 °C Bromide 0.07 0.2
(28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F) in all parts of the globe.[30]
Carbonate 0.01 0.05
Seawater with a typical salinity of 35 ‰ has a Strontium 0.01 0.04
freezing point of about −1.8 °C (28.8 °F). When its
temperature becomes low enough, ice crystals form Borate 0.01 0.01
on the surface. These break into small pieces and Fluoride 0.001 <0.01
coalesce into flat discs that form a thick suspension
All other solutes <0.001 <0.01
known as frazil. In calm conditions, this freezes
into a thin flat sheet known as nilas, which
thickens as new ice forms on its underside. In more turbulent seas, frazil crystals join into flat discs
known as pancakes. These slide under each other and coalesce to form floes. In the process of
freezing, salt water and air are trapped between the ice crystals. Nilas may have a salinity of 12–15 ‰,
but by the time the sea ice is one year old, this falls to 4–6 ‰.[31]
pH value
Seawater is slightly alkaline and had an average pH of about 8.2 over the past 300 million years.[32]
More recently, climate change has resulted in an increase of the carbon dioxide content of the
atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and
lowering the pH (now below 8.1[32]) through a process called ocean acidification.[33][34][35] The extent
of further ocean chemistry changes, including ocean pH, will depend on climate change mitigation
efforts taken by nations and their governments.[36]
The current rate of ocean chemistry change appears to be without precedent in Earth's geological
history, making it unclear how well marine ecosystems will be able to adapt to the shifting conditions
of the near future.[37] Of particular concern is the manner in which the combination of acidification
with the expected additional stressors of higher temperatures and lower oxygen levels will impact the
seas.[38]
Oxygen concentration
The amount of oxygen found in seawater depends primarily on the plants growing in it. These are
mainly algae, including phytoplankton, with some vascular plants such as seagrasses. In daylight, the
photosynthetic activity of these plants produces oxygen, which dissolves in the seawater and is used
by marine animals. At night, photosynthesis stops, and the amount of dissolved oxygen declines. In
the deep sea, where insufficient light penetrates for plants to grow, there is very little dissolved
oxygen. In its absence, organic material is broken down by anaerobic bacteria producing hydrogen
sulphide.[39]
Climate change is likely to reduce levels of oxygen in surface waters since the solubility of oxygen in
water falls at higher temperatures.[40] Ocean deoxygenation is projected to increase hypoxia by 10%,
and triple suboxic waters (oxygen concentrations 98% less than the mean surface concentrations), for
each 1 °C of upper-ocean warming.[41]
Light
The amount of light that penetrates the sea depends on the angle of the sun, the weather conditions
and the turbidity of the water. Much light gets reflected at the surface, and red light gets absorbed in
the top few metres. Yellow and green light reach greater depths, and blue and violet light may
penetrate as deep as 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). There is insufficient light for photosynthesis and plant
growth beyond a depth of about 200 metres (660 ft).[42]
Sea level
Over most of geologic time, the sea level has been higher than it is today.[3]: 74 The main factor
affecting sea level over time is the result of changes in the oceanic crust, with a downward trend
expected to continue in the very long term.[43] At the last glacial maximum, some 20,000 years ago,
the sea level was about 125 metres (410 ft) lower than in present times (2012).[44]
For at least the last 100 years, sea level has been rising at an average rate of about 1.8 millimetres
(0.071 in) per year.[45] Most of this rise can be attributed to an increase in the temperature of the sea
due to climate change, and the resulting slight thermal expansion of the upper 500 metres (1,600 ft)
of water. Additional contributions, as much as one quarter of the total, come from water sources on
land, such as melting snow and glaciers and extraction of groundwater for irrigation and other
agricultural and human needs.[46]
Waves
Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves that
are perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The friction
between air and water caused by a gentle breeze on a pond causes
ripples to form. A strong blow over the ocean causes larger waves
as the moving air pushes against the raised ridges of water. The
waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they
are travelling nearly matches the speed of the wind. In open water,
0:13
when the wind blows continuously as happens in the Southern
Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties, long, organised masses of
Movement of molecules as waves
water called swell roll across the ocean.[3]: 83–84 [47][48][d] If the pass
wind dies down, the wave formation is reduced, but already-
formed waves continue to travel in their original direction until
they meet land. The size of the waves depends on the fetch, the distance that the wind has blown over
the water and the strength and duration of that wind. When waves meet others coming from different
directions, interference between the two can produce broken, irregular seas.[47] Constructive
interference can cause individual (unexpected) rogue waves much

higher than normal.[49] Most waves are less than 3 m (10 ft)
high[49] and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple
that height;[50] offshore construction such as wind farms and oil
platforms use metocean statistics from measurements in
computing the wave forces (due to for instance the hundred-year
wave) they are designed against.[51] Rogue waves, however, have When the wave enters shallow
been documented at heights above 25 meters (82 ft).[52][53] water, it slows down and its
amplitude (height) increases.
The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between
waves is the trough and the distance between the crests is the
wavelength. The wave is pushed across the surface of the sea by the wind, but this represents a
transfer of energy and not a horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and move into
shallow water, they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend (refraction) or
wrap rocks and headlands (diffraction). When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillations
of the water contact the seabed, they begin to slow down. This pulls the crests closer together and
increases the waves' height, which is called wave shoaling. When the ratio of the wave's height to the
water depth increases above a certain limit, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass of foaming water.[49]
This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the sea under the influence of gravity.[47]
Tsunami
A tsunami is an unusual form of wave caused by an infrequent

powerful event such as an underwater earthquake or landslide, a
meteorite impact, a volcanic eruption or a collapse of land into the
sea. These events can temporarily lift or lower the surface of the
sea in the affected area, usually by a few feet. The potential energy
of the displaced seawater is turned into kinetic energy, creating a
shallow wave, a tsunami, radiating outwards at a velocity
proportional to the square root of the depth of the water and
The 2004 tsunami in Thailand which therefore travels much faster in the open ocean than on a
continental shelf.[54] In the deep open sea, tsunamis have
wavelengths of around 80 to 300 miles (130 to 480 km), travel at
speeds of over 600 miles per hour (970 km/h)[55] and usually have a height of less than three feet, so
they often pass unnoticed at this stage.[56] In contrast, ocean surface waves caused by winds have
wavelengths of a few hundred feet, travel at up to 65 miles per hour (105 km/h) and are up to 45 feet
(14 metres) high.[56]
As a tsunami moves into shallower water its speed decreases, its wavelength shortens and its
amplitude increases enormously,[56] behaving in the same way as a wind-generated wave in shallow
water but on a vastly greater scale. Either the trough or the crest of a tsunami can arrive at the coast
first.[54] In the former case, the sea draws back and leaves subtidal areas close to the shore exposed
which provides a useful warning for people on land.[57] When the crest arrives, it does not usually
break but rushes inland, flooding all in its path. Much of the destruction may be caused by the flood
water draining back into the sea after the tsunami has struck, dragging debris and people with it.
Often several tsunami are caused by a single geological event and arrive at intervals of between eight
minutes and two hours. The first wave to arrive on shore may not be the biggest or most
destructive.[54]
Currents
Wind blowing over the surface of the sea causes

friction at the interface between air and sea. Not only
does this cause waves to form, but it also makes the
surface seawater move in the same direction as the
wind. Although winds are variable, in any one place
they predominantly blow from a single direction and
thus a surface current can be formed. Westerly winds
are most frequent in the mid-latitudes while easterlies
dominate the tropics.[58] When water moves in this Surface currents: red–warm, blue–cold
way, other water flows in to fill the gap and a circular
movement of surface currents known as a gyre is
formed. There are five main gyres in the world's oceans: two in the Pacific, two in the Atlantic and one
in the Indian Ocean. Other smaller gyres are found in lesser seas and a single gyre flows around
Antarctica. These gyres have followed the same routes for millennia, guided by the topography of the
land, the wind direction and the Coriolis effect. The surface currents flow in a clockwise direction in
the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The water moving away
from the equator is warm, and that flowing in the reverse direction has lost most of its heat. These
currents tend to moderate the Earth's climate, cooling the equatorial region and warming regions at
higher latitudes.[59] Global climate and weather forecasts are powerfully affected by the world ocean,
so global climate modelling makes use of ocean circulation models as well as models of other major
components such as the atmosphere, land surfaces, aerosols and sea ice.[60] Ocean models make use
of a branch of physics, geophysical fluid dynamics, that describes the large-scale flow of fluids such as
seawater.[61]
Surface currents only affect the top few hundred

metres of the sea, but there are also large-scale flows in
the ocean depths caused by the movement of deep
water masses. A main deep ocean current flows
through all the world's oceans and is known as the
thermohaline circulation or global conveyor belt. This
movement is slow and is driven by differences in
density of the water caused by variations in salinity
and temperature.[62] At high latitudes the water is
chilled by the low atmospheric temperature and
becomes saltier as sea ice crystallizes out. Both these The global conveyor belt shown in blue with
factors make it denser, and the water sinks. From the warmer surface currents in red
deep sea near Greenland, such water flows southwards
between the continental landmasses on either side of
the Atlantic. When it reaches the Antarctic, it is joined by further masses of cold, sinking water and
flows eastwards. It then splits into two streams that move northwards into the Indian and Pacific
Oceans. Here it is gradually warmed, becomes less dense, rises towards the surface and loops back on
itself. It takes a thousand years for this circulation pattern to be completed.[59]
Besides gyres, there are temporary surface currents that occur under specific conditions. When waves
meet a shore at an angle, a longshore current is created as water is pushed along parallel to the
coastline. The water swirls up onto the beach at right angles to the approaching waves but drains away
straight down the slope under the effect of gravity. The larger the breaking waves, the longer the
beach and the more oblique the wave approach, the stronger is the longshore current.[63] These
currents can shift great volumes of sand or pebbles, create spits and make beaches disappear and
water channels silt up.[59] A rip current can occur when water piles up near the shore from advancing
waves and is funnelled out to sea through a channel in the seabed. It may occur at a gap in a sandbar
or near a man-made structure such as a groyne. These strong currents can have a velocity of 3 ft
(0.9 m) per second, can form at different places at different stages of the tide and can carry away
unwary bathers.[64] Temporary upwelling currents occur when the wind pushes water away from the
land and deeper water rises to replace it. This cold water is often rich in nutrients and creates blooms
of phytoplankton and a great increase in the productivity of the sea.[59]
Tides
Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by
seas and oceans in response to the gravitational influences of the
Moon and the Sun, and the effects of the Earth's rotation. During
each tidal cycle, at any given place the water rises to a maximum
height known as "high tide" before ebbing away again to the
minimum "low tide" level. As the water recedes, it uncovers more
and more of the foreshore, also known as the intertidal zone. The
difference in height between the high tide and low tide is known as
the tidal range or tidal amplitude.[65][66]
High tides (blue) at the nearest and Most places experience two high tides each day, occurring at
furthest points of the Earth from theintervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes. This is half the 24
Moon hours and 50 minute period that it takes for the Earth to make a
complete revolution and return the Moon to its previous position
relative to an observer. The Moon's mass is some 27 million times
smaller than the Sun, but it is 400 times closer to the Earth.[67] Tidal force or tide-raising force
decreases rapidly with distance, so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the
Sun.[67] A bulge is formed in the ocean at the place where the Earth is closest to the Moon because it
is also where the effect of the Moon's gravity is stronger. On the opposite side of the Earth, the lunar
force is at its weakest and this causes another bulge to form. As the Moon rotates around the Earth, so
do these ocean bulges move around the Earth. The gravitational attraction of the Sun is also working
on the seas, but its effect on tides is less powerful than that of the Moon, and when the Sun, Moon and
Earth are all aligned (full moon and new moon), the combined effect results in the high "spring tides".
In contrast, when the Sun is at 90° from the Moon as viewed from Earth, the combined gravitational
effect on tides is less causing the lower "neap tides".[65]
A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow area and this,
coupled with a low-pressure system, can raise the surface of the sea at high tide dramatically.
Ocean basins
The Earth is composed of a magnetic central core, a

mostly liquid mantle and a hard rigid outer shell (or
lithosphere), which is composed of the Earth's rocky
crust and the deeper mostly solid outer layer of the
mantle. On land the crust is known as the continental
crust while under the sea it is known as the oceanic
crust. The latter is composed of relatively dense basalt
and is some five to ten kilometres (three to six miles)
thick. The relatively thin lithosphere floats on the
weaker and hotter mantle below and is fractured into a Three types of plate boundary
number of tectonic plates.[68] In mid-ocean, magma is
constantly being thrust through the seabed between
adjoining plates to form mid-oceanic ridges and here convection currents within the mantle tend to
drive the two plates apart. Parallel to these ridges and nearer the coasts, one oceanic plate may slide
beneath another oceanic plate in a process known as subduction. Deep trenches are formed here and
the process is accompanied by friction as the plates grind together. The movement proceeds in jerks
which cause earthquakes, heat is produced and magma is forced up creating underwater mountains,
some of which may form chains of volcanic islands near to deep trenches. Near some of the
boundaries between the land and sea, the slightly denser oceanic plates slide beneath the continental
plates and more subduction trenches are formed. As they grate together, the continental plates are
deformed and buckle causing mountain building and seismic activity.[69][70]
The Earth's deepest trench is the Mariana Trench which extends for about 2,500 kilometres
(1,600 mi) across the seabed. It is near the Mariana Islands, a volcanic archipelago in the West
Pacific. Its deepest point is 10.994 kilometres (nearly 7 miles) below the surface of the sea.[71]
Coasts
The zone where land meets sea is known as the coast and the part
between the lowest spring tides and the upper limit reached by
splashing waves is the shore. A beach is the accumulation of sand
or shingle on the shore.[72] A headland is a point of land jutting
out into the sea and a larger promontory is known as a cape. The
indentation of a coastline, especially between two headlands, is a
bay, a small bay with a narrow inlet is a cove and a large bay may
be referred to as a gulf.[73] Coastlines are influenced by several Praia da Marinha in Algarve,
factors including the strength of the waves arriving on the shore, Portugal
the gradient of the land margin, the composition and hardness of
the coastal rock, the inclination of the off-shore slope and the
changes of the level of the land due to local uplift or submergence. Normally, waves roll towards the
shore at the rate of six to eight per minute and these are known as constructive waves as they tend to
move material up the beach and have little erosive effect. Storm waves arrive on shore in rapid
succession and are known as destructive waves as the swash moves beach material seawards. Under
their influence, the sand and shingle on the beach is ground together and abraded. Around high tide,
the power of a storm wave impacting on the foot of a cliff has a shattering effect as air in cracks and
crevices is compressed and then expands rapidly with release of pressure. At the same time, sand and
pebbles have an erosive effect as they are thrown against the rocks. This tends to undercut the cliff,
and normal weathering processes such as the action of frost follows, causing further destruction.
Gradually, a wave-cut platform develops at the foot of the cliff and this has a protective effect,
reducing further wave-erosion.[72]
Material worn from the margins of the land eventually ends up in the sea.
Here it is subject to attrition as currents flowing parallel to the coast
scour out channels and transport sand and pebbles away from their place
of origin. Sediment carried to the sea by rivers settles on the seabed
causing deltas to form in estuaries. All these materials move back and
forth under the influence of waves, tides and currents.[72] Dredging
removes material and deepens channels but may have unexpected effects
elsewhere on the coastline. Governments make efforts to prevent flooding
of the land by the building of breakwaters, seawalls, dykes and levees and
other sea defences. For instance, the Thames Barrier is designed to
protect London from a storm surge,[74] while the failure of the dykes and
levees around New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina created a The Baltic Sea in the
humanitarian crisis in the United States. archipelago of Turku,
Finland
Water cycle
The sea plays a part in the water or hydrological cycle, in which water evaporates from the ocean,
travels through the atmosphere as vapour, condenses, falls as rain or snow, thereby sustaining life on
land, and largely returns to the sea.[75] Even in the Atacama Desert, where little rain ever falls, dense
clouds of fog known as the camanchaca blow in from the sea and support plant life.[76]
In central Asia and other large land masses, there are endorheic basins which have no outlet to the
sea, separated from the ocean by mountains or other natural geologic features that prevent the water
draining away. The Caspian Sea is the largest one of these. Its main inflow is from the River Volga,
there is no outflow and the evaporation of water makes it saline as dissolved minerals accumulate.
The Aral Sea in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, and Pyramid Lake in the western United States are
further examples of large, inland saline water-bodies without drainage. Some endorheic lakes are less
salty, but all are sensitive to variations in the quality of the inflowing water.[77]
Carbon cycle
Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in the world and are second only to the
lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store.[78] The oceans' surface layer holds large amounts of
dissolved organic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's
concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon is about 15 percent higher than that of the surface
layer[79] and it remains there for much longer periods of time.[80] Thermohaline circulation
exchanges carbon between these two layers.[78]
Carbon enters the ocean as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the surface layers and is
converted into carbonic acid, carbonate, and bicarbonate:[81]
CO2 (gas) ⇌ CO2 (aq)

CO2 (aq) + H2O ⇌ H2CO3
H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3− + H+
HCO3− ⇌ CO32− + H+
It can also enter through rivers as dissolved organic carbon and is converted by photosynthetic
organisms into organic carbon. This can either be exchanged throughout the food chain or
precipitated into the deeper, more carbon-rich layers as dead soft tissue or in shells and bones as
calcium carbonate. It circulates in this layer for long periods of time before either being deposited as
sediment or being returned to surface waters through thermohaline circulation.[80]
Life in the sea

The oceans are home to a diverse collection of life forms that use it as a
habitat. Since sunlight illuminates only the upper layers, the major part
of the ocean exists in permanent darkness. As the different depth and
temperature zones each provide habitat for a unique set of species, the
marine environment as a whole encompasses an immense diversity of
life.[82] Marine habitats range from surface water to the deepest oceanic
trenches, including coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, tidepools,
muddy, sandy and rocky seabeds, and the open pelagic zone. The
organisms living in the sea range from whales 30 metres (98 feet) long to
microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton, fungi, and bacteria. Marine
life plays an important part in the carbon cycle as photosynthetic
organisms convert dissolved carbon dioxide into organic carbon and it is
economically important to humans for providing fish for use as Coral reefs are among the
food.[83][84]: 204–229 most biodiverse habitats in
the world.
Life may have originated in the sea and all the major groups of animals
are represented there. Scientists differ as to precisely where in the sea life
arose: the Miller-Urey experiments suggested a dilute chemical "soup" in open water, but more recent
suggestions include volcanic hot springs, fine-grained clay sediments, or deep-sea "black smoker"
vents, all of which would have provided protection from damaging ultraviolet radiation which was not
blocked by the early Earth's atmosphere.[3]: 138–140
Marine habitats
Marine habitats can be divided horizontally into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats
extend from the shoreline to the edge of the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal
habitats, even though the shelf area occupies only 7 percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean
habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf. Alternatively, marine
habitats can be divided vertically into pelagic (open water), demersal (just above the seabed) and
benthic (sea bottom) habitats. A third division is by latitude: from polar seas with ice shelves, sea ice
and icebergs, to temperate and tropical waters.[3]: 150–151
Coral reefs, the so-called "rainforests of the sea", occupy less than 0.1 percent of the world's ocean
surface, yet their ecosystems include 25 percent of all marine species.[85] The best-known are tropical
coral reefs such as Australia's Great Barrier Reef, but cold water reefs harbour a wide array of species
including corals (only six of which contribute to reef formation).[3]: 204–207 [86]
Algae and plants
Marine primary producers – plants and microscopic organisms in the plankton – are widespread and
very essential for the ecosystem. It has been estimated that half of the world's oxygen is produced by
phytoplankton.[87][88] About 45 percent of the sea's primary production of living material is
contributed by diatoms.[89] Much larger algae, commonly known as seaweeds, are important locally;
Sargassum forms floating drifts, while kelp form seabed forests.[84]: 246–255 Flowering plants in the
form of seagrasses grow in "meadows" in sandy shallows,[90] mangroves line the coast in tropical and
subtropical regions[91] and salt-tolerant plants thrive in regularly inundated salt marshes.[92] All of
these habitats are able to sequester large quantities of carbon and support a biodiverse range of larger
and smaller animal life.[93]
Light is only able to penetrate the top 200 metres (660 ft) so this is the only part of the sea where
plants can grow.[42] The surface layers are often deficient in biologically active nitrogen compounds.
The marine nitrogen cycle consists of complex microbial transformations which include the fixation of
nitrogen, its assimilation, nitrification, anammox and denitrification.[94] Some of these processes take
place in deep water so that where there is an upwelling of cold waters, and also near estuaries where
land-sourced nutrients are present, plant growth is higher. This means that the most productive
areas, rich in plankton and therefore also in fish, are mainly coastal.[3]: 160–163
Animals and other marine life
There is a broader spectrum of higher animal taxa in the sea than on

land, many marine species have yet to be discovered and the number
known to science is expanding annually.[95] Some vertebrates such as
seabirds, seals and sea turtles return to the land to breed but fish,
cetaceans and sea snakes have a completely aquatic lifestyle and
many invertebrate phyla are entirely marine. In fact, the oceans teem
with life and provide many varying microhabitats.[95] One of these is A thornback cowfish
the surface film which, even though tossed about by the movement of
waves, provides a rich environment and is home to bacteria, fungi,
microalgae, protozoa, fish eggs and various larvae.[96]
The pelagic zone contains macro- and microfauna and myriad zooplankton which drift with the
currents. Most of the smallest organisms are the larvae of fish and marine invertebrates which
liberate eggs in vast numbers because the chance of any one embryo surviving to maturity is so
minute.[97] The zooplankton feed on phytoplankton and on each other and form a basic part of the
complex food chain that extends through variously sized fish and other nektonic organisms to large
squid, sharks, porpoises, dolphins and whales.[98] Some marine creatures make large migrations,
either to other regions of the ocean on a seasonal basis or vertical migrations daily, often ascending to
feed at night and descending to safety by day.[99] Ships can introduce or spread invasive species
through the discharge of ballast water or the transport of organisms that have accumulated as part of
the fouling community on the hulls of vessels.[100]
The demersal zone supports many animals that feed on benthic organisms or seek protection from
predators and the seabed provides a range of habitats on or under the surface of the substrate which
are used by creatures adapted to these conditions. The tidal zone with its periodic exposure to the
dehydrating air is home to barnacles, molluscs and crustaceans. The neritic zone has many organisms
that need light to flourish. Here, among algal-encrusted rocks live sponges, echinoderms, polychaete
worms, sea anemones and other invertebrates. Corals often contain photosynthetic symbionts and
live in shallow waters where light penetrates. The extensive calcareous skeletons they extrude build
up into coral reefs which are an important feature of the seabed. These provide a biodiverse habitat
for reef-dwelling organisms. There is less sea life on the floor of deeper seas but marine life also
flourishes around seamounts that rise from the depths, where fish and other animals congregate to
spawn and feed. Close to the seabed live demersal fish that feed largely on pelagic organisms or
benthic invertebrates.[101] Exploration of the deep sea by submersibles revealed a new world of
creatures living on the seabed that scientists had not previously known to exist. Some like the
detrivores rely on organic material falling to the ocean floor. Others cluster round deep sea
hydrothermal vents where mineral-rich flows of water emerge from the seabed, supporting
communities whose primary producers are sulphide-oxidising chemoautotrophic bacteria, and whose
consumers include specialised bivalves, sea anemones, barnacles, crabs, worms and fish, often found
nowhere else.[3]: 212 A dead whale sinking to the bottom of the ocean provides food for an assembly of
organisms which similarly rely largely on the actions of sulphur-reducing bacteria. Such places
support unique biomes where many new microbes and other lifeforms have been discovered.[102]
Humans and the sea
History of navigation and exploration
Humans have travelled the seas since

they first built sea-going craft.
Mesopotamians were using bitumen to
caulk their reed boats and, a little later,
masted sails.[103] By c. 3000 BC,
Austronesians on Taiwan had begun
spreading into maritime Southeast
Asia.[104] Subsequently, the
Austronesian "Lapita" peoples displayed Map showing the seaborne migration and expansion of the
great feats of navigation, reaching out Austronesians beginning at around 3000 BC
from the Bismarck Archipelago to as far
away as Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa.[105]
Their descendants continued to travel thousands of miles between tiny islands on outrigger
canoes,[106] and in the process they found many new islands, including Hawaii, Easter Island (Rapa
Nui), and New Zealand.[107]
The Ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians explored the Mediterranean and Red Sea with the Egyptian
Hannu reaching the Arabian Peninsula and the African Coast around 2750 BC.[108] In the first
millennium BC, Phoenicians and Greeks established colonies throughout the Mediterranean and the
Black Sea.[109] Around 500 BC, the Carthaginian navigator Hanno left a detailed periplus of an
Atlantic journey that reached at least Senegal and possibly Mount Cameroon.[110][111] In the early
Mediaeval period, the Vikings crossed the North Atlantic and even reached the northeastern fringes of
North America.[112] Novgorodians had also been sailing the White Sea since the 13th century or
before.[113] Meanwhile, the seas along the eastern and southern Asian coast were used by Arab and
Chinese traders.[114] The Chinese Ming Dynasty had a fleet of 317 ships with 37,000 men under Zheng
He in the early fifteenth century, sailing the Indian and Pacific Oceans.[3]: 12–13 In the late fifteenth
century, Western European mariners started making longer voyages of exploration in search of trade.
Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 and Vasco da Gama reached India via the
Cape in 1498. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cadiz in 1492, attempting to reach the eastern lands
of India and Japan by the novel means of travelling westwards. He made landfall instead on an island
in the Caribbean Sea and a few years later, the Venetian navigator John Cabot reached
Newfoundland. The Italian Amerigo Vespucci, after whom America was named, explored the South
American coastline in voyages made between 1497 and 1502, discovering the mouth of the Amazon
River.[3]: 12–13 In 1519 the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan led the Spanish Magellan-Elcano
expedition which would be the first to sail around the world.[3]: 12–13
As for the history of navigational instrument, a

compass was first used by the ancient Greeks and
Chinese to show where north lies and the direction in
which the ship is heading. The latitude (an angle which
ranges from 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles) was
determined by measuring the angle between the Sun,
Moon or a specific star and the horizon by the use of an
astrolabe, Jacob's staff or sextant. The longitude (a line
on the globe joining the two poles) could only be
calculated with an accurate chronometer to show the
exact time difference between the ship and a fixed
Gerardus Mercator's 1569 world map. The
point such as the Greenwich Meridian. In 1759, John
coastline of the old world is quite accurately
Harrison, a clockmaker, designed such an instrument
depicted, unlike that of the Americas. Regions in
and James Cook used it in his voyages of
high latitudes (Arctic, Antarctic) are greatly
exploration.[115] Nowadays, the Global Positioning
enlarged on this projection.
System (GPS) using over thirty satellites enables
accurate navigation worldwide.[115]
With regards to maps that are vital for navigation, in the second century, Ptolemy mapped the whole
known world from the "Fortunatae Insulae", Cape Verde or Canary Islands, eastward to the Gulf of
Thailand. This map was used in 1492 when Christopher Columbus set out on his voyages of
discovery.[116] Subsequently, Gerardus Mercator made a practical map of the world in 1538, his map
projection conveniently making rhumb lines straight.[3]: 12–13 By the eighteenth century better maps
had been made and part of the objective of James Cook on his voyages was to further map the ocean.
Scientific study has continued with the depth recordings of the Tuscarora, the oceanic research of the
Challenger voyages (1872–1876), the work of the Scandinavian seamen Roald Amundsen and Fridtjof
Nansen, the Michael Sars expedition in 1910, the German Meteor expedition of 1925, the Antarctic
survey work of Discovery II in 1932, and others since.[19] Furthermore, in 1921, the International
Hydrographic Organization (IHO) was set up, and it constitutes the world authority on hydrographic
surveying and nautical charting.[117] A fourth edition draft was published in 1986 but so far several
naming disputes (such as the one over the Sea of Japan) have prevented its ratification.
History of oceanography and deep sea exploration
Scientific oceanography began with the voyages of Captain James Cook from 1768 to 1779, describing
the Pacific with unprecedented precision from 71 degrees South to 71 degrees North.[3]: 14 John
Harrison's chronometers supported Cook's accurate navigation and charting on two of these voyages,
permanently improving the standard attainable for subsequent work.[3]: 14 Other expeditions followed
in the nineteenth century, from Russia, France, the Netherlands and the United States as well as
Britain.[3]: 15 On HMS Beagle, which provided Charles Darwin with ideas and materials for his 1859
book On the Origin of Species, the ship's captain, Robert FitzRoy, charted the seas and coasts and
published his four-volume report of the ship's three voyages in 1839.[3]: 15 Edward Forbes's 1854 book,
Distribution of Marine Life argued that no life could exist below around 600 metres (2,000 feet). This
was proven wrong by the British biologists W. B. Carpenter and C. Wyville Thomson, who in 1868
discovered life in deep water by dredging.[3]: 15 Wyville Thompson became chief scientist on the
Challenger expedition of 1872–1876, which effectively created the science of oceanography.[3]: 15
On her 68,890-nautical-mile (127,580 km) journey round the globe, HMS Challenger discovered
about 4,700 new marine species, and made 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom dredges, 151 open
water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations.[118] In the southern Atlantic in
1898/1899, Carl Chun on the Valdivia brought many new life forms to the surface from depths of over
4,000 metres (13,000 ft). The first observations of deep-sea animals in their natural environment
were made in 1930 by William Beebe and Otis Barton who descended to 434 metres (1,424 ft) in the
spherical steel Bathysphere. This was lowered by cable but by 1960 a self-powered submersible,
Trieste developed by Jacques Piccard, took Piccard and Don Walsh to the deepest part of the Earth's
oceans, the Mariana Trench in the Pacific, reaching a record depth of about 10,915 metres
(35,810 ft),[119] a feat not repeated until 2012 when James Cameron piloted the Deepsea Challenger to
similar depths.[120] An atmospheric diving suit can be worn for deep sea operations, with a new world
record being set in 2006 when a US Navy diver descended to 2,000 feet (610 m) in one of these
articulated, pressurized suits.[121]
At great depths, no light penetrates through the water layers from above and the pressure is extreme.
For deep sea exploration it is necessary to use specialist vehicles, either remotely operated underwater
vehicles with lights and cameras or crewed submersibles. The battery-operated Mir submersibles have
a three-person crew and can descend to 20,000 feet (6,100 m). They have viewing ports, 5,000-watt
lights, video equipment and manipulator arms for collecting samples, placing probes or pushing the
vehicle across the sea bed when the thrusters would stir up excessive sediment.[122]
Bathymetry is the mapping and study of the topography of the ocean floor. Methods used for
measuring the depth of the sea include single or multibeam echosounders, laser airborne depth
sounders and the calculation of depths from satellite remote sensing data. This information is used
for determining the routes of undersea cables and pipelines, for choosing suitable locations for siting
oil rigs and offshore wind turbines and for identifying possible new fisheries.[123]
Ongoing oceanographic research includes marine lifeforms, conservation, the marine environment,
the chemistry of the ocean, the studying and modelling of climate dynamics, the air-sea boundary,
weather patterns, ocean resources, renewable energy, waves and currents, and the design and
development of new tools and technologies for investigating the deep.[124] Whereas in the 1960s and
1970s, research could focus on taxonomy and basic biology, in the 2010s, attention has shifted to
larger topics such as climate change.[125] Researchers make use of satellite-based remote sensing for
surface waters, with research ships, moored observatories and autonomous underwater vehicles to
study and monitor all parts of the sea.[126]
Law
"Freedom of the seas" is a principle in international law dating from the seventeenth century. It
stresses freedom to navigate the oceans and disapproves of war fought in international waters.[127]
Today, this concept is enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),
the third version of which came into force in 1994. Article 87(1) states: "The high seas are open to all
states, whether coastal or land-locked." Article 87(1) (a) to (f) gives a non-exhaustive list of freedoms
including navigation, overflight, the laying of submarine cables, building artificial islands, fishing and
scientific research.[127] The safety of shipping is regulated by the International Maritime
Organization. Its objectives include developing and maintaining a regulatory framework for shipping,
maritime safety, environmental concerns, legal matters, technical co-operation and maritime
security.[128]
UNCLOS defines various areas of water. "Internal waters" are on the landward side of a baseline and
foreign vessels have no right of passage in these. "Territorial waters" extend to 12 nautical miles (22
kilometres; 14 miles) from the coastline and in these waters, the coastal state is free to set laws,
regulate use and exploit any resource. A "contiguous zone" extending a further 12 nautical miles
allows for hot pursuit of vessels suspected of infringing laws in four specific areas: customs, taxation,
immigration and pollution. An "exclusive economic zone" extends for 200 nautical miles (370
kilometres; 230 miles) from the baseline. Within this area, the coastal nation has sole exploitation
rights over all natural resources. The "continental shelf" is the natural prolongation of the land
territory to the continental margin's outer edge, or 200 nautical miles from the coastal state's
baseline, whichever is greater. Here the coastal nation has the exclusive right to harvest minerals and
also living resources "attached" to the seabed.[127]
War
Control of the sea is important to the security of a maritime

nation, and the naval blockade of a port can be used to cut off food
and supplies in time of war. Battles have been fought on the sea
for more than 3,000 years. In about 1210 B.C., Suppiluliuma II,
the king of the Hittites, defeated and burned a fleet from Alashiya
(modern Cyprus).[129] In the decisive 480 B.C. Battle of Salamis,
the Greek general Themistocles trapped the far larger fleet of the
Persian king Xerxes in a narrow channel and attacked vigorously,
Naval warfare: The explosion of the destroying 200 Persian ships for the loss of 40 Greek vessels.[130]
Spanish flagship during the Battle of At the end of the Age of Sail, the British Royal Navy, led by
Gibraltar, 25 April 1607 by Cornelis Horatio Nelson, broke the power of the combined French and
Claesz van Wieringen, formerly Spanish fleets at the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar.[131]
attributed to Hendrik Cornelisz
Vroom With steam and the industrial production of steel plate came
greatly increased firepower in the shape of the dreadnought
battleships armed with long-range guns. In 1905, the Japanese
fleet decisively defeated the Russian fleet, which had travelled over 18,000 nautical miles
(33,000 km), at the Battle of Tsushima.[132] Dreadnoughts fought inconclusively in the First World
War at the 1916 Battle of Jutland between the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet and the Imperial German
Navy's High Seas Fleet.[133] In the Second World War, the British victory at the 1940 Battle of Taranto
showed that naval air power was sufficient to overcome the largest warships,[134] foreshadowing the
decisive sea-battles of the Pacific War including the Battles of the Coral Sea, Midway, the Philippine
Sea, and the climactic Battle of Leyte Gulf, in all of which the dominant ships were aircraft
carriers.[135][136]
Submarines became important in naval warfare in World War I, when German submarines, known as
U-boats, sank nearly 5,000 Allied merchant ships,[137] including the RMS Lusitania, which helped to
bring the United States into the war.[138] In World War II, almost 3,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-
boats attempting to block the flow of supplies to Britain,[139] but the Allies broke the blockade in the
Battle of the Atlantic, which lasted the whole length of the war, sinking 783 U-boats.[140] Since 1960,
several nations have maintained fleets of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, vessels
equipped to launch ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads from under the sea. Some of these are
kept permanently on patrol.[141][142]
Travel
Sailing ships or packets carried mail overseas, one of the earliest being the Dutch service to Batavia in
the 1670s.[143] These added passenger accommodation, but in cramped conditions. Later, scheduled
services were offered but the time journeys took depended much on the weather. When steamships
replaced sailing vessels, ocean-going liners took over the task of carrying people. By the beginning of
the twentieth century, crossing the Atlantic took about five days and shipping companies competed to
own the largest and fastest vessels. The Blue Riband was an unofficial accolade given to the fastest
liner crossing the Atlantic in regular service. The Mauretania held the title with 26.06 knots
(48.26 km/h) for twenty years from 1909.[144] The Hales Trophy, another award for the fastest
commercial crossing of the Atlantic, was won by the United States in 1952 for a crossing that took
three days, ten hours and forty minutes.[145]
The great liners were comfortable but expensive in fuel and staff. The age of the trans-Atlantic liners
waned as cheap intercontinental flights became available. In 1958, a regular scheduled air service
between New York and Paris taking seven hours doomed the Atlantic ferry service to oblivion. One by
one the vessels were laid up, some were scrapped, others became cruise ships for the leisure industry
and still others floating hotels.[146]
Trade
Maritime trade has existed for millennia. The

Ptolemaic dynasty had developed trade with India
using the Red Sea ports, and in the first millennium
BC, the Arabs, Phoenicians, Israelites and Indians
traded in luxury goods such as spices, gold, and
precious stones.[147] The Phoenicians were noted sea
traders and under the Greeks and Romans, commerce
continued to thrive. With the collapse of the Roman
Shipping routes, showing relative density of
Empire, European trade dwindled but it continued to
commercial shipping around the world
flourish among the kingdoms of Africa, the Middle
East, India, China and southeastern Asia.[148] From
the 16th to the 19th centuries, over a period of 400 years, about 12–13 million Africans were shipped
across the Atlantic to be sold as slaves in the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade.[149][150]: 194
Large quantities of goods are transported by sea, especially across the Atlantic and around the Pacific
Rim. A major trade route passes through the Pillars of Hercules, across the Mediterranean and the
Suez Canal to the Indian Ocean and through the Straits of Malacca; much trade also passes through
the English Channel.[151] Shipping lanes are the routes on the open sea used by cargo vessels,
traditionally making use of trade winds and currents. Over 60 percent of the world's container traffic
is conveyed on the top twenty trade routes.[152] Increased melting of Arctic ice since 2007 enables
ships to travel the Northwest Passage for some weeks in summertime, avoiding the longer routes via
the Suez Canal or the Panama Canal.[153] Shipping is supplemented by air freight, a more expensive
process mostly used for particularly valuable or perishable cargoes. Seaborne trade carries more than
US$4 trillion worth of goods each year.[154] Bulk cargo in the form of liquids, powder or particles are
carried loose in the holds of bulk carriers and include crude oil, grain, coal, ore, scrap metal, sand and
gravel.[155] Other cargo, such as manufactured goods, is usually transported within standard-sized,
lockable containers, loaded on purpose-built container ships at dedicated terminals.[156] Before the
rise of containerization in the 1960s, these goods were loaded, transported and unloaded piecemeal as
break-bulk cargo. Containerization greatly increased the efficiency and decreased the cost of moving
goods by sea, and was a major factor leading to the rise of globalization and exponential increases in
international trade in the mid-to-late 20th century.[157]
Food
Fish and other fishery products are among the most widely
consumed sources of protein and other essential nutrients.[158] In
2009, 16.6% of the world's intake of animal protein and 6.5% of all
protein consumed came from fish.[158] In order to fulfill this need,
coastal countries have exploited marine resources in their
exclusive economic zone, although fishing vessels are increasingly
German factory ship, 92 metres venturing further afield to exploit stocks in international
(302 ft) long waters.[159] In 2011, the total world production of fish, including
aquaculture, was estimated to be 154 million tonnes, of which
most was for human consumption.[158] The harvesting of wild fish
accounted for 90.4 million tonnes, while annually increasing aquaculture contributes the rest.[158]
The north west Pacific is by far the most productive area with 20.9 million tonnes (27 percent of the
global marine catch) in 2010.[158] In addition, the number of fishing vessels in 2010 reached 4.36
million, whereas the number of people employed in the primary sector of fish production in the same
year amounted to 54.8 million.[158]
Modern fishing vessels include fishing trawlers with a small crew, stern trawlers, purse seiners, long-
line factory vessels and large factory ships which are designed to stay at sea for weeks, processing and
freezing great quantities of fish. The equipment used to capture the fish may be purse seines, other
seines, trawls, dredges, gillnets and long-lines and the fish species most frequently targeted are
herring, cod, anchovy, tuna, flounder, mullet, squid and salmon. Overexploitation has become a
serious concern; it does not only cause the depletion of fish stocks, but also substantially reduce the
size of predatory fish populations.[160] It has been estimated that "industrialized fisheries typically
reduced community biomass by 80% within 15 years of exploitation."[160] In order to avoid
overexploitation, many countries have introduced quotas in their own waters.[161] However, recovery
efforts often entail substantial costs to local economies or food provision.
Artisan fishing methods include rod and line, harpoons, skin

diving, traps, throw nets and drag nets. Traditional fishing boats
are powered by paddle, wind or outboard motors and operate in
near-shore waters. The Food and Agriculture Organization is
encouraging the development of local fisheries to provide food
security to coastal communities and help alleviate poverty.[162]
Aquaculture
About 79 million tonnes (78M long tons; 87M short tons) of food Fishing boat in Sri Lanka
and non-food products were produced by aquaculture in 2010, an
all-time high. About six hundred species of plants and animals
were cultured, some for use in seeding wild populations. The animals raised included finfish, aquatic
reptiles, crustaceans, molluscs, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sea squirts and jellyfish.[158] Integrated
mariculture has the advantage that there is a readily available supply of planktonic food in the ocean,
and waste is removed naturally.[163] Various methods are employed. Mesh enclosures for finfish can
be suspended in the open seas, cages can be used in more sheltered waters or ponds can be refreshed
with water at each high tide. Shrimps can be reared in shallow ponds connected to the open sea.[164]
Ropes can be hung in water to grow algae, oysters and mussels. Oysters can be reared on trays or in
mesh tubes. Sea cucumbers can be ranched on the seabed.[165] Captive breeding programmes have
raised lobster larvae for release of juveniles into the wild resulting in an increased lobster harvest in
Maine.[166] At least 145 species of seaweed – red, green, and brown algae – are eaten worldwide, and
some have long been farmed in Japan and other Asian countries; there is great potential for
additional algaculture.[167] Few maritime flowering plants are widely used for food but one example is
marsh samphire which is eaten both raw and cooked.[168] A major difficulty for aquaculture is the
tendency towards monoculture and the associated risk of widespread disease. Aquaculture is also
associated with environmental risks; for instance, shrimp farming has caused the destruction of
important mangrove forests throughout southeast Asia.[169]
Leisure
Use of the sea for leisure developed in the nineteenth century, and became a significant industry in
the twentieth century.[170] Maritime leisure activities are varied, and include self-organized trips
cruising, yachting, powerboat racing[171] and fishing;[172] commercially organized voyages on cruise
ships;[173] and trips on smaller vessels for ecotourism such as whale watching and coastal
birdwatching.[174]
Sea bathing became the vogue in Europe in the 18th century after Dr.
William Buchan advocated the practice for health reasons.[175] Surfing is
a sport in which a wave is ridden by a surfer, with or without a surfboard.
Other marine water sports include kite surfing, where a power kite
propels a rider on a board across the water,[176] windsurfing, where the
power is provided by a fixed, manoeuvrable sail[177] and water skiing,
where a powerboat is used to pull a skier.[178]
Beneath the surface, freediving is necessarily restricted to shallow

Scuba diver with face mask,
descents. Pearl divers can dive to 40 feet (12 m) with baskets to collect
fins and underwater oysters.[179] Human eyes are not adapted for use underwater but vision
breathing apparatus can be improved by wearing a diving mask. Other useful equipment
includes fins and snorkels, and scuba equipment allows underwater
breathing and hence a longer time can be spent beneath the surface.[180]
The depths that can be reached by divers and the length of time they can stay underwater is limited by
the increase of pressure they experience as they descend and the need to prevent decompression
sickness as they return to the surface. Recreational divers restrict themselves to depths of 100 feet
(30 m) beyond which the danger of nitrogen narcosis increases. Deeper dives can be made with
specialised equipment and training.[180]
Industry
Power generation
The sea offers a very large supply of energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity differences, and
ocean temperature differences which can be harnessed to generate electricity.[181] Forms of
sustainable marine energy include tidal power, ocean thermal energy and wave power.[181][182]
Electricity power stations are often located on the coast or beside an estuary so that the sea can be
used as a heat sink. A colder heat sink enables more efficient power generation, which is important for
expensive nuclear power plants in particular.[183]
Tidal power uses generators to produce electricity from tidal

flows, sometimes by using a dam to store and then release
seawater. The Rance barrage, 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long, near St
Malo in Brittany opened in 1967; it generates about 0.5 GW, but it
has been followed by few similar schemes.[3]: 111–112
The large and highly variable energy of waves gives them

enormous destructive capability, making affordable and reliable
Tidal power: the 1 km Rance Tidal wave machines problematic to develop. A small 2 MW commercial
Power Station in Brittany generates wave power plant, "Osprey", was built in Northern Scotland in
0.5 GW. 1995 about 300 metres (980 feet) offshore. It was soon damaged
by waves, then destroyed by a storm.[3]: 112
Offshore wind power is captured by wind turbines placed out at sea; it has the advantage that wind
speeds are higher than on land, though wind farms are more costly to construct offshore.[184] The first
offshore wind farm was installed in Denmark in 1991,[185] and the installed capacity of worldwide
offshore wind farms reached 34 GW in 2020, mainly situated in Europe.[186]
Extractive industries
The seabed contains large reserves of minerals which can be exploited by dredging. This has
advantages over land-based mining in that equipment can be built at specialised shipyards and
infrastructure costs are lower. Disadvantages include problems caused by waves and tides, the
tendency for excavations to silt up and the washing away of spoil heaps. There is a risk of coastal
erosion and environmental damage.[187]
Seafloor massive sulphide deposits are potential sources of silver, gold, copper, lead and zinc and
trace metals since their discovery in the 1960s. They form when geothermally heated water is emitted
from deep sea hydrothermal vents known as "black smokers". The ores are of high quality but
prohibitively costly to extract.[188]
There are large deposits of petroleum, as oil and natural gas, in rocks beneath the seabed. Offshore
platforms and drilling rigs extract the oil or gas and store it for transport to land. Offshore oil and gas
production can be difficult due to the remote, harsh environment.[189] Drilling for oil in the sea has
environmental impacts. Animals may be disorientated by seismic

waves used to locate deposits, and there is debate as to whether
this causes the beaching of whales.[190] Toxic substances such as
mercury, lead and arsenic may be released. The infrastructure
may cause damage, and oil may be spilt.[191]
Large quantities of methane clathrate exist on the seabed and in

ocean sediment, of interest as a potential energy source.[192] Also
on the seabed are manganese nodules formed of layers of iron,
Minerals precipitated near a manganese and other hydroxides around a core. In the Pacific,
hydrothermal vent these may cover up to 30 percent of the deep ocean floor. The
minerals precipitate from seawater and grow very slowly. Their
commercial extraction for nickel was investigated in the 1970s but
abandoned in favour of more convenient sources.[193] In suitable locations, diamonds are gathered
from the seafloor using suction hoses to bring gravel ashore. In deeper waters, mobile seafloor
crawlers are used and the deposits are pumped to a vessel above. In Namibia, more diamonds are now
collected from marine sources than by conventional methods on land.[194]
The sea holds large quantities of valuable dissolved minerals.[195] The

most important, Salt for table and industrial use has been harvested by
solar evaporation from shallow ponds since prehistoric times. Bromine,
accumulated after being leached from the land, is economically recovered
from the Dead Sea, where it occurs at 55,000 parts per million
(ppm).[196]
Fresh water production
Desalination is the technique of removing salts from seawater to leave

fresh water suitable for drinking or irrigation. The two main processing
methods, vacuum distillation and reverse osmosis, use large quantities of
Reverse osmosis
energy. Desalination is normally only undertaken where fresh water from
desalination plant
other sources is in short supply or energy is plentiful, as in the excess
heat generated by power stations. The brine produced as a by-product
contains some toxic materials and is returned to the sea.[197]
Indigenous sea peoples
Several nomadic indigenous groups in Maritime Southeast Asia live in boats and derive nearly all they
need from the sea. The Moken people live on the coasts of Thailand and Burma and islands in the
Andaman Sea.[198] Some Sea Gypsies are accomplished free-divers, able to descend to depths of 30
metres (98 ft), though many are adopting a more settled, land-based way of life.[199][200]
The indigenous peoples of the Arctic such as the Chukchi, Inuit, Inuvialuit and Yup'iit hunt marine
mammals including seals and whales,[201] and the Torres Strait Islanders of Australia include the
Great Barrier Reef among their possessions. They live a traditional life on the islands involving
hunting, fishing, gardening and trading with neighbouring peoples in Papua and mainland Aboriginal
Australians.[202]
In culture
The sea appears in human culture in contradictory ways, as both

powerful but serene and as beautiful but dangerous.[3]: 10 It has its
place in literature, art, poetry, film, theatre, classical music,
mythology and dream interpretation.[203] The Ancients
personified it, believing it to be under the control of a being who
needed to be appeased, and symbolically, it has been perceived as
a hostile environment populated by fantastic creatures; the
The Great Wave off Kanagawa by
Leviathan of the Bible,[204] Scylla in Greek mythology,[205]
Katsushika Hokusai, c. 1830[3]: 8
Isonade in Japanese mythology,[206] and the kraken of late Norse
mythology.[207]
The sea and ships have been depicted

in art ranging from simple drawings on the walls of huts in Lamu[203] to
seascapes by Joseph Turner. In Dutch Golden Age painting, artists such
as Jan Porcellis, Hendrick Dubbels, Willem van de Velde the Elder and
his son, and Ludolf Bakhuizen celebrated the sea and the Dutch navy at
the peak of its military prowess.[208][209] The Japanese artist Katsushika
Hokusai created colour prints of the moods of the sea, including The
Great Wave off Kanagawa.[3]: 8
Music too has been inspired by the ocean, sometimes by composers who
lived or worked near the shore and saw its many different aspects. Sea
shanties, songs that were chanted by mariners to help them perform Dutch Golden Age painting:
arduous tasks, have been woven into compositions and impressions in The Y at Amsterdam, seen
music have been created of calm waters, crashing waves and storms at from the Mosselsteiger
sea.[210]: 4–8 (mussel pier) by Ludolf
Bakhuizen, 1673[208]
As a symbol, the sea has for centuries
played a role in literature, poetry and
dreams. Sometimes it is there just as a gentle background but
often it introduces such themes as storm, shipwreck, battle,
hardship, disaster, the dashing of hopes and death.[210]: 45 In his
epic poem the Odyssey, written in the eighth century BC,[211]
Homer describes the ten-year voyage of the Greek hero Odysseus
who struggles to return home across the sea's many hazards after
The Oceanids (The Naiads of the
the war described in the Iliad.[212] The sea is a recurring theme in
Sea), a painting by Gustave Doré (c. the Haiku poems of the Japanese Edo period poet Matsuo Bashō
1860) ( 松尾芭蕉 ) (1644–1694).[213] In the works of psychiatrist Carl
Jung, the sea symbolizes the personal and the collective unconscious in dream interpretation, the
depths of the sea symbolizing the depths of the unconscious mind.[214]
Environmental issues
The environmental issues that affect the sea can loosely be grouped into those that stem from marine
pollution, from over exploitation and those that stem from climate change. They all impact marine
ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity
and continuation of marine life forms.[215] An overview of environmental issues is shown below:
Marine pollution: Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution,
atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining. The types of marine pollution can be
grouped as pollution from marine debris, plastic pollution, including microplastics, nutrient
pollution, toxins and underwater noise.
Over exploitation and biodiversity loss: overfishing, habitat loss, introduction of invasive species
Effects of climate change on the sea: an increase in sea surface temperature as well as ocean
temperatures at greater depths, more frequent marine heatwaves, a reduction in pH value, a rise
in sea level from ocean warming and ice sheet melting, sea ice decline in the Arctic, increased
upper ocean stratification, reductions in oxygen levels, increased contrasts in salinity (salty areas
becoming saltier and fresher areas becoming less salty),[216] changes to ocean currents including
a weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, and stronger tropical cyclones and
monsoons.[217]
Marine pollution
Many substances enter the sea as a result of human activities. Combustion products are transported
in the air and deposited into the sea by precipitation. Industrial outflows and sewage contribute heavy
metals, pesticides, PCBs, disinfectants, household cleaning products and other synthetic chemicals.
These become concentrated in the surface film and in marine sediment, especially estuarine mud. The
result of all this contamination is largely unknown because of the large number of substances involved
and the lack of information on their biological effects.[218] The heavy metals of greatest concern are
copper, lead, mercury, cadmium and zinc which may be bio-accumulated by marine organisms and
are passed up the food chain.[219]
Much floating plastic rubbish does not biodegrade, instead disintegrating over time and eventually
breaking down to the molecular level. Rigid plastics may float for years.[220] In the centre of the
Pacific gyre there is a permanent floating accumulation of mostly plastic waste[221] and there is a
similar garbage patch in the Atlantic.[222] Foraging sea birds such as the albatross and petrel may
mistake debris for food, and accumulate indigestible plastic in their digestive systems. Turtles and
whales have been found with plastic bags and fishing line in their stomachs. Microplastics may sink,
threatening filter feeders on the seabed.[223]
Most oil pollution in the sea comes from cities and industry.[224] Oil is dangerous for marine animals.
It can clog the feathers of sea birds, reducing their insulating effect and the birds' buoyancy, and be
ingested when they preen themselves in an attempt to remove the contaminant. Marine mammals are
less seriously affected but may be chilled through the removal of their insulation, blinded, dehydrated
or poisoned. Benthic invertebrates are swamped when the oil sinks, fish are poisoned and the food
chain is disrupted. In the short term, oil spills result in wildlife populations being decreased and
unbalanced, leisure activities being affected and the livelihoods of people dependent on the sea being
devastated.[225] The marine environment has self-cleansing properties and naturally occurring
bacteria will act over time to remove oil from the sea. In the Gulf of Mexico, where oil-eating bacteria
are already present, they take only a few days to consume spilt oil.[226]
Run-off of fertilisers from agricultural land is a major source of pollution in some areas and the
discharge of raw sewage has a similar effect. The extra nutrients provided by these sources can cause
excessive plant growth. Nitrogen is often the limiting factor in marine systems, and with added
nitrogen, algal blooms and red tides can lower the oxygen level of the water and kill marine animals.
Such events have created dead zones in the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.[224] Some algal blooms
are caused by cyanobacteria that make shellfish that filter feed on them toxic, harming animals like
sea otters.[227] Nuclear facilities too can pollute. The Irish Sea was contaminated by radioactive
caesium-137 from the former Sellafield nuclear fuel processing plant[228] and nuclear accidents may
also cause radioactive material to seep into the sea, as did the disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi
Nuclear Power Plant in 2011.[229]
The dumping of waste (including oil, noxious liquids, sewage and garbage) at sea is governed by
international law. The London Convention (1972) is a United Nations agreement to control ocean
dumping which had been ratified by 89 countries by 8 June 2012.[230] MARPOL 73/78 is a
convention to minimize pollution of the seas by ships. By May 2013, 152 maritime nations had ratified
MARPOL.[231]
See also
Oceans portal
Water portal
Geography portal
World portal
Ocean surface topography – Shape of the ocean surface relative to the geoid
List of seas
Bay
Gulf
Notes
a. There is no accepted technical definition of sea amongst oceanographers. One definition is that a
sea is a sub-division of an ocean, which means that it must have oceanic basin crust on its floor.
This definition accepts the Caspian as a sea because it was once part of an ancient ocean.[5] The
Introduction to Marine Biology defines a sea as a "land-locked" body of water, adding that the
term "sea" is only one of convenience.[6] The Glossary of Mapping Sciences similarly states that
the boundaries between seas and other bodies of water are arbitrary.[7]
b. According to this definition, the Caspian would be excluded as it is legally an "international
lake".[10]
c. Hydrous ringwoodite recovered from volcanic eruptions suggests that the transition zone between
the lower and upper mantle holds between one[13] and three[14] times as much water as all of the
world's surface oceans combined. Experiments to recreate the conditions of the lower mantle
suggest it may contain still more water as well, as much as five times the mass of water present in
the world's oceans.[15][16]
d. "As the waves leave the region where they were generated, the longer ones outpace the shorter
because their velocity is greater. Gradually, they fall in with other waves travelling at similar
speed – where different waves are in phase they reinforce each other, and where out of phase
they are reduced. Eventually, a regular pattern of high and low waves (or swell) is developed that
remains constant as it travels out across the ocean."[3]: 83–84
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea&oldid=1157551492"

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5/31/23, 9:06 AM Sea - Wikipedia

A sea is a large body of salty water. There are

The salinity of water bodies varies widely, being lower

A characteristic of seawater is that it is salty. Salinity is

Sea temperature depends on the amount of solar

interference can cause individual (unexpected) rogue waves much

A tsunami is an unusual form of wave caused by an infrequent

Wind blowing over the surface of the sea causes

Surface currents only affect the top few hundred

The Earth is composed of a magnetic central core, a

CO2 (gas) ⇌ CO2 (aq)

Life in the sea

Algae and plants

Animals and other marine life

There is a broader spectrum of higher animal taxa in the sea than on

Humans and the sea

History of navigation and exploration

Humans have travelled the seas since

As for the history of navigational instrument, a

History of oceanography and deep sea exploration

Control of the sea is important to the security of a maritime

Maritime trade has existed for millennia. The

Artisan fishing methods include rod and line, harpoons, skin

Beneath the surface, freediving is necessarily restricted to shallow

Tidal power uses generators to produce electricity from tidal

The large and highly variable energy of waves gives them

environmental impacts. Animals may be disorientated by seismic

Large quantities of methane clathrate exist on the seabed and in

The sea holds large quantities of valuable dissolved minerals.[195] The

Fresh water production

Desalination is the technique of removing salts from seawater to leave

Indigenous sea peoples

The sea appears in human culture in contradictory ways, as both

The sea and ships have been depicted

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21. Stewart, Robert H. (2008) Introduction To Physical Oceanography (http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/re

39. "Oxygen in the Sea" (http://www.smhi.se/en/theme/oxygen-in-the-sea-1.11274). Swedish

64. "Rip current characteristics" (http://www.ceoe.udel.edu/ripcurrents/characteristics/). Rip currents.

76. Vesilind, Priit J. (2003). "The Driest Place on Earth" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011070619582

119. "Jacques Piccard: Oceanographer and pioneer of deep-sea exploration" (https://www.independen

146. Norris, Gregory J. (1981). "Evolution of cruising" (https://books.google.com/books?id=IDEDAAAA

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