Thermal Properties of Matter Physics

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Thermodynamics: Branch Of Physics which deals with the interconversions between the work & energy
due to temperature difference is known as thermodynamics.

Thermometry: Process in which we study regarding Temperature measurement & it’s Method.

Temperature: Degree of Hotness & Coldness.

 Human can sense the hotness and coldness qualitatively but it’s impossible to
give quantitative difference between hot or cold body. Hence new quantity is
required called Temperature.
 Dimensions Notation are: [L0 M0 T0 K1]
 SI unit for the Temperature is: Kelvin (K)

Q) State and Explain regarding the Scale of Temperature measurement. [4-5 M]

To measure temperature quantitatively, generally three different scales of temperature are used. They are
described as below.

Celsius scale: On this scale, the ice point is marked as 0 and the steam point is marked as 100, both taken
at normal atmospheric pressure (105 Pa or N/m2). The interval between these points is divided into 100
equal parts. Each of these is known as degree Celsius and is written as ºC.

Fahrenheit scale: - On this scale, the ice point is marked as 32 and the steam point is marked as 212, both
taken at normal atmospheric pressure. The interval between these points is divided into 180 equal parts.
Each division is known as degree Fahrenheit and is written as ˚F.

Kelvin scale:- On this scale, the ice point is marked as 273.15 and steam point is marked as 373.15, both
taken at normal atmospheric pressure. The interval between these points is divided into 100 equal parts.
Each of these is known as Kelvin and is written as K.

To find out the relation between the any two scales, we need to draw an x-y graph. Plotting Freezing point
and steam point of respective scale, it is possible derive a relationship between them.

𝐶 − 𝐹. 𝑃. 𝐹 − 𝐹. 𝑃.
( ) =( )
𝐵. 𝑃. −𝐹. 𝑃. 𝑐−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐵. 𝑃. −𝐹. 𝑃. 𝐹−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 1
 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
N) On Norton scale, ice point is measured as 0˚N & steam point is measured as 80˚N. If any it is used
to measure the temperature of an object which is at 20˚C then find the readings on Norton scale.
[2M]
Data : on N-scale : FP = 0˚N & BP = 80˚N
on C-scale : FP = 0˚C & BP = 100˚C Tc = 20˚C

𝐶 − 𝐹. 𝑃. 𝑁 − 𝐹. 𝑃.
( ) =( )
𝐵. 𝑃. −𝐹. 𝑃. 𝑐−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐵. 𝑃. −𝐹. 𝑃. 𝑁−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

20 − 0. 𝑁 − 0.
( ) =( )
100 − 0. 𝑐−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 80 − 0 𝐹−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

1 𝑁
=
5 80

N = 16 ˚ N

N*) On a random scale X, ice and steam points difference is equally divided into 180 parts. If boiling
point of an liquid is measured to be 62 ˚C then when would be its BP on X-scale?
Data: on X-scale : B.P. – F.P. = 180 [2M]
on C-scale : B.P.- F.P. = 100˚C Tc = 62˚C

𝐶 − 𝐹. 𝑃. 𝑋 − 𝐹. 𝑃.
( ) =( )
𝐵. 𝑃. −𝐹. 𝑃. 𝑐−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐵. 𝑃. −𝐹. 𝑃. 𝑋−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

62 − 0. 𝑋 − 20.
( ) =( )
100 𝑐−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 180 𝑋−𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

62 𝑋−20 62 × 9
10
= 18
>>> 5
+ 20 = X >>> X = 131.6 ˚X

Q) Define Absolute Zero. [2M]

Absolute zero is the lowest temperature possible. At a temperature of absolute zero there is no motion and
no heat. Absolute zero occurs at a temperature of 0 degrees Kelvin, or -273.15 degrees Celsius, or at -460
degrees Fahrenheit. The corresponding quantity is known as Abs. Quantity.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Q) State and Explain the Thermal Expansion. [4-5 M]

 When matter is heated, it normally expands and when cooled, it normally contracts.
 The atoms in a solid vibrate about their mean positions.
 When heated more, they vibrate faster and hence kinetic energy increases.
 Force between each other to decreases hence move a little farther apart.
 This results into expansion.

There are three types of thermal expansion: 1) Linear expansion, 2) Areal expansion, 3) Volume expansion

Linear Expansion: The expansion in length due to thermal energy is called linear expansion.

Let
Thin metallic rod of Length L is taken at some temperature, say Ti
If Temperature of metal road increases, may be due to supply of heat.
So, final temperature is Tf.
It is observed that metallic road is increased by a length of dL,
Also
𝑑𝐿 ∝ ( 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) and 𝑑𝐿 ∝ L
𝑑𝐿 ∝ 𝐿 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝐿 = 𝛼 𝐿 𝑑𝑇
Where α is coefficient of proportionality known as coefficient of linear expansions
𝑑𝐿 1
𝛼 = ×
𝐿 𝑑𝑇
Hence α may also be defined as “Coefficient of linear expansion of a solid, when increase in the
length per unit original length for one degree rise in temperature.”

SI Unit for the α is K-1 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 1.3 × 10−5 𝐾 −1 & 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 1.7 × 10−5 𝐾 −1

Similarly,

Areal Expansion: The expansion in Area due to thermal energy is called Areal expansion.
𝑑𝐴 ∝ 𝐴 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝐴 = 𝛽 𝐴 𝑑𝑇
Where β is coefficient of proportionality known as coefficient of Areal expansions
𝑑𝐴 1
𝛽 = ×
𝐴 𝑑𝑇
Hence β may also be defined as “Coefficient of Areal expansion of a solid, when increase in the Area
per unit original Area for one degree rise in temperature.”
SI Unit for the β is K-1 𝛽𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 2.6 × 10−5 𝐾 −1 & 𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 3.4 × 10−5 𝐾 −1

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 3
 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Volume Expansion: The expansion in Area due to thermal energy is called Areal expansion.

𝑑𝑉 ∝ 𝑉 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑉 = 𝛾 𝑉 𝑑𝑇
Where 𝛾 is coefficient of proportionality known as
coefficient of Volume Expansions.
𝑑𝑉 1
𝛾 = ×
𝑉 𝑑𝑇
Hence 𝛾 may also be defined as “Coefficient of Volume expansion of a solid, when increase in the
Volume per unit original Volume for one degree rise in temperature.”
SI Unit for the 𝛾 is K-1 𝛾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 3.9 × 10−5 𝐾 −1 & 𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 5.1 × 10−5 𝐾 −1

N*) A glass flask has volume 1×10-4 m3. It is filled with a liquid at 30ºC. If the temperature of the
system is raised to 100ºC, how much of the liquid will overflow. Coefficient of volume
expansion of glass is 1.2 × 10-5 (ºC)-1 while that of the liquid is 75 × 10-5 (ºC)-1
DATA: Vf = 10-4 m3 Ti = 30˚C Tf = 100˚ C γg = 1.2 × 10-5 (ºC)-1 γL = 75 × 10-5 (ºC)-1

𝑑𝑉 = 𝛾 𝑉 𝑑𝑇 >> dVg = 1.2 × 10-5 × 10-4 × 70 = 84 × 10-9 m3

>> dVL = 75 × 10-5 × 10-4 × 70 = 5250 × 10-9 m3

Liquid overflow = dVL - dVg = 5166 × 10-9 m3

N*) In olden days, while laying the rails for trains, small gaps used to be left between the rail
sections to allow for thermal expansion. Suppose the rails are laid at room temperature 27 ºC.
If maximum temperature in the region is 45ºC and the length of each rail section is 10 m, what
should be the gap left given that α = 1.2 × 10-5 K-1 for the material of the rail section?

𝑑𝐿 = 𝛼 𝐿 𝑑𝑇

𝑑𝐿 = 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓 × 10 × (45 − 27) = 2.16 × 10−3 𝑚 = 2.16 𝑚𝑚

N*) A blacksmith fixes iron ring on the rim of the wooden wheel of a bullock cart. The diameter of
the wooden rim and the iron ring are 1.5 m and 1.47 m respectively at room temperature of
27 ºC. To what temperature the iron ring should be heated so that it can fit the rim of the
wheel 𝜶𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 1.2×10-5 K-1
𝑑𝐿 1 𝑑𝐿 1
𝛼 = × 𝑑𝑇 >> 𝑑𝑇 = ×𝛼
𝐿 𝐿

1.5−1.47 1
𝑑𝑇 = × = 1754.7 K
1.47 1.2 ×10−5

Tf = 1727.7 ˚C

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 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics

Extract:
𝒅 𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏 ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙 =
𝒅𝒙 𝒏+𝟏
n
Read as > Derivatives of x w. r. to x Read as > Integration of 𝑥 𝑛
𝑑 6 𝑥 3+1 𝑥 4
𝑥 = 6𝑥 6−1 = 6 𝑥 5 ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = =
𝑑𝑥 3+1 4
𝑑 8 𝑥3
𝑥 = 8𝑥 7 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑 𝑥 𝑛+1
(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 7 ) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 1 + 𝑥 0 + 0 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1
= 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 7 5𝑥 5
∫ 𝑥 6 + 5𝑥 4 + 8 𝑑𝑥 = + + 8𝑥
𝑑 2 7 5
𝑙 = 2𝑙
𝑑𝑙
∫ 7 𝑑𝑥 = 7𝑥
𝑑 3
𝑙 = 3𝑙 2
𝑑𝑙

Q) Derive a relationship between all three coefficients of expansion. [4M]

We take a square plate of side ‘I’ We take a parallelepiped of side ‘I’

Hence area A = l2 Hence area V = l3

Differentiating both side w. r. to ‘l’ Differentiating both side w. r. to ‘l’

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑉
= 2𝑙 = 3𝑙 2
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐴 = 2 𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑉 = 3 𝑙 2 𝑑𝑙
But 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛽 𝐴 𝑑𝑇 But 𝑑𝑉 = 𝛾 𝑉 𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝛽 𝐴 𝑑𝑇 = 2 𝑙 𝑑𝑙 ∴ 𝛾 𝑉 𝑑𝑇 = 3 𝑙 2 𝑑𝑙
∴ 𝛽 𝑙 2 𝑑𝑇 = 2 𝑙 𝑑𝑙 ∴ 𝛾 𝑙 3 𝑑𝑇 = 3 𝑙 2 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙
𝛽=2 𝛾=3
𝑙 𝑑𝑇 𝑙 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙
But 𝛼 = 𝑙 𝑑𝑇 But 𝛼 = 𝑙 𝑑𝑇

∴ 𝛽 = 2𝛼 …..[1] ∴ 𝛾 = 3𝛼 …………..[2]

From equation [1] & [2] 𝛼∶ 𝛽∶ 𝛾 = 1 ∶ 2 ∶ 3

HW) A blacksmith fixes iron ring on the rim of the wooden wheel of a horse cart. The diameter of
the rim and the iron ring are 5.243 m and 5.231 m, respectively at 27 °C. To what temperature
should the ring be heated so as to fit the rim of the wheel? [ANS : 218˚C]

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 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Q) State and Explain Gas Laws & Ideal Gas Equation. [4-5M]

Gases which follow all the Gas Laws are known as perfect Gases or Ideal Gases.
Gas laws are nothing but the relationship between the properties of Gases. Properties of Gases like
Pressure (P), Volume (V) and Temperature (T).

Boyle’s law- For fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, pressure is inversely proportional to volume.
1
𝑃 ∝ 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Charles’ law - ‘At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to
its temperature in kelvin.’

𝑉 ∝ 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
Charles’ law - ‘At constant Volume, the Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to
its temperature in kelvin.’

𝑃 ∝ 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑃
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
Combining all three laws together
𝑇
𝑃∝ 𝑉

𝑃𝑉 ∝ 𝑇
PV = RT

R is constant of proportionality Known as gas constant.

When P & V are in SI unit then R = 8.314 J/mol-K
When P is in atm and V is in dm3 then R = 0.0824 atm dm3 / mol-K
(more explanation in chemistry chap-10)
If n is number of moles, then
𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅 𝑇………………………………………….[1]

Ideal Gas : Gas which obeys all gas laws together is known as idea gas.

The above equation is derived by combining all gas law,

Hence gas which satisfies eq [1] is known as Ideal Gas & equation is known as Ideal Gas Equation.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Q) Define Heat. [2M]

Heat: Heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and its
surroundings by virtue of temperature difference.

Heat is only observed when there is Temperature Difference. i.e. ΔT 0

Hence Heat Flows from Higher Temperature to Lower Temperature.

i.e. Heat is energy in Transit and denoted by Q

The SI unit of heat energy transferred is expressed in joule (J)

1 Joule = 107 erg

Q) With the Help of Experiment, Show that heat is dependent on mass and temperature difference.

 Take some water in a vessel and start heating it on a burner.

 We noted the time required for water to raise its temperature by, say 20 °C,
 Heating Continued and we noted the raise its temperature by 40 °C using same source of heat.
 It is observed that to raise Temperature by 40˚C, takes more time i.e. more heat.
Hence more Heat is required if more temperature different is to be achieved
Q ∝ ∆T
 Now double quantity of water taken on burner.
 We noted the time required for water to raise its temperature by, say 20 °C
It is noted that to raise the same temperature difference in compare with first case, we required more
time i.e. more heat is required. Hence more mass of substance we need more heat.
Q ∝ m
Heat is dependent on mass and temperature difference

Q) Derive an expression for Heat of absorption or rejection. [2M]

We know that, Q ∝ ∆T
Q ∝ m
Hence Q ∝ m ∆T
𝑄 = 𝑠 𝑚 ∆T

Where s is constant of Proportionality known as specific heat constant.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Q) Define Specific Heat Capacity [2M]

The specific heat capacity is the property of the substance which determines the change in the
temperature of the substance (undergoing no phase change) when a given quantity of heat is absorbed (or
given off) by it.

Specific Heat capacity (s):

It is defined as the amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or given off by the substance to change its
temperature by one unit. It depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature.

The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J kg–1 K–1.

If the amount of substance is specified in terms of moles n, instead of mass m in kg, we can define heat
𝑠
capacity per mole of the substance by 𝑐 = 𝑛 where C is known as molar specific heat capacity.

Molar Specific Heat capacity (c):

It is defined as the amount of heat per unit moles absorbed or given off by the substance to change its
temperature by one unit. It depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature.

The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J mol–1 K–1.

N*) Which will require more energy, heating a 2.0 kg block of lead by 30 K or heating a 4.0 kg
block of copper by 5 K? (slead = 128 J kg-1 K-1, scopper = 387 J kg-1 K-1) [2M]
J
Data : 𝑚𝑙 = 2 𝑘𝑔 ∆𝑇 = 30𝐾 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 128 Kg K
J
𝑚𝑐 = 4 𝑘𝑔 ∆𝑇 = 5𝐾 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 387 Kg K

𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑚𝑙 × 𝑠𝑙 × ∆𝑇𝑙 = 2 × 128 × 30 = 7680 J

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚𝑐 × 𝑠𝑐 × ∆𝑇𝑐 = 4 × 387 × 5 = 7740 J

𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 < 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

Hence copper block of 4 kg requires more energy.

N*) What is the specific heat of a metal if 50 cal of heat is needed to raise 6 kg of the metal from 20°C to
62 °C ?
Data : 𝑚 = 6 𝑘𝑔 ∆𝑇 = 62 − 20 = 42℃ 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ? 𝑄 = 50 𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝑄 = 𝑠 𝑚 ∆T

50 = 𝑠 × 6 × 42

𝑄 50 cal J
s = = = 0.198 kg−K = 0.829 kg−K
𝑚 ∆𝑇 6 ×42

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 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Q) Define Calorimetry [2M]

Calorimetry is an experimental technique for the quantitative measurement of heat exchange.

Calorimetry means measurement of heat. When a body at higher temperature is brought in contact with
another body at lower temperature, the heat lost by the hot body is equal to the heat gained by the colder
body, provided no heat is allowed to escape to the surroundings. A device in which heat measurement can
be done is called a calorimeter.

Q) Sate and Explain change of state and various points [4M]

Matter normally exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas. A transition from one of these states to another
is called a change of state. Two common changes of states are solid to liquid and liquid to gas (and, vice
versa). These changes can occur when the exchange of heat takes place between the substance and its
surroundings.
To understand the phase/state change we,
 Take some cubes of ice in a beaker.
 Note the temperature of ice.
 Start heating it slowly on a constant heat source. Note
the temperature after every minute.
Continuously stir the mixture of water and ice.
 Draw a graph between temperature and time
Temperature Vs Time graph
Point A : Solid Ice at 0 ℃ also known as ice point.
Curve A – B : Heat is absorbed by the solid ice to get converted into liquid at 0 ℃ know as fusion and
amount of heat is known as latent heat.
Point B : Whole mass of ice is converted into liquid, known as Melting Point.
Curve B – C : On Heating, Temperature of Liquid increases upto point C. Amount of heat required
during this process is known as specific heat.
Point C : The first bubble in the liquid is observed called bubble point / boiling point / steam point
Curve C – D : Liquid start converting into steam at same temperature. And heat associated with this
process is known as heat of vaporization.
Point E : Superheated steam point having temperature more than 100 ℃

Q) Explain Changes of State process. [2M]

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 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Q) Define Triple point [1M]

The temperature and pressure at which the fusion curve, the vapourisation curve and the sublimation curve
meet and all the three phases of a substance coexist is called the triple point of the substance.

That is, the triple point of water is that point where water in solid, liquid and gaseous states coexists in
equilibrium and this occurs only at a unique temperature and pressure.

At The triple point of water is temperature is 273.16 K and pressure is 0.00611 Pa

Q) State and Explain latent Heat. [2 M]

Latent Heat (L) : “Latent heat of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change the state of
unit mass of the substance without changing its temperature”

The quantity of heat required to convert unit mass of a substance from its solid state to the liquid state, at its
melting point, without any change in its temperature is called its latent heat of fusion (Lf )

The quantity of heat required to convert unit mass of a substance from its liquid state to vapour state, at its
boiling point without any change in its temperature is called its latent heat of vapourization (Lv ).

Q = mL
Where,

 L is known as latent heat and is characteristic of the substance. Its SI unit is J kg-1.
 The value of L depends on the pressure and is usually quoted at one standard atmospheric pressure.

N*) Specific latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.26 × 106 J/kg. Calculate the energy needed to
change 5.0 g of water into steam at 100 ºC. [2M]
-3 6
Data : m = 5 grms = 5 × 10 kg Lv = 2.26 × 10 J/kg

Q = m Lv

Q = 5 × 10-3 × 2.26 ×106 = 11300 J = 11.3 K J

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 10
 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Q) State and Explain Modes of Heat Transfer. [2M]

Heat Transfer: Due to temperature differences energy flows from higher temperature region to lower
temperature region known as Heat Transfer. There are three modes of heat transfer

[1] Conduction: Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent parts of a body
because of their temperature difference (ΔT)

[2] Convection: Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of matter because of their ΔT

[3] Radiations: The transfer of heat energy from one place to another via emission of EM energy
without heating the intervening medium is called radiation.

Q) Explain Conduction & its Phenomenon. [2M]

‘Conduction’ is the transfer of heat from one part of a substance to another part of the same substance, or
from one substance to another in physical contact with it, without appreciable displacement of molecules
forming the substance.

In solids, the heat is conducted by the following two mechanisms:

(i) By lattice Vibration: The faster moving molecules or atoms in the hottest part of a body transfer heat by
impacts some of their energy to adjacent molecules. (like bus passenger explanation)

(ii) By transport of free electrons : Free electrons provide an energy flux in the direction of decreasing
temperature—For metals, especially good electrical conductors, the electronic mechanism is responsible
for the major portion of the heat flux except at low temperature.

Conduction phenomenon follows the Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction and found in Solids and stilt liquid

Q) Derive and expression for thermal conductivity for solids [2M]

Fourier’s law of heat conduction is an empirical law based on observation and states as follows:

Quantity of heat ‘Q’ that flows from the hot face to the cold face is
i) Directly proportional to the cross-sectional area A of the face. i.e., 𝑄 ∝ 𝐴
ii) Directly proportional to the temperature difference between the two faces i.e. 𝑄 ∝ ∆𝑇
iii) Directly proportional to time t (in seconds) for which heat flows i.e. 𝑄 ∝ 𝑡
1
iv) Inversely proportional to the perpendicular distance x between faces i.e. 𝑄 ∝ 𝑥

𝐴 ∆𝑇 𝑡
𝑄 ∝
𝑥

𝐴 ∆𝑇 𝑡
𝑄 =𝐾
𝑥

K is constant of proportionality known as Thermal Conductivity of Material.

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 11
 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
𝑄×𝑥
𝐾=
𝐴 × 𝑡 × ∆𝑇

Hence above may be used to find the thermal conductivity of the material. And it may be defined as
the rate of flow of heat per unit area per unit temperature gradient when the heat flow is at right angles to
the faces of a thin parallel-sided slab of material. In other word it represent how much heat can be transfer
per unit time per unit area for given temperature difference. SI unit of K is W m-1 °C-1 or W m-1 K-1

𝐾𝐴𝑈 > 𝐾𝐴𝐺 > 𝐾𝐶𝑢 > 𝐾𝐴𝑙 > 𝐾𝐹𝑒

Q) Write a short note on Thermal conductivity. [2M]

(for JEE / CET / NEET Only)

1. Thermal conductivity of a material is due to

flow of free electrons (in case of metals) and
lattice vibrational waves (in case of fluids).
2. Thermal conductivity in case of pure metals is the highest and lowest for insulators.
Metal > Allows > Insulators > Non Metals
3. Thermal conductivity of most metals decreases with the increase in temperature.
4. In case of non-metallic solids :
— Thermal conductivity of porous materials depends upon
the type of gas or liquid present in the voids.
— Thermal conductivity of a damp material is considerably
higher than that of the dry material and water taken individually.

When two physical systems are described by similar equations and have similar boundary
conditions, these are said to be analogous. The heat transfer processes may be compared
by analogy with the flow of electricity in an electrical resistance.

𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑑𝑉 ) 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑑𝑇)

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑞) =
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑅) 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑅𝑡ℎ )

Q) Derive an expression for Thermal Resistance [2M]

The quantity Q / t, denoted by q or Pcond , is the heat flow rate.

Mathematically Fourier’s law is given by
𝐴 ∆𝑇 𝑡
𝑄 =𝐾
𝑥
𝑄 𝐴 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
=𝐾 = 𝑥
𝑡 𝑥
𝐾𝐴

From electrical analogy, Thermal Resistance is given by,

𝑥
𝑅𝑡ℎ = The SI unit of thermal resistance is °C s/ kcal or °C s/J
𝐾𝐴

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 12
 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
N*) Find the temperature difference between two sides of a steel plate 4 cm thick, when heat is
transmitted through the plate at the rate of 400 kcal per minute per square meter at steady
state. Thermal conductivity of steel is 0.026 kcal/m s K.
𝑄 400
Data : 𝐴𝑡 = 400 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚2 = 60 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/ 𝑠 𝑚2
X = 4 cm = 4 × 10-2 m
K = 0.026 kcal/ m s K

𝐴 ∆𝑇 𝑡 𝑄 ∆𝑇 400 ∆𝑇
𝑄 =𝐾 =𝐾 = 0.026 ΔT = 10.26 K
𝑥 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 60 4 ×10−2

(Student take care of while writing unit of ΔT, for this look for unit of K)

N*) In electric kettle takes 20 minutes to heat a curtain quantity of water from 0°C to boiling point.
It requires 90 minutes to turn all the water at 100°C into steam. Find the latent heat of
vaporisation. (Specific heat of water = 1cal/g°C)
Data : Let Q1 be the Specific Heat & Q2 be the Latent Heat.
Q1 = m s ΔT & Q2 = m Lv
t1 = 20 × 60 sec s = 1 cal/g C t2 = 90 × 60 sec
𝑄 𝑄
Since kettle is same hence Heat flow rate remains constant. 𝑡 1 = 𝑡 2
1 2

𝑚 𝑠 𝛥𝑇 𝑚 𝐿𝑣
=
20 ×60 90×60

LV = 4.5 × 1 × 100 = 450 cal/g

N*) The rate of flow of heat through a copper rod with temperature difference 30 °C is 1500 cal/s.
Find the thermal resistance of copper rod.
Data : ΔT = 30 ˚C Q/t = 1500 cal/s

𝑄 ∆𝑇
=
𝑡 𝑅𝑡ℎ

∆𝑇 30 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = = = = 0.02 ℃/𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑄 ⁄𝑡 1500 50

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 13
 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
N) A reactor’s wall 320 mm thick, is made up of an inner layer of fire brick (k = 0.84 W/m°C)
covered with a layer of insulation (k = 0.16 W/m°C). The reactor operates at a temperature of
1325°C and the ambient temperature is 25°C. Determine the thickness of fire brick and
insulation which gives minimum heat loss.

DATA :
T1 = 1325°C ; T2 = 1200°C, T3 = 25°C ;
LA + LB = L = 320 mm or 0.32 m
∴ LB = (0.32 – LA) ; ...(i)
kA = 0.84 W/m°C ;
kB = 0.16 W/m°C.

SOLUTIONS :
𝑄
The rate of heat flux 𝐴𝑡 , under steady state conditions, is
constant throughout the wall and is same for each layer.
Then for unit area of wall,

𝑄 𝑇1 −𝑇3 𝑇1 −𝑇2 𝑇2 −𝑇3

q= = 𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 = 𝐿𝐴 = 𝐿𝐵
𝐴𝑡 +
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐵

Considering any two terms

𝑇1 −𝑇3 𝑇1 −𝑇2
𝐿 𝐴 𝐿𝐵 = 𝐿𝐴
+
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐴

1325−25 1325−1200
𝑥 0.32−𝑥 = 𝑥
0.84
+ 0.16 0.84

1300 105
𝑥 0.32−𝑥 = 𝑥
0.84
+ 0.16 0.84

x = 0.1146 m or 114.6 mm.

∴ Thickness of insulation LB = 320 – 114.6 = 205.4 mm.

( To find x we have used upper degree calculation.

For 10+2 student just look at the model of question possible in conduction for MCQ)

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 14
 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Q) Explain Convection & its Type. [3M]

Unlike conduction, in convection the heat is transfer from one point to other point by means fluid as
material medium. Fluid can be liquid or gases and involves movement of the heated (energised) molecules
within the fluid.

 ‘Convection’ is the transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing of one portion of the fluid with another.
Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport of medium
itself.
 Convection constitutes the macroform of the heat transfer since macroscopic particles of a fluid
moving in space cause the heat exchange.
 The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection depends largely upon the mixing motion of the
fluid.

This mode of heat transfer is met with in situations where energy is transferred as heat to a flowing fluid at
any surface over which flow occurs. This mode is basically conduction in a very thin fluid layer at the
surface and then mixing caused by the flow. The heat flow depends on the properties of fluid and is
independent of the properties of the material of the surface. However, the shape of the surface will
influence the flow and hence the heat transfer.

Free or natural convection: Free or natural convection occurs where the fluid circulates by virtue of the
natural differences in densities of hot and cold fluids; the denser portions of the fluid move downward
because of the greater force of gravity, as compared with the force on the less dense.

Forced convection: When the work is done to blow or pump the fluid or any example where the fluid is
having higher velocity, is said to be forced convection.

Q) State and Explain Newton’s Law of cooling [2M]

Newton’s law of cooling the rate of loss of heat dT/dt of the body is directly proportional to the difference
of temperature (T -T0) of the body and the surroundings provided the difference in temperatures is small.

Mathematically,
𝑑𝑇
∝ ∆𝑇
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑇
=𝐶 ∆𝑇
𝑑𝑡

Where C is known as constant of proportionality

SI unit of C is given by sec-1 or time-1
𝐾
=𝐶∗𝐾
𝑠𝑒𝑐
Ideally we should get the unit as time-1. This is nothing but the unit of
frequency. C is not frequency. Hence in rare case to differentiate this with
-1
frequency C sometimes mentioned with temperature unit i.e. ˚C sec

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 15
 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Newton’s law of looking,

If q = Q/t = Rate of conductive heat transfer,

From A = Area exposed to heat transfer,
Ts = Surface temperature,
T = Fluid temperature, and

𝑞 ∝ 𝐴 ∆𝑇
𝑞 = ℎ 𝐴 ∆𝑇 = ℎ 𝐴 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇)

where h is constant of proportionality known as

coefficient of convective heat transfer.

The units of h are, W/m2 K or W/m2 °C or J/m2-sec-K

N*) A metal sphere cools from 80 °C to 60 °C in 6 min. How much time with it take to cool from
60 °C to 40 °C if the room temperature is 30°C?
DATA : T1 = 80˚C T2 = 60˚C T3 = 40˚C T4 = 30˚C
t1 = 6 min = 6 × 60

𝑑𝑇
=𝐶 ∆𝑇
𝑑𝑡

80−60 1
= 𝐶 (80 − 30) 𝐶= /𝑚𝑖𝑛
6∗60 15

𝑑𝑇 60−40
=𝐶 ∆𝑇 1 = 𝑑𝑡2 = 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡2 ×(60−30)
15

N*) A metal sphere cools at the rate of 0.05 ºC/s when its temperature is 70 ºC and at the rate of
0.025 ºC/s when its temperature is 50 ºC. Determine the temperature of the surroundings and
find the rate of cooling when the temperature of the metal sphere is 40 ºC.
Data : T1 = 70˚C T2 = 50˚C T3 = 40˚C
(dT/dt)1 = 0.05 ˚C/s (dT/dt)2 = 0.025 ˚C/s

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝐶 (𝑇1 − 𝑇0 ) ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝐶 (𝑇2 − 𝑇0 )
1 2

0.05 𝐶 (70 − 𝑇0 )
= 𝑇0 = 30℃
0.025 𝐶 (50 − 𝑇0 )

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 1 1 0.05
( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝐶 (𝑇1 − 𝑇0 ) ( 𝑑𝑡 ) × (𝑇 −𝑇 ) = 𝐶 𝑐 = 0.05 × (70−30) = = 0.00125 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1
1 1 1 0 40

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝐶 (𝑇3 − 𝑇0 ) ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 0.00125 (40 − 30) = 0.0125 ℃ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1
3 3

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 16
 Thermal Properties of Matter Physics
Q) Write a short note on Radiations [2M]

Radiation’ heat transfer is defined as “the transfer of energy across a system boundary by means of an
electromagnetic mechanism which is caused solely by a temperature difference.”

Whereas the heat transfer by conduction and convection takes place only in the presence of medium,
radiation heat transfer does not require a medium. Radiation exchange, in fact, occurs most effectively in
vacuum. Further, the rate of heat transfer by conduction and convection varies as the temperature
difference to the first power, whereas the radiant heat exchange between two bodies depends on the
difference between their temperature to the ‘fourth power’.

Both the amount of radiation and the quality of radiation depend upon temperature. The dissipation from
the filament of a vacuum tube or the heat leakage through the evacuated walls of a thermos flask are some
familiar examples of heat transfer by radiation.

The contribution of radiation to heat transfer is very significant at high absolute temperature levels such as
those prevailing in furnaces, combustion chambers, nuclear explosions and in space applications. The solar
energy incident upon the earth is also governed by the laws of radiation.

Q) State laws of radiation. [2M]

Stefan- Boltzmann Law,

Amount of heat emitted by a body which is at very high temperature is

1) Directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature
2) Directly proportional to the area of emission.

If a surface is at very high temperature, say Ts and A be the area available for emission of heat.

𝐸 ∝ 𝐴 𝑇𝑠4

If another body at T absorbs whole emission

𝐸 ∝ 𝐴 ( 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇 4 )

𝐸 = 𝜎 𝐴 ( 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇 4 )

Where 𝜎 is constant of proportionality

Known as Stephan’s Boltzmann constant
𝜎 = 5.67 × 10-8 J/s m2 K4

Prathmesh Sir’s Notes | M.Tech (Thermal Engineering) VJTI, Mumbai University Page 17