Flexible Learning A.Y.

2020-2021
DISTANCE EDUCATION COURSE GUIDE USING OBTL DESIGN v1

COURSE CODE &

Phy101EC-Physics Lecture
TITLE
MODULE 5: 5 hrs. HEAT TRANSFER

Course Instructor Marie Therese Bernadette F. Sales, PhDTM

FM
Messenger Tashie Sales
Contact Details Email Ad tashie.sales@usls.edu.ph
Phone
No./s +639687717731
Consultation Hours MWF 10:30-12:00 (W) TTH 7:30 – 9:00 (TH)

Part I: TARGETED COURSE OUTCOMES

1. Distinguish between the variables and constants used in Physics concepts and
principles.

Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish between the three modes of heat transfer.
2. Solve related problems for heat transfer.
3. Explain the cause and effect of global warming.

Part II: ASSESSMENT/S

Learning Evidence
LE1: Problem Set
These are activities to measure student learning in a given module. This includes the
entry of worksheets and other classroom activities.
LE2: Quiz
This is a summative assessment of the topics learned from this module.
Rubric/Evaluation Tool Tool for LE1 & LE2:

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Part III: TEACHING-LEARNING ACTIVITIES (TLA)

The following are review materials needed to be read first before accomplishing the tasks
required from the student. This module discusses about the mechanisms of heat transfer. Heat
is energy in transit. Heat added to a body is positive and heat leaving the body is negative.
When several bodies interact, the algebraic sum of the quantities of heat transferred to all the
bodies must be zero. The transfer of heat between bodies also depends on the kind of material
the body is made of. Conductors are materials that allows the transfer of heat while insulators
are materials that prevent heat from transferring. The three mechanisms of heat transfer are
conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction

The mechanism involved in conduction is that on the atomic level, when one end of an
object is heated, the atoms in the hotter regions have more kinetic energy, on the average, than
their cooler neighbors. They jostle their neighbors, giving them some of their energy. The
neighbors jostle their neighbors, and so on through the material. The atoms themselves do not
move from one region of material to another, but their energy does.

TH TC

Figure 1. Steady-state heat flow due to conduction.

Most metals use another, more effective mechanism to conduct heat. Within the
metal, some electrons can leave their parent atoms and wander through the crystal
lattice. These “free” electrons can rapidly carry energy from the hotter to the cooler
regions of the metal, so metals are generally good conductors of heat. A metal rod at
200C feels colder than a piece of wood at 200C because heat can flow more easily from
your hands into the metal. The presence of “free” electrons also causes most metals to
be good electrical conductors.

Heat transfer occurs only between regions that are at different temperatures, and the
direction of heat flow is always from higher to lower temperature. Figure 1 shows a rod
of conducting material with cross-section area A and length L. The left end of the rod is
kept at a temperature TH and the right end at a lower temperature TC, and heat flows
from left to right. The sides of the rod are covered by an ideal insulator, so no heat
transfer occurs at the sides.

When a quantity of heat dQ is transferred through the rod in a time dt, the rate of
heat flow is dQ/dt. This rate is known as heat current, denoted by H. Experiments
show that the heat current is proportional to the cross-section area A of the rod and to
the temperature difference (TH – TC) and is inversely proportional to the rod of length L.
Thermal conductivity, k, is introduced as the proportionality constant shown in the
equation below:

𝑑𝑄 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
𝐻= = 𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑇 𝐿
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 𝐾
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡( )
𝐿 𝑚
H = heat current ( W = watts)
k = thermal conductivity ( W/m-K)
A = area (m2)
The numerical values of k depends on the material of the rod. Materials with large k are
good conductors of heat; materials with small k are conductors or insulators. Some numerical
values of k are given in Table 14-3.

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Source: Cutnell (2012). Physics. 9th ed

For thermal insulation in buildings, engineers use the concept of thermal resistance, denoted
by R.

𝑑𝑄 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
𝐻= =𝐴
𝑑𝑇 𝑅
𝐿
𝑅=
𝑘

Conduction Arrangements

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Example: Cutnell 9th ed

The temperatures at the ends of the bar are 850C at the warmer end and 270C at the cooler
end. The bar has a length of 0.680 m. What is the temperature at a point that is 0.220 m from
the cooler end of the bar?

Solution
𝑘𝐴(𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 )𝑡
𝑄= (1)
𝐷

𝑘𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑡
𝑄= (2)
𝐿

𝑘𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑡
𝑄𝐷 ൤ ൨
𝐿
𝑇 = 𝑇𝐶 + = 𝑇𝐶 + 𝐷
𝑘𝐴𝑡 𝑘𝐴𝑡

𝑘𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑡
𝐷 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑐 )
𝑇 = 𝑇𝐶 + 𝐿 = 𝑇𝐶 + 𝐷
𝑘𝐴𝑡 𝐿

(85𝑜 𝐶 − 270 𝐶)(0.22𝑚)

𝑇 = 270 + = 45. 80 𝐶
0.68 𝑚

Convection

Convection is transfer of heat by mass motion of a fluid from one region of space to another.
It is a process in which heat is carried from place to place by the bulk movement of the fluid.
When part of a fluid is warmed, such as the air above a fire, the volume of that part of the fluid
expands, and the density decreases. According to Archimedes’ principle, the surrounding
cooler and denser fluid exerts a buoyant force on the warmer fluid and pushes it upward.
As warmer fluid rises, the surrounding cooler fluid replaces it. This cooler fluid, in turn, is
warmed and pushed upward. Thus, a continuous flow is established, which carries along heat.
Whenever heat is transferred by the bulk movement of a gas or a liquid, the heat is said to be
transferred by convection. The fluid flow itself is called a convection current.

Another example of convection occurs when the ground, heated by the sun’s rays, warms
the neighboring air. Surrounding cooler and denser air pushes the heated air upward. The
resulting updraft or “thermal” can be quite strong, depending on the amount of heat that the
ground can supply.

There are two kinds of convection: natural convection, is one in which a temperature
difference causes the density at one place in a fluid to be different from the density at another.
Sometimes, natural convection is inadequate to transfer sufficient amounts of heat. In such
cases forced convection is often used, and an external device such as a pump or a fan mixes
the warmer and cooler portions of the fluid.

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Example: Cutnell 9th ed

Hot water baseboard heating units are frequently used in homes, and a cooling coil is a major
component of a refrigerator. The locations of these heating and cooling devices are
different because each is designed to maximize the production of convection currents. Where
should the heating unit and the cooling coil be located? (a) Heating unit near the floor of
the room and cooling coil near the top of the refrigerator (b) Heating unit near the ceiling of the
room and cooling coil near the bottom of the refrigerator.

Reasoning An important goal for the heating system is to distribute heat throughout a room.
The analogous goal for the cooling coil is to remove heat from all of the space within
a refrigerator. In each case, the heating or cooling device must be positioned so that convection
makes the goal achievable.

Answer (b) is incorrect. If the heating unit were placed near the ceiling of the room, warm air
from the unit would remain there, because warm air does not fall (it rises). Thus, there would be
very little natural movement (or convection) of air to distribute the heat throughout the room. If
the cooling coil were located near the bottom of the refrigerator, the cool air would remain there,
because cool air does not rise (it sinks). There would be very little convection to carry the heat
from other parts of the refrigerator to the coil for removal.

Answer (a) is correct. The air above the baseboard unit is heated, like the air above
a fire. Buoyant forces from the surrounding cooler air push the warm air upward. Cooler air
near the ceiling is displaced downward and then warmed by the baseboard heating unit,
causing the convection current to go up. Within the refrigerator, air in contact with the top-
mounted coil is cooled, its volume decreases, and its density increases. The surrounding
warmer and less dense air cannot provide sufficient buoyant force to support the cooler
air, which sinks downward. In the process, warmer air near the bottom of the
refrigerator is displaced upward and is then cooled by the coil, establishing the convection
current.

Source: Cutnell (2012). Physics. 9th ed

Why does hot air rise?

When air is heated, it expands;

when it expands its density
decreases. (PV = nRT)

Pressure of warmer air is

less than the pressure of cooler
air thereby pushing the gas
upward.

Hot air molecules tend to

move to least obstructed
places; which is upward.

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When we heat air, the molecules jiggle and zip around faster, which causes them to spread
out. When a mass of air takes up more space, it has a lower density. When you have a lower
density fluid immersed in a higher density fluid, the lower density fluid rises and the higher
density fluid falls.

Sea Breeze and Land Breeze

Land breeze and sea breezes take place near large bodies of water. The key difference
between the two is caused by the property of water to retain and warm up longer. The
differences in the temperature of land and water causes respective changes to the densities of
the air above them. The resulting low pressures then cause alternating air movements which
are manifested as breezes. Individuals situated near coastlines (within 50 kilometers from the
oceanfront) experience cool sea breezes during the day and warm land breezes at night.
Furthermore, these winds are instrumental in humidity and temperature levels, and precipitation
rates.

Land breeze is formed when late at night, the loss of heat source causes land to quickly
cool down which causes the heat to be released towards the surrounding air. As compared to
land, water retains heat longer which causes the air above it to have lesser density and rise.
Low pressure is formed above the water while high pressure is formed above the land. The
denser air above the land moves to the space over the water. As winds typically blow from high
to low pressure areas, the cooler breeze then comes from the shore and is now called as “land
breeze”.

Sea breeze is formed during the day time, when the sun often quickly heats up land. The
air above the land gets warmer than the air above water. As the air above land is warmer, it
gets less dense and it begins to rise. Low pressure is formed. The denser air above the water
moves to the space above the land. This cooler air is now what is termed as a “sea breeze”.

Source: http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-land-breeze-and-sea-
breeze/#ixzz6ozGbr13J

Radiation

Radiation is the process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic waves.

All bodies continuously radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Even a nice cube
radiates energy, although so little of it is in the form of visible light that an ice cube cannot be
seen in the dark. Likewise, the human body emits insufficient visible light to be seen in the
dark. Generally, an object does not emit much visible light until the temperature of the object
exceeds about1000 K. Then a characteristic red glow appears, like that of a heating coil on an
electric stove. When its temperature reaches about 1700 K, an object begins to glow white-hot,
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like the tungsten filament in an incandescent light bulb. In the transfer of energy by radiation, the
absorption of electromagnetic waves is just as important as their emission.

Source: Cutnell (2012). Physics. 9th ed

The surface of an object plays a significant role in determining how much radiant energy the
object will absorb or emit. The two blocks in sunlight tin Figure 13.14, for example, are identical,
except that one has a rough surface coated with lampblack (a fine black soot), while the other
has a highly polished silver surface. As the thermometers indicate, the temperature of the black
block rises at a much faster rate than that of the silvery block. This is because lampblack
absorbs about 97% of the incident radiant energy, while the silvery surface absorbs only
about 10%. The remaining part of the incident energy is reflected in each case. We see the
lampblack as black in color because it reflects so little of the light falling on it, while the
silvery surface looks like a mirror because it reflects so much light. Since the color black is
associated with nearly complete absorption of visible light, the term perfect blackbody or, simply
,blackbody is used when referring to an object that absorbs all the electromagnetic waves falling
on it. All objects emit and absorb electromagnetic waves simultaneously. When a body has the
same constant temperature as its surroundings, the amount of radiant energy being
absorbed must balance the amount being emitted in a given interval of time. The block
coated with lampblack absorbs and emits the same amount of radiant energy, and the silvery
block does too. In either case, if absorption were greater than emission, the block would
experience a net gain in energy. As a result, the temperature of the block would rise and not be
constant. Similarly, if emission were greater than absorption, the temperature would fall. Since
absorption and emission are balanced, a material that is a good absorber, like lamp-black, is
also a good emitter, and a material that is a poor absorber, like polished silver, is also a poor
emitter. A perfect blackbody, being a perfect absorber, is also a perfect emitter. The physics of
summer clothing. The fact that a black surface is both a good absorber and a good emitter is
the reason people are uncomfortable wearing dark clothes during the summer. Dark
clothes absorb a large fraction of the sun’s radiation and then reemit it in all directions. About
one-half of the emitted radiation is directed inward toward the body and creates the sensation
of warmth. Light-colored clothes, in contrast, are cooler to wear, because they absorb and
reemit relatively little of the incident radiation.

The amount of radiant energy Qemitted by a perfect blackbody is proportional to the radiation
time interval t (Q α t). The longer the time, the greater is the amount of energy radiated.
Experiment shows that Q is also proportional to the surface area A (Q α A). An object with a
large surface area radiates more energy than one with a small surface area, other things being
equal. Finally, experiment reveals that Q is proportional to the fourth power of the Kelvin
temperature T(Q α T4), so the emitted energy increases markedly with increasing temperature.
If, for example, the Kelvin temperature of an object doubles, the object emits 24or 16 times
more energy. Combining these factors into a single proportionality, we see that Q α T4At. This
proportionality is converted into an equation by inserting a proportionality constant 𝜎, known as
𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑱
the Stefan – Boltzmann constant. It has been foundexperimentally that 𝝈 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 𝒙 (𝒔−𝒎𝟐 :
−𝑲𝟒 )

𝑸 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒 𝑨𝒕

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The relationship above holds only for a perfect emitter. Most objects are not perfect emitters,
however. Suppose that an object radiates only about 80% of the visible light energy that
a perfect emitter would radiate, so Q(for the object) = (0.80)𝜎T4At. The factor such as the 0.80
in this equation is called the emissivity e and is a dimensionless number between zero and
one. The emissivity is the ratio of the energy an object actually radiates to the energy the
object would radiate if it were a perfect emitter. For visible light, the value of e for the
human body, for instance, varies between about 0.65 and 0.80, the smaller values
pertaining to lighter skin colors. For infrared radiation, e is nearly one for all skin colors. For a
perfect blackbody emitter, e=1.

Stefan–Boltzmann law of radiation.

𝑸 = 𝒆𝝈𝑻𝟒 𝑨𝒕

Example: Cutnell 9th ed

Example: Cutnell 9th ed

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