Guide To Fibre-Optic and Remote-Source Lighting

...
.
tc
ILE
Guide to
fibre-optic and
remote-source
lia htina
Institutionof Lighting Engineers

Regent House The Society of
Regent Place Light and Lighting
Rugby
CV21 2PN 222 Balham High Road
London SW12 98s. UK
w.ile.org.uk Tel: 020 8772 3680
Fax: 020 8673 3302
Tel: 01788 576492 e-mail: sll@cibse.org
Fax: 01788 540145
Registered chanty 268547

2 Institution of Lighting Engineers and Society of Light and Lighting
This publication has been prepared on behalf of the Institution of Lighting Engineers
and the Society of Light and Lighting Technical Committees for study and application.
The document reports on current knowledge and experience within the specific fields of
light and lighting described and is intended to be used by the membership of both organi-
sations and other interested parties. It should be noted, however, that the status of this
document is advisory and not mandatory. The Institution or the Society should be con-
sulted regarding possible subsequent amendments. Any mention of organisations or prod-
ucts does not imply endorsement by the Institution or the Society. While every care has
been taken in the compilation of any lists, up to the time of going to press, these may not
be comprehensive. Compliance with any recommendations does not itself confer immu-
nity from legal obligations.
Acknowledgements
The Institution of Lighting Engineers and the Society of Light and Lighting wish to
express their appreciation for the assistance and co-operation given in the production of
this guide by the following members of the joint task group:
David Burton (Chairman) (ETAP Ltd)
Mark Ayers (Lightform Ltd)
David Carter (University of Liverpool)
Alan Tulla (Crescent Lighting Ltd)
Photographs and diagrams are reproduced by kind permission of the following organisa-
tions:
Crescent Lighting Monodraught Ltd
ETAP Ltd Oscar Faber Group Ltd
Group C Lighting Pinniger & Partners
iGuzzini Lighting Ltd Schott Glass Ltd
Lightform Ltd Schrkder
Litech Thorn Lighting Ltd
Monodraught Ltd
0 October 2001: Institution of Lighting Engineers and Society of Light and Lighting
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic
tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the permission in writ-
ing of one of the copyright holders. The rights of publication or translation are reserved.
The Institution of The Society of

Lighting Engineers Light and Lighting
Lennox House 222 Balham High Road
9 Lawford Road London SW12 9BS. UK
Rugby, Warwicks Tel: 020 8772 3680
CV2l 2DZ. UK Fax: 020 8673 3302
Tel: 01788 576492 e-mail: sll@cibse.org
Fax: 01788 540145 The Society of Light and
e-mail: info@ile.co.uk Lighting is part of CIBSE
Registered Charity 268547 Registered Charity 278104
Fibre optic and remote source lighting 3
Guide to remote-source lighting
Acknowledgments 2
Foreword 4
1 Introduction to remote-source lighting systems 5
1.1 What is a remote-source lighting system? 5
1.2 Why might a remote-source lighting system be advantageous? 5
1.3 Light pipes 5
1.4 Solid-core systems 6
1.5 Considerations in the use of remote-source systems 6
2 Fibre-optic lighting systems 9
2.1 Principles of fibre-optic lighting 9
2.1.1 End-emitting fibres 10
2.1.2 Side-emitting fibre optics 10
2.2 Construction of fibre-optic systems 10
2.2.1 The projector 11
2.2.2 Harnesses 13
2.2.3 Emitters 15
2.3 Designing with fibre optics 15
2.3.1 General considerations 16
2.3.2 End-emitting systems 17
2.3.3 Side-emitting systems 19
2.4 Installation and maintenance 20
2.4.1 Installation 20
2.4.2 Maintenance 22
2.5 Fire performance and use in emergency lighting systems 22
2.6 Specifying fibre-optic systems 23
2.6.1 Performance specification 23
2.6.2 Equipment specification 24
3 Principles of light-pipe systems 25
3.1 Light sources 25
3.2 Light-transport systems 25
3.2.1 Hollow mirrored pipes 27
3.2.2 Prismatic light guides 28
3.2.3 Other guide types and emitters 30
Definitions 31
Appendix: Fibre-optic system design restrictions and methods 36
A1 Light-output ratios and efficiency 36
A2 Meaning and use of cone diagrams 36
References and further reading 38
Index 40
Foreword
Never has there been so great a need for a guide to the major issues and debates in
remote-source lighting systems, to help designers and specifiers to understand concepts
and applications.
This guide is designed to do just that. It reviews the equipment currently available
and gives specific recommendations as to how to plan, specify, install and maintain such
systems. It is intended to help readers to achieve the lighting effects they desire. Par-
ticular emphasis has been placed on how the design of equipment relates to specific
applications.
Remote-source lighting systems normally have a higher capital cost than do conven-
tional luminaires. Clear guidance is given on choosing the most appropriate type of
system for different lighting designs.
This guide will prove to be an indispensible aid to making these choices.
Eurlng Patrick Baldrey BSc CEng FIMechE MILE MCIBSE FSLL

President, Fibre Optic Lighting Association
- -4
F?
. ...
Fig. 1. Water feature, Trafford Park, which makes good use of fibre optic lighting.
Chapter 1 Introduction to remote-source lighting

systems
1.I What is a remote-source lighting system?

A remote-source lighting system is one in which the light source - daylight or a lamp
- is located some distance from the point of light delivery, light flux being transmitted
between the lamp and the emitter through some form of optical medium. Systems in-
clude a means of usefully extracting light from the optical medium along its length and/
or at its ends. Remote-source systems range in scale from ‘light pipes’ where component
cross-section dimensions are of the order of metres, to fibre-optic systems of a few mil-
limetres diameter. The useful transmission distances vary with the nature of transmis-
sion medium and the available light flux.
source
; Transmission medium /
+Emitter
\
1.2 Why might a remote-source system be advantageous?

For the vast majority of lighting applications, traditional luminaires provide a good range of
possibilities and are likely to offer the most cost-efficient solutions in terms of both capital and
operation through life. There are, however, some very specific applications where the use of
conventional lighting hardware is difficult or even impossible for a variety of reasons. This is
where remote-source systems can offer an alternative. There are also cases where daylight
can only be introduced into interiors using a light-transmission system -this can be an effec-
tive tool when developing ‘sustainable’building designs.
1.3 Light pipes

It is possible to transmit light along hollow pipes using a range of different optical properties.
Such systems may be suitable for certain lighting applications, particularly those where it is
desirable to increase daylighting deep within a building. Light pipes are discussed in detail in
Chapter 3.
Fig. 3 (left). Difficult maintenance access -

conventional luminaires sited directly above
Y
3 the pool are very difficult to maintain; here

the lamps are accessible from the side of the
Pool.
J I
Fig. 4. Thermal and photosensitive Fig. 5. Wheresize is a problem -in
considerations-if the the lamp is positioned applicationssuch as this, conventional
remotel,! much of the heat associated with luminaires would be too big. Fibre tails can
light generation can be avoided in the area also be passed through small spaces such as
where the light is needed. Sensitive materials display cabinet frames.
in museums and galleries can be lit in a more
controlled manner by delivering precise
amounts of light.
1.4 Solid-core systems

Another way in which light can be tmsmitted,by using total internal xeflection,is by means of
solid-core(not necessarily rigid) materials. The most common variety of these a~ optical
fibres -orfibre-opticguides. These systems are discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
1.5 Considerations in the use of remote-source systems

Remote-source systems have historically been used to solve particular problems but a
number of features limit their use for wider lighting applications in buildings. Systems
using artificial light sources are in most cases inefficient if compared with conventional
luminaires, but this may be mitigated by the use of higher-efficacy sources in remote-
source systems. An economic argument can only be applied when remote source sys-
Fig. 6. Architectural effects - remote-source lighting offers a real alternative to traditional

'floodlighting'. By delivering the light just where it's needed, these systems can be very efficient
and reduce light pollution. They can also be used for lighting architectural features such as roofs
where access for maintenance of conventional hardware is difficult.
Vertical
Fig. 7. Daylighting -getring daylight into deep-plan spaces using light pipes can produce
considerableenergy savings, as well as giving building occupants access to natural light.
tern replaceconventional equipment in applicationswhere the actual lighting levels are noncritical,
or where maintenance costs are unusually high. The characteristics of the transport elements
are summarised in Table 1. The provision of routes to accommodate light pipes may require
modification to the structure or fabric of a building.
Designers should also consider other factors when contemplating the use of remote-
source systems. Although the light distribution from fibre-optic tails may be designed to
give precise direction, the light-distribution mechanism from light pipes is usually lim-
ited to general diffusion. In general, photometry and design methods for light-pipe emit-
ters are less well developed than those for conventional luminaires, making the process
of selection and justification of the use of these devices problematic. The maintenance
requirements of remote-source systems need to be addressed at the design stage, notably
for the parts of the systems - such as transmission elements - that may be accommo-
dated in voids or ducts within a building.
Table 1 Summary of light transport systems

System type Impact on Magnitudes of Duct shape Magnitudes of Advantages Disadvantages
building design duct size transmission
distance (m)
Fibre optics Minimal: mm NA <30 (<I0 if Easy Expensive to
projector colour is installation in transport other
location and important) small spaces. than small
tail runs only No extra quantities of
hardware flux
at bend
Prismatic Yes cm Circular or <30 Can act as Require light

guides square emitters as input within
well as acceptance
transport angle
Hollow Yes cm Circular or <30 Will work with Need surfaces

mirror square noncollimated that maintain
guides light and very high
diffuse light. reflectances
Simple
construction.
Can act as
emitter
Lensed guides Yes cm NA <30 Potentially Cleaning of

simple system optical surfaces
if input well may be difficult
collimated
~ ~ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~ ~ ~~
Chapter 2 Fibre-optic lighting systems
2.1 Principles of fibre-optic lighting

Solid-core light transmitters rely on the laws of refraction, whereby light passing from one
medium into another of different optical density has its path altered by an amount proportional
to the difference in refractive indices of the two materials. At a certain point, known as the
critical angle (which varies for different materials), light rays will not cross the boundary
between the two optical media,but are reflected back. This is what is known as total intern1
mflection, and it is a very useful property since (neglecting losses) all light rays incident within
the critical angle will be transmitted insidethe medium, from which they fail to emerge.
In a solid-core system, total internal reflection is brought about by using a solid central CO=
surrounded by a very thin layer of cladding material, which results in the propagation of light
along the core material itself.
By using very thin elements made of glass or polymer, solid-core systems can be
Acceptance angle
is twice ic
. ... .
Light ---
source
--7------
.'
Only light
within this
cone will be
transmitted
y// It
I
tt
I
Many thousands of inter-reflections per metre
Fig. 8. Light propagation through a solid core.
Fig, 9. Fibre-opfic failswith fibres /if.
I
made so that they are flexible. This is a great advantage for a remote-source lighting system
since it opens up many possibilities for the lighting designer.
Solid-core systems my be used in such a way that the light is used at their ends, or by
special manufacturing processes light rays can be allowed to emerge along their length
so that the system emits light transversely as well as at its ends. In a fibre-optic tail, there
can be many thousands of reflections per metre length. Only by cladding the core in
another material of lower refractive index during manufacture (thus ensuring a clean,
crack-free interface) is it possible to obtain usable fibre-optic cable. It was in the early
1970s that commercially available optical fibre was first manufactured.
2.1 .I End-emitting fibres

The most common method of constructing the fibre is to use two materials of different
refractive index, the lower index being used as the outer cladding. This is known as
step-index fibre and is used for both glass and polymer fibres (qv). Because the cladding
is only used for protection, it can be very thin, the core doing the actual light transmis-
sion. For a 50 pm-diameter glass fibre, the core is 46 pm, so the cladding is just a 2 pm
layer. A polymer fibre is typically 750 pm overall with a 730 pm core.
An alternative method uses a material where the refractive index changes continu-
ously from the centre of the core to the outer surface. These are known as graded-index
.
fibres, but they are not used for commercial lighting applications though they are widely
used in telecommunications.
For light to pass into the fibre, it must strike the end within the acceptance angle of the
particular fibre. This is a cone typically between 60 and 80 deg. Outside this cone
(approximately twice the critical angle), the light will pass through both the core and
cladding and be lost to the air or outer sheath. Whilst it seems that a material with a
large acceptance angle would be more efficient because it has greater ‘collection’ capac-
ity, these materials tend to have higher attenuation along their length. This means that
the acceptance angle is not directly proportional to the amount of light emitted at the end
of the fibre.
2.1.2 Side-emitting fibre optics

Side-emitting fibres work in the same way as end-emitting fibres except for two aspects.
The outer sheath is clear, usually PVC, so that the light can pass through while the inner
fibres retain physical protection. More importantly, the outer cladding of the fibre is
treated (by cracking, stressing, abrading) so that not all the light is totally internally
reflected and some passes through to the outside.
2.2 Construction of fibre-optic systems

There are normally three parts to any system: aprojector; a harness and an emitter. Light
is produced inside the projector and concentrated on the common end of the harness. A
harness consists of two or more tails of fibre-optic fibre. A single tail is often referred to
as a light guide or clad rod. An emitter will normally be fitted to the end of each tail to
protect the end and direct the light.
to include infra-red filters to reduce the heat on the ends of the fibres.
Projectors should be constructed to conform with EN 60598-1," be CE marked, and
normally comprise the following components:
Infra-red (ZR)filters can be a thin piece of coated borosilicate glass sheet or, alterna-
tively, a solid glass block known as a bridge. Polymer fibres should be kept below 8OoC,
whereas glass fibres will resist a much higher temperature that is ultimately limited by
the epoxy resin bonding the fibres in the common end.
Ultra-violet (UV)filtersare used to protect polymer fibres from degradation. UV filters
may also used with glass fibres where there is a particular requirement for the illumina-
tion of photo-sensitive materials.
Colouredfilters can be used to modify the colour temperature of the source, or simply to
colour the light emitted from the tails. Coloured filters should be made of clear, heat-
resistant glass with dichroic coatings for colour. Pigmented glass tends to lose colour
over time and becomes very hot due to the absorption of heat and light. However,
pigmented (also known as body-tinted) glasses are often used for special effects and for
theatrical purposes where the reduced life is not such a problem.
Fig. 1 1 Typical fan-cooled metal-halide projector, with cover removed, showing component
layout..
Colour/sparkle wheels: Projectors can be fitted with colour wheels andor sparkle wheels.
The motors driving these usually have the option of control via a 0-10 V or DMX proto-
col.@)
Light sources: A very important factor in the efficiency of a fibre-optic system is how
much light can be concentrated on the common end. This means that only small, intense
light sources that can be easily focused are used. Traditionally, specialist lamps from
existing applications such as display lighting, studio lighting and photography have been
adapted. More recently, lamps specifically designed for use with fibre optics have be-
come available. Fibre-optic lighting is often combined with conventional luminaires and
consideration should be given to any contrast in colour appearance or rendering where
different light sources are used for different parts of an installation.
Single-ended halogen lamps are often used and range from 20 to 250 W. Low-voltage
lamps are preferred because their filaments are more compact than those of their mains
voltage equivalents. They have the advantage of being easily dimmable, but suffer col-
our shift when dimmed to very low levels. They attain full output instantaneously at
switch on. However, their life is shorter than those of discharge lamps and the higher-wattage
lamps that are designed for studio and photo use can have rated lives as short as 500 hours.
Their high power consumptioncompared with that of discharge lamps is not normally a consid-
eration. The exception to this is where they are being run from batteries for emergency lighting.
Discharge lumps: These are invariably metal-halide or variants. They have the advantage of
excellent colour rendering and high light output. They are available in ratings from from 35 to
400 W. If they are fitted in separate metal reflectors, care is needed when replacing the lamps
to ensure that the arc is refocused correctly.Lamps with integral reflectors have the advantage
that they are always correctly focused, and that, because the reflector is part of the lamp, it is
automatically replaced when the lamp is changed. This means that there is little depreciation in
light output due to dust on the reflecting surfaces.
Dimming can be accomplished in several ways. If the lamp is of the tungsten-halogen type,
simply reducing its supply voltage will achieve the desired result, but note that a fixed voltage
will normally be required for other components such as the fan or colour-wheelmotor, so two
power supplies are often needed to the projector. For discharge lamps, other methods must be
adopted. If a simple reduction in output is required, a fixed neutral-density filter glass can be
inserted between the lamp and common end. These filters typically reduce the transmission by
25,50 or 75%. Alternatively, several different neutral-density filters can be fitted to a wheel
controlled by a stepper motor, so that variations in output can be achieved. Another method is
to use aperforated metal disc to achievethe same result. This is positioned ‘out of focus’ in the
optical system so that the perforationsdo not cast shadows onto the common end. The advan-
tage of these methods is that the light output can be reduced to zero. A switch should be
included in the dimming controller to cut off the lamp supply below a certain light output,
avoiding the impression that the projector is off whilst the lamp is still burning.
Electronicballasts are increasingly available for high-intensity discharge lamps, and these
may incorporate means for dimming. Typically, this can reduce the light output by up to 50%.
They are not yet available for the complete range of discharge lamps.
Hot restrike is an option for discharge lamps. As lamp starting voltages in excess of 25
kV may be necessary, the specifier should verify that the projector construction and
components are sufficiently robust. If there is a need for instant restart, high-wattage
tungsten-halogen projectors offer a more reliable alternative. Note that some of the more
specialist metal-halide lamps have relatively short lives, around 2000 hours.
2.2.2 Harnesses
The harness is the name given to a collection of fibre tails that come together at a common end.
Its size is limited by the number of fibres which can be fitted into a 30 mm diameter common
end, 30 mm being a de-facto standard. The total amount of light a harness can deliver is
ultimately limited by the light delivered into the common end by the projector’s lamp and
optical system.This light is divided across each tail but not necessarily evenly, owing to imper-
fections in the projector optics. The amount of light a tail delivers is a function of its length (due
to losses),its transmittanceand its cross-sectionalarea. Since tail length is normally determined
by site conditions,it is the tail cross-section that controls the quantity of light delivered.
The light emitted at the end of the fibre is then focused or directed by a luminaire
(sometimes referred to as an emitter). The attenuation (loss of light per unit length of
n I Equal tail
length - route
Projector
prevents emitters
lining up
Inner tails are

now shorter
Projector
and will appear
brighter
Loops introduced
to take up excess
Projector
so all tails are
equal length
U
Fig. 12. Relative tail lengths.
fibre) varies with the quality of glass/polymerused. A white-light attenuationof 4.5% per metre
(200 d B h ) or less is recommended (see ‘Attenuation’in the Definitions for further informa-
tion). Manufacturers should be able to supply these data with suitable correction factors, where
applicable. When making comparisonsnote that attenuation data are frequently given for near
infra-red light at 850 nm. A better choice of wavelength for assessing the performance of fibre-
optic lighting systems is 550 nm which gives an attenuation value closer to that of a typical
white light source. Comparisons should always be made using the same light source or wave-
Fig. 13. Fine randomisation (left) and coarse randomisation (right).

The hatched areas represent the fibres from an individual tail, and show how they are distributed
across the common end in order that all tails appear approximately equal brightness.
Randomisation is done by hand and adds considerably to the cost of a harness.
length of light. A typical white light source is considered to be a tungsten-halogen or metal-

halide lamp and variants of the latter. Note that, because the attenuation of fibre varies with
wavelength, there will be some shift of colour from the source of the light at its point of utilisa-
tion, and designers should be aware of this and any impact it may have on the lighting perform-
ance of the system.
Ideally, all tails should be the same length so that they emit equal intensity. However,
having the shortest tail 75% the length of the longest is normally acceptable and for purely
decorative applications,such as sparkle ceilings, 66% may be acceptable.Tails of different
lengths facilitate simpler installation and reduce cost.
To ensure that equal amounts of light are emitted from each tail, the fibres may be
randomised. This means that during manufacture, the fibres from each tail are distrib-
uted across the common end rather than being grouped together in a single region.
Randomisation will be quoted as a ratio and, if specified, should be not less than 8: 1.
2.2.3 Emitters
Emitters may also be referred to as luminaires, but note that they cannot meet the EN
60598-1 definition of a luminaire.(2)Themain purpose of a fibre-optic emitter is to direct
the light from the end of the tail. Additionally, it may need to protect the tail end if used
outdoors or in harsh environments. As large-diameter tails are inherently resilient, if
bent they will attempt to straighten themselves and so any aiming mechanism employed
should be strong enough to hold the beam at the correct angle. Similarly, the emitter
fixings should be sufficiently robust for a recessed emitter to be retained flush against
the ceiling.
The cone of light emitted from a bare tail is the same as the acceptance angle of the
fibre as long as the optical system in the projector over-fills the fibre numerical aperture.
For this reason, an emitter with a plain cover glass will give a 60-80" beam, depending
on the type of fibre used. This can be made narrower using a plano-convex lens, so that
beams as small as 15" (2 x 7.5") can be achieved. The beam from a fibre-optic source has
a much sharper cut-off than that from a tungsten-halogen or discharge luminaire. This is
an advantage where precise spotlighting is required. Conversely, there is no softening of
the beam edge, nor is there significant spill light which adds illuminance to other areas.
Widening the beam using diffusing or prismatic materials is rarely effective due to light
loss or striations. Manufacturers should provide photometric data for their emitters ei-
ther as cone diagrams with correction factors (see Appendix A2) or on disk in a suitable
format (CIBSE TM14, IESNA, EULUMDAT or CIE).(47s7677) It is also possible to meas-
ure the lumen output from a tail using a portable or bench mounted integrator.
Traditionally, the sizes of glass optical fibres have been based on a tail containing 400
fibres each 50 pm in diameter - this being defined as 'size 1'. This gives a light-carry-
ing cross-sectional area of around 0.8 mm2.A size 4 tail would thus contain 1600 fibres
and carry four times the quantity of light. More recently, glass-harness manufacturers
have used larger-diameter fibres, especially for high-capacity tails, which means that
fewer fibres are used for a given size, the overall light capacity remaining the same. Data
stating the cross-sectional area of a tail give a better measure of size because they permit
direct comparisons to be made between different glass and polymer fibres.
2.3 Designing with fibre optics

There are many reasons for using fibre optics instead of traditional luminaires. The
majority of applications are those where access for maintenance is difficult/expensive,
where the light at delivery point must be free of heat or ultra-violet radiation, or where
the light must be delivered at a very specific point in order to create a particular effect.
End-emitting and side-emitting systems have completely different applications and spe-
cific design aspects are detailed below. However, there are criteria that are common to
both.
16 Institutionof Lighting Engineers and Society of Light and Lighting
2.3.1 General considerations

Unless designed specifically for exterior use, the projectors should be located in a clean, dry
environment with good ventilation. If possible, thewarm exit air should be directedupwards or
horizontally to avoid it being re-circulated through the projector. The air should be free of
contaminants, such as salt or chlorine, which could attack the components inside the projector.
In damp locations, consideration should be given to the likelihood of condensation when the
projector is switched off. Note that condensation can sometimesrun down the hamess and
enter the projector through the port. This can be avoided by suitable orientation of the projec-
tor.
Other than the lighting effect to be achieved, one of the most important factors is the
location of the projector relative to the luminaires. The projector should be as close as
possible to minimise light attenuation and reduce the cost of unproductive fibre. This
may conflict with the need to have easy access for installation and maintenance.
There is no general rule for the maximum length of tail. For effect lighting such as
sparkle ceilings or way marking, the flux emitted from the luminaire is of little impor-
tance and tails of 15 m or more may be acceptable. Where the luminaires must achieve
definite light levels, tails longer than 6 m are likely to be uneconomic and colour shift
may be apparent. It may be more cost effective to use several projectors with smaller
harnesses rather than maximise the number and length of tails into a single projector.
There is always some colour shift with long tail lengths, whatever fibre material is
used. This is unlikely to be noticeable on tails less than 6 m. Low-attenuation fibres
generally show the least colour shift. Measurement of colour shift requires expensive
equipment and it is difficult to relate the results to the actual effect seen by the eye. A trial
installation should be carried out for applications where colour shift may be a problem.
A summary of fibre sizes and attenuation properties can be found in Table 2.
The light sources used in projectors are described in Section 2. I . It is advisable to use
the same lamp type and wattage when lighting the same area because there is the possi-
bility of contrasting colour appearance. It should be borne in mind that, in simple terms,
glass fibres absorb mainly blue, and polymer fibres mainly red, wavelengths.
Fig. 14. Sparkle effects can be dramatic yet economical using fibre optics.
Table 2. Comparison of sizes of polymer and glass fibres

PMMA FSPTe (individual PMMA strands of 0.75 mm each)
Size Fibre Activefibre Minimum permanent Maximum number Per-unit proportion
strands Diameter Area bend radius tails per light of white light left at
(mm) (mm) (mm) projector 3 m 10m 20m
3 3 1.60 1.30 5 150 0.91 0.74 0.54
6 6 2.10 2.65 7.5 75 0.91 0.74 0.54
12 12 3.00 5.30 10 37 0.91 0.74 0.54
25 25 4.30 11.05 15 18 0.91 0.74 0.54
37 37 5.00 16.35 18.5 12 0.91 0.74 0.54
50 50 6.00 22.10 20 9 0.91 0.74 0.54
62 62 6.50 27.04 25 7 0.91 0.74 0.54
75 75 7.50 33.15 28 6 0.91 0.74 0.54
150 150 11.0 66.30 35 3 0.91 0.74 0.54
225 225 13.0 99.45 40 2 0.91 0.74 0.54
Maximum 3% loss per metre
Glass fibre (individual glass strands of 0.05 mm each)

size Fibre Active fibre Minimum permanent Maximum number Per-unit proportion
strands Diameter Area bend radius tails per light of white light left at
(mm) (mm) (mm) projector 3 m 10m 20m
34 300 1.00 0.59 5 435 0.83 0.54 0.29
1% 600 1.50 1.17 8 230 0.83 0.54 0.29
3 1200 2.00 2.34 15 130 0.83 0.54 0.29
8 3200 3.00 8.98 20 52 0.83 0.54 0.29
14 5600 4.00 15.71 25 30 0.83 0.54 0.29
24 9600 6.00 26.93 50 16 0.83 0.54 0.29
36 19200 7.20 37.63 60 10 0.83 0.54 0.29
Maximum 6% loss per metre
2.3.2 End-emitting systems

Apart from sparkldstar ceilings and route marking, end-emitting fibre optics are used
where a conical beam of light is required. Unless modified by a lens or diffuser, the beam
will be 60-80". Note that this is the beam width to cut-off and not the half-peak angle
normally used to describe lamps and conventional spotlights. Most fibre-optic spotlights
have a lens to concentrate the beam and the lack of spill light means that very tight
L-
'U
Fig. 1 5. Route marking using buried fibre Fig. 16. Another application for fibre optics is
optics. for water features. The inherent electrical
safety of a remote light source makes these
systems ideal in such cases.
18 Institutionof Lighting Engineers and Society of Light and Lighting
It... .
Fig. 17. Lighting steps by directing the light to precisely where it is required.
control can be obtained. Variable-anglebeams can be achieved by altering the distance be-
tween the lens and the tail end. Where the beam angle is crucial, it is recommended that the
focusing mechanism has a locking device. Ifa large number of spothghts needto have the same
beam angle, it is often simpler and more reliable to have a fmed lens position and a shoulder/
k e d stop to limit the tailend. Similarly,spotlightsthatcan tilt or rotatecanbe fitted with locking
mechanisms. Cowls or barn doors are sometimes used to shape the beam and prevent a direct
view of the lens.
Sparkle ceilings are an ideal application for fibre optics because hundreds of points of light
can be fed from a single, easily accessible, projector. Typically, 400 points can be supplied
from one projector. A tungsten-halogen lamp in the projector can easily be
dimmed, while the small size of the sparkle point can render it invisible when switched
Fig. 18. Dramatic effects created by fibre. Fig. 1 9. Cable-fastening methods.

off. Note that, owing to the very small area of the end of the tail, its luminance is very high. This
means that, even in daylight, a single polymer fibre or size 1glass fibre is easily visible by direct
viewing of the fibre end. Because of the small amount of flux emitted,very little illuminance is
achieved from the sparkleceiling alone. Ready-madeprojector, multi-tail harness and sparkle
point kits are now commercially available.Although these offer rapid and inexpensive solutions
for small areas, they lack the flexibility of bespoke systems.
Consideration should always be given to the space required for the recess depth of the
spotlight and the fibres. Typically, 20-30 mm is required for the tail end and luminaire
fixing. To this must be added the bend radius of the fibre. This depends on its construc-
tion and diameter. Small fibres can turn through 90" in less than 10 mm, whereas a large
fibre might require 50 mm, or more. Note that large fibres have a fair amount of stiffness
and may need to be clamped in position so as not to affect the mounting or aiming of the
luminaire. Where space is very limited, fixed or variable angle mirrors can be used on
the end of the tail to direct the light. Where there are many tails, consideration also needs
to be given to the total diameter of the bundle of fibres. The bend radius required for the
fibre route is similarly affected.
Outdoors, fibre optic luminaires set in the ground are a useful way of route marking.
They can be permanently sealed because there are no lamps to maintain. The absence of
heat means they can be very small and are cool to touch. The luminaire output colour can
be changed and thus be used to indicate entry/exit routes on pathways. Luminaires are
normally made of stainless steel or aluminium for corrosion resistance. Although flat-
glass lenses are harder wearing than polycarbonate, they are more susceptible to vandal-
ism. A frosted domed lens gives greater visibility. Areas where there is vehicle traffic
require more robust units than those destined for pedestrian use only. Luminaire con-
struction should be such that water is prevented from entering the harness, where it will
be transmitted down the tails to the projector. This is particularly important in pools and
water-feature applications.
Another common use for fibre optics is the lighting of steps. Here, the light casts a
glancing beam across the surface of the step. The luminaire is normally mounted on the
vertical sides. This avoids glare to the user.
Where projectors are IP rated, consideration should be given to their location and
orientation to ensure that the conditions of the rating are met. Projectors can be hidden
by locating them in pits. Here, the main considerations are good drainage and ventila-
tion. Projectors in public areas need special consideration regarding access and vandal-
ism.
The tails of end-emitting systems should be routed so that they are protected from
damage. It is recommended that they be laid in ducts or on cable trays so that they can be
replaced if required.
2.3.3 Side-emitting systems

Side-emittingsystems are used to provide a continuous line of light. Principal applications
include delineating edges such as steps, building outlines, swimming pools, borders of paths
and signs. The fibre can also be used under permanently fixed features such as glass paving
blocks or behind glass walls to make them luminous as well as for purely decorativepurposes
such as sculpture and art works.
The applications are similar to those for cold-cathode fluorescent lighting, but with
important differences.A major advantage of fibre optics is that they are much more robust, and
are intrinsically safe. They can be used safely under water or on the risers of stair treads, and
changes of colour can be produced by using a filter wheel in the projector. The main disadvan-
tage of these systems is that their luminance is much lower than that of cold-cathode fluorescent
lamps. For example, a 15 mm-diameterpolymer fibre, 30 m long which is fed from both ends
by means of a 150W metal-halide projector will have a midpoint luminance of 550 cd/m2.
Adjacent to the projector this increases to 1250cam2.These values can be increased three to
four times by using a 400 W projector andor a shorter length of fibre. Typical luminances for
cold-cathodelamps are 5000-10 OOO cd/m2.Note that, owing to attenuation,the luminance of
a side-emitting fibre decreases slowly along its length. However, this is rarely greater than 3: 1
max/min over a 30 m length, which is usually acceptable. Because of the lower luminances and
possible variations, trial installationsor mock-ups should be made to ensure that the desired
effect can be achieved. Where side emitting.fibres are used to form signs, recommendations
on their brightness can be,found in L E Technical Report No. 5.@)
It is often necessary. to ensure that a fibre runs in straight lines. Since side-emitting
fibre is not rigid, it should be installed in recessed or surface-mounted rigid U-channels.
These are normally.madeof clear PVC or polycarbonate. Routing or cutting a groove in
the supporting material is a common technique, but additional fixings are required to
hold the fibre. Note that recessing reduces the directions from which the fibre can be
seen.
The fibre used is normally solid-core or stranded polymer. Most manufacturers rec-
ommend a maximum length of 30 m between projectors or use of a 30 m 1oop.Where
brightness is less important, 45 m or more may be acceptable. Special side-emitting
glass fibre is available, but this is not normally used in lengths over 10 m.
2.4 Installation & maintenance
2.4.1 Installation
Great care must be exercised in the storage, handling and installation of fibre optic har-
nesses, particularly glass fibres, as it is almost impossible to repair them if they are
damaged. It is possible to repair or modify polymer fibres but site conditions for this are
rarely ideal and the light losses introduced by the repair process may be unacceptable.
Any broken or abraded tails should be replaced prior to installation.
Harnesses should not be taken on to the working site until installation is about to take
place, and they should be laid out and checked for damage prior to being fixed in place.
This should be done by illuminating the tails and checking them individually. The tails
should be located so that they are protected from mechanical damage and points of high
risk should utilise additional protection, for example electrical conduit. Adequate length
should be allowed for routing around corners and termination. If possible, provision
should be made for later replacement of the entire harness.
Tail ends should be protected from water and moisture. This is particularly important
where polymer fibre is used. The resin used for sealing fibres at the emitter may be
adversely affected by water ingress over prolonged periods, and additional protection
should be provided in wet environments. For pool applications, it should be ensured that
installation of the projector complies with BS 7671 (IEE ‘Wiring regulation^').(^) If
additional wiring for signalling or synchronisationis required, provision should be made
for this in the power-supply design.
Large bubble jet fountain hea

used fitted level with grating
tainless steel fibre opt
head clamped with ,
standard part distance
from fountain head
determined by tests
Plant room housing proje

is 2 . 2 metres from furthe
fountain
Due to long distances,
Plantroom dry so standard cable sizing is crucial and
projector can be used is only finalised after a
number of tests to the
150 W metal-halide lamp gives
Cable conduit cast in client
acceptable output even a t this
distance
10 000 light points in a floor over three levels of 1600 m2. Section through floor showing basic
installation method
before splitting Polish floor after cutting
Projector located under
Fibre cable conduit casVcut
-
,@z;-
Cable chosen which gives
best effect during site test
_.--- -
CL-
c
/
A total of four projectors were
Cable conduit under paving
used for the whole feature
to each lighting point
Fig. 20. A range of installation techniques. It is important to provide the installer with detailed
layout drawingsshowing routes of fibres and protection and fixing methods.
If it is important that alltails have equal intensity, they should allbe of equal length, and space
should be allowed to coil excess tail lengths inside voids. If colour shift is an important consid-
eration, the choice of light source and fibre type will be made so as to give the least spectral
distortion.
Unless it is specifically designed for exterior use, the projector should be installed in
a clean, dry, well-ventilated space, free of dust. Fanless projectors have higher case tem-
peratures and should therefore be located clear of flammable materials and possible physi-
cal contact with people when in use. Important factors include heat-sensitive materials
in the vicinity of the projector and the life expectancy of components. It is also impor-
tant, where high-wattage lamps or large-diameter fibres are to be used, that escaping
light is not allowed to cause thermal damage to adjacent tails or nearby objects. Access
must be provided to the projector for lamp replacement and future maintenance. This
may mean allowing for some slack in the tails so that the projector can be moved before
disconnecting the harness.
Fibres should be routed neatly. Wherever possible, they should be in straight lines
and change direction through 90". If this is not possible, they should follow the lines of
the building or landscape. The minimum bend radius for a tail should be stated by the
manufacturer. This will typically be five times the diameter of the tail. Where it is neces-
sary to form a bend in an entire harness, the manufacturer should be consulted to deter-
mine whether any particular limitations apply. Installations consisting of tails fanning
out in the manner of a 'spider's web' should be avoided. Wherever tails are run verti-
cally, adequate support should be provided.
Fibre-optic tails must not be pulled or exposed to other mechanical stresses during
installation. Common ends should not be used to pull the tails, which can easily be
stretched or damaged. Tails should be held securely in place without crushing or stress-
ing. If cable ties are used, they should be no tighter than is necessary to hold the fibres in
place. It is acceptable practice to lay tails on cable trays or in large-diameter ducting.
Fibres should be routed neatly.
2.4.2 Maintenance
Full details of the equipment should be provided in a comprehensive Operation & Mainte-
nance manual. This should include reference to manufacturers' data, lamp types, installation
routes and position of equipment and any particular maintenance requirements.
It is recommended that all metal-halide lamps in an installation be replaced at the
same time to maintain uniform output and colour. A bulk lamp-change policy will there-
fore be more cost effective than merely relamping after failures.
Where projectors have an IP rating of IP54 or less, they should be cleaned internally
to remove dust from the lamp, reflector and port. The installation should be inspected
visually for signs of deterioration or presence of foreign matter. Where possible, the
routes of the tails should be inspected to ensure that the tails themselves are in good
order.
2.5 Fire performance and use in emergency lighting systems

The fire performance of fibre-optic systems should be considered. Although glass fibre is in-
herently inert in a fire, the sheathing material used to protect the tails may not be. Where
resistance to flammabilityand low toxic-fume emission are important, a suitable low-smoke-
and-fume (LSF) sheathing material should be specified. Polymer fibres may
pose a problem as most of those currently available do not perform well in a fire and have
relatively high toxic-fume emission. Designers should make a careful assessment of the risks
arising when such materials are exposed to a fire.
Fibre-optic systems can be useful as part of an emergency lighting system but care
should be taken in the design so that the failure of the projector will not cause total
failure of all of the emergency lighting points. Some redundancy will have to be de-
signed in to eliminate this risk. It is also essential to supply any fibre-optic emergency
lighting via an unintermptible power supply (UPS) if HID lamps are used, as these lamps
have extended re-strike times. Low-mounted way-guidance systems may be used to en-
hance the normal overhead emergency lighting and fibre-optic lighting may be appropri-
ate for these applications. Particular requirements for fibre-optic emergency lighting are
laid out in BS 5266-4 and BS 5266-5.('OJ1)
2.6 Specifying fibre-optic systems

There are two approaches to specification. In the first, the desired lighting effect is speci-
fied and a supplier determines what equipment is necessary to achieve this. Note that the
specification of particular luminances/illuminances is rarely appropriate for fibre-optics
-a particular visual effect is the usual objective. This is known as a performance speci-
fication. For those specifiers who do not wish to become involved with detailed equip-
ment specification, this route may be satisfactory, provided that the client has a clear
understanding of what is required and this can be translated into a sound performance
brief.
A more reliable alternative is for the lighting designer to decide what equipment is
required to achieve the desired lit effect and specify the hardware as discrete compo-
nents. This approach enables the designer to choose equipment from different suppliers
to achieve the best result in terms of cost or performance but it requires more time and,
except in the simplest of schemes, a demonstration to show precisely the effects that will
be achieved. In either case, the supplier(s) should be able to justify conformance to the
specification.
2.6.1 Performance specification

For end-emitting systems, this should include:
the area to be illuminated or patch size
the luminance and/or illuminance to be achieved
for large areas, whether uniformity is important
colour and dimming features, if required
specification of the lamp in terms of life, colour rendering and whether instant light
at switch-on is required
maximum and minimum ambient temperatures
whether control of noise from the projector/s is important.
For side-emitting systems, the main criteria are the diameter of fibre and luminance
required.
For either type, consider whether colour changing, dimming and remote control are
required and if so specify a control protocol. The fibre-support method and route must
be specified. The suppliers will require a complete set of accurate scale drawings in
order to make a valid offer. Manufacturers' data should be used to determine whether the
specification is achievable.
2.6.2 Equipment specification

A projector specificationshould include the following, as a minimum:
a complete description of the lamp type and required performance
noise emission levels and operating temperatures
port diameter.
If the projector is to be coupled to a harness from a different supplier, the output of the
projector should be specified - see Section 2.2.1 for suitable methods.
The harness data should include port diameter, white-light attenuation, material,
randomisation and actual area of fibre transmitting the light.
The length of the tails should be given as well as the termination: ferrule size, diam-
eter and whether threaded or smooth. Consider whether LSF sheathing is required.
The luminaire data should include:
material
finishkolour
mounting method.
For spotlights, it should be stated whether a locking screw is required. The required
beam angle should be stated. If the spotlight is not being sourced from the same supplier
as the harness, verify that there is compatibility between the size of the ferrule and that of
the luminaire.
Reference must be made in each part of the component specification to compatibility
with other parts, eg in terms of temperature limits and mechanical connection.
~
Chapter 3: Principles of light-pipe systems

The major components that make up a system are a light source (which may be either electric
or daylight), a transport element and an emitter.
3.1 Light sources

The light source consists of a lamp and/or a daylight-capture device and an optical de-
vice which delivers light in a controlled manner to the light transport mechanism. Suit-
able lamps must have high light output and/or efficacy, and be capable of providing light
with a high degree of optical control.
The main types of lamps used are short-arc metal-halide (2-3 mm arc length), which
are small enough to act at the focus of the precise optics necessary to provide collimated,
or near collimated light, to enable subsequent optical processes to function without un-
due light loss. ‘Sulphur’ lamps have also been used for this application. The typical
efficiency of a polished aluminium parabolic reflector, which is used to produce near
collimated light for a mirrored pipe, is of the order of 80%.
Daylight is gathered either using an ‘active’ sun-tracking device such as a heliostat,
which captures direct solar radiation, or passively by the use of a simple hemispherical
dome. The optical complexity of active systems is such that light losses are inevitably
high since each optical process reduces the amount of usable system output. Addition-
ally, the various elements of equipment are expensive in both capital and maintenance
costs (Fig. 21).
Recent interest has focused on the light tube, a simple and cheap form of ‘passive’
remote source systems as a means of lighting interiors.
Several passive tube systems are commercially available. They consist of a clear acrylic
dome, rigid or flexible tubes coated with a reflective material, and a light diffuser made
of opal or prismatic material (Fig. 22). Rigid tubes may include bends or elbows. A
modification to the basic system cuts the upper end of the tube at an oblique angle and
inclines the cut toward the equator. This ‘light scoop’ has the effect of increasing the flux
output of the tube by a factor to up to 2 under clear-sky-plus-sun conditions, but has a
negative effect on output under overcast conditions.
The performance of particular installaGons depends on the characteristics of the sys-
tem used and local daylight conditions. For a typical 0.5 m-long, 300 mm-diameter,
system made up of clear-dome collector, mirrored tube and diffusing emitter, the overall
transmittance of the system is of the order of 60% for representative ranges of external
conditions. The amount of flux delivered by these systems depends on the system con-
figuration and the external conditions. A typical lumen output for a 0.33 m-diameter
1.2 m-long mirrored straight pipe varies from about 320 Im from an overcast sky to in
excess of 2000 Im under a clear sky with sun.
3.2 Light-transport systems

The main function of a transport element is to deliver light from the source to the point of
exit, but some transport sections may in addition act as emitters. There are four generic
types of transport: hollow mirrored, prismatic, solid-core and lensed systems. The first
two methods are used in light-pipe systems. Solid-core systems are the basis of fibre-
optic systems. Lensed systems are little used in practical lighting applications.
I I
Fixed converging
f - reflector
reflector thin film (PCG)

I I
Dual axis tracking
solar heliostat drive
I
structure
solar light
ackup metal
input housing halide luminaire
Fig. 2 1. Active light-pipe system.
UV protected Stainless steel

polycarbonate vandal-proof fixings
dome I
condensation
i No limit t o number
elbows that can

SunPipe easily be used
passes through
roofs and walls
I
Sealed tube of air
prevents solar gain
Polycarbonate
diffuser evenlv
spreads light ’
into room
and minimises
heat loss in winter
Fig. 22. Light-pipe system.

3.2.1 Hollow mirrored pipes

In mirror light pipes, light is collected at an aperture and transmittedby a ‘light pipe’ or ‘light
guide’ which has highly reflective internal walls (Fig. 23). The light travels along the pipe by
reflection to the point of utilisation which may be anythmg from a few metresto 30 m away.
Light pipes may be of circular or rectangular cross-section, varying between 0.01 m2and 1
m2or even larger. If the light has to be taken around corners, additional mirrors or prisms may
be used.
This type of light pipe lends itself well to daylighting applications. In such cases, the
collecting end of the pipe would be capped with a transparent or translucent plastics
dome and placed where it could ‘see’the maximum area of unobstructed sky. To spread
the light delivered over a reasonable area, some form of diffusing cover is normally
provided at the outlet end of the pipe.
Mirror light pipes tend to have high losses because of the large number of inter-reflec-
tions that occur in the light-transmission process. This is not a problem where daylight is
used because plenty of light is normally available, but they are not well suited to electric
lightingapplications.
r I
Fig. 23. Mirror light pipe. Fig. 24. A commercial light-pipe installation
utilising daylight as the some.
Mirror light pipes use multiple specularreflectionsat theinner wall surfaceto msmit light,
the overall transmission being a function of surface reflectance, the degree of collimation of
input light and the propodons of the tube in terms of the ratio of length to cross-section area.
If pipe lengths are large comparedwith the axial length of the pipe, thenumber of reflections is
necessarily large, and thus light losses depend significantly on the reflectance of thematerial.
To attempt to minimise the number of reflections, light must enter the pipe as a near-colli-
mated axial beam. The efficiency of a mirroredpipe thus depends on both the area and geo-
metric form of the pipe and the directional properties of the source. The simplest system is a
hollowtubewithpolishedaluminium walls, whichinacleanstatemayhaveareflectanceofthe
order of 85% for the visible spectrum.For a 0.3 m-diameter pipe using an 8"beam-angle
electric source, the light flux will drop to 50% after approximately 6 m of travel. Substitutionof
material of 95% reflectivity would reduce the light loss to 20%.
In systems which use skylight as the source, and in which the degree of collimation is low,
overall system efficiencies are of the order of 10%.Bends and junctions may be formed in
mirromipipes; theserely on the tube walls or additional mirrors or prisms to redirect the light.
The light loss for any bend depends on factors such as the collimation of theincoming light and
the angle of the bend but, in general, a bend will cause light loss comparable with that of at least
twice the length of straight pipe.
3.2.2 Prismatic light guides

It is possible to pass light along extended prisms by total internal reflection and thus
transmit it to a remote point. Not all light rays incident on the collecting ends of the
prisms will reach the end, as some ray paths will emerge along the length of the prism
itself. By arranging a series of very small prisms in such a way that they form a light
pipe, this progressive-loss effect can be used to advantage, as such light guides will
glow along their length. The design of the pipe may be such that a usable amount of light
emerges at the end of the pipe, or all of the light may be allowed to emerge before
reaching the end. This type of light pipe is particularly well suited to applications em-
<<
Fig. 25. Prismatic light pipe.
Emitter
..A . .
Fig. 26. A hybrid remote-source lighting system
which combines a mirror light pipe with
prismatic film to produce an extended
luminaire. The light source can be at either or
both ends of the pipe.
.i 4
"8 72'
,.&;=,. _---
,
3-
<'
Fig. 27. Prismatic light guide incorporated into Fig. 28. Prismatic system illustrating principles.
luminaire.
AI
I I
8 I
~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ ~
Fig. 29. Prismatic installation.
ploying very high-output light sources, eg 'sulphur' lamps. Hybrid products are also available
which combine the optical properties of prismatic and mirror light guides into a single system.
The0ptical~(made.fi.omsacrylicorpoly~~)havea90~prismaticnd~structure
on theexterior surface. These materials, when used to line a light pipe with the prisms orien-
tated parallel to the pipe axis, transmit light by total internal reflection provided thattheincident
light does not exceed some predetermined acceptanceangle. Irregularities in the film cause a
small proportion of light to exceed the acceptanceangle and leak out of the pipe; this effect
makes the pipe glow, and for this reason the prismatic guide acts as both a transport and an
emission device.
The prismatic st~~ctuxe is available as a flexible ulm-fine film or rigid material, and various
cross-sections can be formed. Both types are capable of transporting collimated
light with low losses. A 0.1 m-diameter polycarbonate pipe with a tungsten-filament
i
===?l -"
.+2-y$!%
Emitter
Fig. 30. Lens light guide.
reflector lamp has an efficiency of 80%for an aspect ratio of 25. The loss caused by imperfec-
tions is approximately 6.6% per metre of pipe.
A number of devices are used to control the light output from the emitter. A reflective
material may be used to cover the exterior surfaces of the prismatic tube that are not used
as an emitter with the effect of redirecting rays back through the pipe so that the maxi-
mum useful light is emitted. Other control techniques are extractors and mirror ends. An
extractor is a strip or wedge of diffusing material placed jnside the tube which causes
incident light to be scattered and escape through the transport-tube walls. Control of
light output along the length of the emitter is achieved by varying the width and shape of
the strip. Mirrors placed at the end of the tube reflect some of the light that would other-
wise exit and this has the effect of increasing the useful light output of the emitter.
Some properties of prismatic light guides as emitters are set out in Table 3, together with
corresponding information for two other types of remote-source emitter and com
parative data for three types of conventional luminaire. Flux output for pipes used for
Table 3: Some typical characteristics of conventional and remote source emitters.

Type of emitter Lamp type Size (mm) Flux output Typical average System
per 300 mm surface luminance efficiency
linear (Im) (cd/m2)
Conventional flat Tubular 1200 x 600 1800 9000 60
prismatic panel fluorescent
luminaire (four lamp)
Conventional Tubular 1200 x 300 600 9000 40

wraparound fluorescent
batten (two lamp
Conventional Tubular 1200 x 300 750 up to 12 000 50

mirrored reflector
downlighter (two
lamp)
Prismatic light guide 'Sulphur' Various lengths, 2000 9000 50

lamp 200-600 wide for
interior use
Prismatic light guide Metal Various lengths, 650 3000 45

halide 200-600 wide for
interior use
Prismatic light guide Tungsten- Up to 30 m long, 50 50-300 50-80

halogen 100 diameter
Hybrid system Metal 3-5 m long, 500 4000- 10 000 36

(mirror + prismatic) halide 300 wide
external guidance systems are low -typically 165lumens per linear metre, but those for larger
'HIDlamps, designed for internal illumination purposes, are about half those at the lower end of
the range of conventional luminaires quoted in Table 3. The surface luminances of both types of
prismatic emitter are generally much lower than those of conventional luminairesand there is a
large variation of luminance with length (and hence distance from source). The luminous-inten-
sity distributionof a prismatic emitter is axially symmetric with a maximum typically at an angle
of 15" to the axis in a direction away from the source. The eficiencies quoted in Table 3 for
remote-source emitters'are for the whole system, not just the emitter.
3.2.3 Other guide types and emitters

It is possible to transmit light along a pipe with opaque walls by using a series of lenses to
collimate the light rays. A condensing lens is used to collect light at the entry to the pipe and
additional lenses are used to maintain as many ray paths parallel to the axis of the pipe as
possible. Again, if the pipe is to be anything other than straight, mirrors or prisms have to be
introduced at the corners.
These systems are costly because of the optical precision required, and the lenses are
at best only around 60% efficient. Because the emergent light is always concentrated at
one point, these systems have limited application possibilities, for example fixed medi-
cal endoscopes.
Emitters: There are three main types of practical light-pipe emitter. The first was de-
scribed in Section 3.2.2. The second, a commercially available product, is the only exist-
ing large-scale emitter that can accept and distribute collimated light. It consists of a
tapering polished aluminium mirrored pipe with prismatic-panel emitters. The light source
is a 250 or 400 W HID lamp and reflector unit that delivers near-collimated light. The
sloping mirror within the tapering section of the pipe reflects light onto the upper side of
the rigid acrylic emitter panels. The light-receiving side of the panel consists of asym-
metric prisms and the light-emitting lower side of regular tetrahedra. The devices are
available in lengths of 3 , 4 or 5 m and have a typical efficiency of 36%. Average flux
output is approximately 1650 lumens per linear metre (ranging from 2250 lumens per
linear metre near the lamp to 650 lumens per linear metre at the extremity). This, not
surprisingly, compares favourably with the conventional luminaires quoted in Table 3.
The system described above as at present used has the appearance and characteris-
tics of a large diffuse source but with a discernible luminance gradient - ranging
from 10 000 to 4000 cd/m2-and is currently used for sports, industrial and warehous-
ing buildings and for road-tunnel lighting.
The characteristics of the third emitter type -those for mirrored passive tube systems
- are discussed in Section 3.2.1.
Def initions
Alphabetical list of terms defined. To refer to the definition use the entry number listed below.
Acceptance angle 27 Light injector 24

Aspect ratio 17 Loom 45
Attenuation 36 Lumen 3
Beam angle 29 Luminaire 46
Candela 1 Luminance 4
CIE tristimulus colour co-ordinates 15 Luminous efficacy 5
Colour-rendering index 16 Luminous flux 6
Colour temperature 14 Luminous intensity 7
Common end 48 Luminous-intensity distribution 8
Efficiency (of fibre-optic system) 38 Lux 9
Emitter 46 Metallic-mirror light guide 19
End fitting 50 Multilayer light guide 21
Fibre cladding 42 Numerical aperture 39
Fibre core 41 Optical fibre 40
Fibre optic (optical fibre) 40 output tail 50
Fibre-optic illumination system 43 Packing fraction 32
Fibre-optic light guide 49 Polymer fibre optic 34
Generator 44 Polymethylmethacrylate 31
Glass fibre optic 35 Prism light guide 22
Graded-index fibre 37 Prism light-guide film 23
Harness 45 Projector 44
Heat mirror 30 Reflectance 11
Hollow light guide 18 Refractive index 26
Illuminance 2 Sheath 33
Lateral fibre 51 Spectral content 13
Launch efficiency 28 Step-index fibre 37
Lens light guide 20 S teradian 11
Light engine 44 Tail 47
Light extractor 25 Wavelength 12
General
1 Candela (cd): The SI unit of luminous intensity, equal to one lumen per steradian.
2 Illuminance ( E , unit: lm/m2,lux): The luminous flux density at a surface, i.e. the luminous flux
incident per unit area. This quantity was formerly known as the illumination value or illumination level.
3 Lumen (Im): The SI unit of luminous flux, used in describing a quantity of light emitted by a
source or received by a surface. A small source which has a uniform luminous intensity of 1 candela
emits a total of 4x lumens in all directions and emits one lumen within a unit solid angle, i.e. 1 steradian.
4 Luminance (L,unit: cam2):The physical measure of the stimulus which produces the sensation
of brightness measured by the luminous intensity of the light emitted or reflected in a given direction
from a surface element, divided by the projected area of the element in the same direction. The SI unit of
luminance is the candela per square metre. The relationship between luminance and illuminance is given
by the equation:
luminance = (illuminance x reflectance factor)/x
This equation applies to a matt surface. For a nonmatt surface, the reflectance is replaced by the lumi-
nance factor.
5 Luminous efficacy (qv,q, unit: Im/W): The ratio of the luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the
power consumed by the lamp. When the power consumed by control gear is taken into account, this term
is sometimes known as lamp-circuit luminous efficacy and is expressed in lumens per circuit watt.
6 Luminous flux (@”,@, unit: Im): The light emitted by a source, or received by a surface. The
quantity is derived from radiant flux by evaluating the radiation in accordance with the spectral sensitiv-
ity of the standard eye as described by the CIE standard photometric observer.('*)
7 Luminous intensity ( I , unit: cd): A quantity which describes the power of a source or illumi-
nated surface to emit light in a given direction. It is the luminous flux emitted in a very narrow cone
containing the given direction divided by the solid angle of the cone. Intensity is given by the product of
illuminance multiplied by the square of the distance, when distance is large compared with the source
dimensions.
8 Luminous-intensitydistribution: The distribution of the luminous intensity of a lamp or luminaire

i n all directions. Luminous-intensity distributions are usually shown in the form of a polar diagram, or a
table, for a single vertical plane, in terms of candelas per 1000 lumens of lamp luminous flux.
9 Lux (Ix): The SI unit of illuminance, equal to one lumen per square metre (lm/m2).
10 Reflectance (factor) (R, p): The ratio of the luminous flux reflected from a surface to the lumi-
nous flux incident on it. Except for matt surfaces, reflectance depends on how the surface is illuminated
but especially on the direction of the incident light and its spectral distribution. The value is always less
than unity and is expressed as either a decimal or a percentage.
1I Steradian (sr): The unit of solid angle. A complete sphere subtends 4rr:sr from the centre.
12 Wavelength (h,unit: m): The distance between two wave peaks or oscillations where energy is
transmitted in a regular waveform.
13 Spectral content: The distribution of different wavelengths which make up both visible and in-
visible radiation.
14 Colour temperature (unit: K): The surface temperature of a radiating body which produces
light. If quoted as an absolute value, this relates to a black body radiator of continuous spectral emission.
For discontinuous sources, Correlated Colour Temperature (CCT) is used.
15 CIE tristimulus colour co-ordinates: In 1931, the International Commission on Illumination

(CIE) developed a method of defining the colour properties of a light source by graphical representation,
based on R-G-B trichromatic theory. Any given source is represented by three co-ordinates that sum to
unity. Thus if two (x, y ) are known, the third (z) is implied and therefore not normally quoted sepa-
rately.(13)
16 Colour-rendering index (Ra): A measure, on a scale of 1-100, of how a range of eight colour
samples appear under different light sources compared to a reference source. The system is limited,
because it produces a mean value and it is possible for a light source to achieve a high score even when
some wavelengths of light are missing from its spectral distribution (see CIE Publication I 3.3).(14)
Hollow light guides

17 Aspect ratio: The ratio of the smallest internal cross-section dimension to the length of a hollow
light guide.
18 Hollow light guide: A hollow light distribution structure, through which the average light ray
propagates mainly in air and is guided by means of numerous optical interactions before exiting.
19 Metallic-mirror light guide: A hollow light guide in which light is confined by reflection by
metallic surfaces at the guide wall.
20 Lens light guide: A hollow light guide in which light is confined by refraction by lenses which are
located periodically along of the guide.
21 Multilayer light guide: A hollow light guide in which light is confined by multiple partial reflec-
tions by multi-layer dielectric structures at the guide wall.
22 Prism light guide: A hollow light guide in which light is confined by total internal reflection by
prismatic surfaces in the transparent material comprising the guide wall.
34 institution of Lighting Engineers and Society of Light and Lighting
23 Prism light-guide film: An optical film containing right-angle prisms running in a longitudinal
direction which reflect light by total internal reflection in a manner which preserves the component of a
light ray’s propagation in the longitudinal direction. A prism light guide can be made by forming such
film into a tube, with the prisms running parallel to the tube axis.
24 Light injector (hollow light guide): A fixture containing a light source and an optical system for
directing light of the correct angular distribution into the input aperture of a hollow light guide.
25 Light extractor (hollow light guide): A structure in a hollow light guide which causes light to
escape from the guide in a controlled manner.
Fibre optics
26 Refractive index: The absolute refractive index is defined as the speed of light in a vacuum
divided by the speed of light in the material. For example, the speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 108m/s)
divided by the speed of light in water (2.25 x 108m/s)gives 1.33 as the refractive index of water.
27 Acceptance angle: This is the limiting angle above which light entering the fibre or fibre bundle
will not be guided down the fibres, i.e. total internal reflection will not take place. The angle is given as
that between the centre line and upper limit -a half cone. Typically, this ranges from 60 to 80”.
28 Launch efficiency: Light captured by a fibre-bundle of a defined diameter (say 4 mm) and a very
short length, compared with light which passes through an aperture of the same size. Typically, this is 50-
60%, the ‘losses’ being due to the interstices between fibres, the acceptance angle and cladding area.
29 Beam angle: For fibre-optic lighting, this is usually given as the cut-off angle. This should be
compared with data for display lighting where the 0.1 1- or 0.5 I-value is given. The beam angle of a
fibre-optic tail will be dictated by the numerical aperture of the fibre even if it is collimated by a lens
attachment.
30 Heat mirror: Either a thin sheet of coated glass or a solid block of glass, used to keep heat away
from the fibres.
31 Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA): A clear, thermoplastic acrylic used for the core of most poly-
mer fibres. This is modified by fluorine and other ingredients to alter the refractive index.
32 Packing fraction: The proportion of the area of the common end or termination actually taken up
by the fibres. Individual fibres are generally packed randomly in any termination or common end. A
hexagonal array gives the tightest packing, where approximately 9% of the total area is lost to the gaps
between the fibres (interstitial voids). Randomly packing the fibres loses approximately 20%.
33 Sheath: The outer layer of a fibre or fibre bundle, which provides mechanical protection and
makes handling easier. It is generally made of PVC, but other materials may be used for extra flexibility
or fire protection.
34 Polymer fibre optic (POF): A generic name for all types of ‘plastics’ fibre.
35 Glass fibre optic (GOF): A generic name for all types of glass fibre.
Graded-index fibre: See Step index.
36 Attenuation (unit: dB): The loss of light as it travels down the fibre. This is expressed by fibre
manufacturers as dBkm. For short lengths, the loss as a percentage per metre is a more useful measure,
but it is important to understand that attenuation is logarithmic, not linear: The decibel figure is calcu-
lated as 10 times the logarithm (base 10) of the amount of light at a particular point (usually the source)
divided by the amount of light remaining after 1 km. Note that attenuation varies greatly with the wave-
length of light. White-light attenuation values are much lower than those for rednear-infrared light which
are quoted for data-transmission cable.
37 Step-index fibre: A construction where two materials of different refractive indices are used to
make the fibre. This may be compared with graded-index fibre where the refractive index changes con-
tinuously from the centre of the core of the cladding.
38 Efficiency: The efficiency of a fibre-optic system may be described in a manner of ways. The most
important aspect of fibre-optic efficiency is that the light is delivered to precisely where it is needed and
therefore conventional light-output ratio and efficacy measures are less relevant than for conventional
luminaires. Where overall system efficiency is important, reference should be made to Appendix A for an
understanding of the issues involved.
39 Numerical aperture: A measure of the angular acceptance of a fibre or optical system, defined as
the sine of the half cone angle of acceptance.
40 Fibre optic (optical fibre): Any filament or fibre, made of adielectric material, that guides light.
41 Fibre core: The centre region of an optical fibre having a refractive index higher than that of the
cladding and through which it is intended that the majority of the optical power will be transmitted.
42 Fibre cladding: The dielectric material surrounding the core of an optical fibre
43 Fibre-optic illumination system: A device consisting of a projector/generatorAight engine, a

multitailed fibre-optic harness, and end fittings attached to each of the multiple tails of the harness
44 Projector (generator, light engine): A device consisting of a high-efficacy lamp (usually tung-
sten-halogen, metal-halide or xenon) which is aligned in a reflector or other optical collection system,
and which focuses light onto the optical-fibre-harness common end. The light may pass through heat or
colour filters.
Generator: See Projector
Light engine: See Projector
45 Harness: A completed assembly of fibre-optic tails, including the common end and sheathing
material.
Loom: See Harness
46 Emitter: The fitting at the light output end of a fibre-optic tail. This may simply be a ferrule with
a sealed termination or some arrangement of optical devices and fixing components.
Luminaire: See Emitter
47 Tail: A number of fibres bundled together and covered with sheathing material, terminated at one
end into a common end and at the other into an emitter.
48 Common end: The point at which all of the tails in a fibre-optic harness come together and are
bonded optically and mechanically. The common end is arranged for insertion into the projector port.
49 Fibre-optic light guide: A fibre-optic harness where just one tail is used for the collection and
delivery of light.
50 Output taiVend fitting: A device to secure the fibre ends in position in space and which controls
direction and beam shape of emitted light.
51 Lateral fibre: A type of fibre optic designed to emit light along its length.
Side-emitting fibre: See Lateral fibre

Spotlight data
Cat no: TSFI, Cat no: TSFI, Cat no: TSF2, Cat no: TSF2,
1Go (wide\ 1Ro (narrnw) 270 (with\
Cat no: llFG1, TFG2 Cat no: TFG3,

a
(beam from tail) natural (beam from tail) natural
77
Fig. 31. Examples of cone diagrams
42
Appendix: Fibre-optic system design restrictions and

methods
AI Light-output ratios and efficiency

For conventional luminaires, light-output ratio &OR) is defined as the proportion of lamp flux
emitted by the luminaire compared with that of the bare lamp. It is measured either by the use
of an integrating sphere or by taking two sets of measurements on a goniophotometer. Al-
though LOR gives an indication of the order of magnitude of luminaire efficiency, it is a rela-
tively crude measure as it takesno account of the luminaire intensity distribution and hence the
utilisation factors which will arisein a particular application.
It is impracticalto use an integrating sphere for fibre-optic projectors because not all of the
light falling on theport (or that which would be emitted h m the port) is directedinto the fibres,
as some light will pass into the intersticesand fib= claddingand be lost. Also,only those light
rays which are withintheacceptance angle of the fibre (typically60")will be transmitted down
its length and thus the value of flux emitted from a projector port will significantlyexceed that
which usefully entersthe fibres.
The quantity of light emitted by fibre optic tails is also a function of the number of tails, their
size and length. It will also vary depending on the materials used and the quality of manufac-
ture. It is clear that even if the flux output of a projector is known, the
flux available at the output of the tails will be less. When both a fibre optic projector and
harness are supplied by the same manufacturer, that manufacturer should be able to supply flux
data for the complete system. As there is no agreed method for quantitative comparison of
projector flux output, specifiers should beware of efficiency claims made for systems utilising
components from different suppliers.
It should, however, be stressed that fibre-optic system efficiency will never be the
prime reason for or against specification of such equipment as there will always be par-
ticular justification for using fibre optics for the benefits they offer in other areas. There-
fore whilst system losses need to be understood by the designer, overall efficiency in
conventional light-technical terms is not normally relevant.
A2 Meaning and use of cone diagrams

Cone diagrams are a convenient way of representing the luminous intensity of sym-
metrical luminaires and translating it into circular areas of given illuminance for differ-
ent mounting heights (Fig. 31). The information is displayed pictorially which makes
them simple to use, but it is important to understand their limitations.
For a line of luminaires, the average illuminances shown will have a given uniformity
or diversity which must be specified if the diagram is to be of practical use. Manufactur-
ers must therefore state what uniformity or diversity applies to the illuminance values
shown. Interpolation for illuminances in between those shown (i.e. at different mount-
ing heights) may be performed.
The other factor that must be taken into account is the luminous intensity at and out-
side the angles chosen for the cone itself. Cone diagrams are widely used when design-
ing with dichroic tungsten-halogen lamps and these emit a significant amount of flux
outside their defined beam angle. Because of this, the cone data are normally arranged
so that by spacing the lamps such that the circles of light they produce overlap, a rela-
tively even amount of light is produced on the design plane.
With fibre optics, the same design technique cannot be applied as virtually no light
falls outside the defined beam angle due to the numerical aperture of the fibres (by defi-
nition). The limit of the light beam shown on the cone diagram is usually a point of near
total cut-off, and well defined fibre-optic emitter positions are therefore essential if an
even lighting effect is desired. Even where manufacturers provide fibre-optic cone data
to 50% intensity, the actual intensity cut-off point will be abrupt.
References
BS EN 60529 Specification for degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IPcode)
(London: British Standards Institution) (1992)
BS EN 60598- 1 Luminaires. General requirements and tests (London: British Stand-
ards Institution) (1993)
DMX5 12 Digital data transmission standard for dimmers and controllers (New York:
United States Institute for Theatre Technology) (1990)
TM14 Standard file format for transfer of luminaire photometric data (London: Char-
tered Institution of Building Services Engineers) ( 1988)
LM 63-95 Standard file format for electronic transfer of photometric data (New York:
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America) ( 1995)
Stockmar, A W: EULUMDAT/2 - extended version of a well established luminaire
data format. Proc Nut Lighting Conf 1998, Lancaster; UK, 353-362 (1998)
CIE publication 102 Recommended file format for electronic transfer of luminaire
photometric data (Vienna: International Commission on Illumination) ( 1993)
Technical Report 5 Brightness of illuminated advertisements (Rugby: Institution of
Lighting Engineers) (2001)
BS 767 1 Requirements for electrical installations. IEE Wiring Regulations. Sixteenth
edition (London: British Standards Institution) (1992 and subsequent amendments
and reprints)
10 BS 5266-4 Emergency lighting. Code of practice for the design, installation , main-
tenance and use of optical fibre systems (London: British Standards Institution) (1999)
11 BS 5266-5 Emergency lighting. Specification for component parts of optical fibre
systems (London: British Standards Institution) (1999)
12 CIE publication 18.2 The basis of physical photometry (Vienna: International Com-
mission on Illumination) (1983)
13 CIE standard SOO2/ISO 10527 Colorimetric observers (Geneva: International Stand-
ards Organisation) (1991)
14 CIE publication 13.3 Method of measuring and specifying colour rendering proper-
ties of light sources (Vienna: International Commission on Illumination) ( 1995)
Further reading
Kay, G N: Fiber optics in architectural.lighting: methods, design and applications
(McGraw-Hill) (1998). ISBN 0 07034932 0
Roper, M A and Brown, R G: Fibre optic lighting guide (Bracknell, Building Services
Research & Information Association) (2000) ISBN 0 86022459 7
Timson, P and Gregson, B: Fibre optic lighting and sensor technology (Doncaster: Schott
Fibre Optics UK Ltd) (1994) ISBN 0 9522 740 0 0
ILE publications
Technical Reports
5 Brightness of illuminated advertisements (2001)
7 High masts for lighting and CCTV (2000)
12 Lighting of pedestrian crossings (1997)
13 Lighting of pedestrian subways ( I 990)
14 The cost effectiveness of night patrolling (1994)
18 The planned replacement of lighting columns ( I 998)
19 The effectiveness of lantern cleaning (1989)
20 A guide to the use of compact fluorescent lamps (1990)
21 Interior high intensity discharge lighting (1993)
22 Lighting columns and sign posts: planned inspection regime (1997)
23 Lighting of cycle tracks (1998)
24 A practical guide to the development of a public lighting policy for local authorities (1999)
Code of practice for electrical safety in public lighting operations ( I 993)

Lamp replacement policy in local authority street lighting services ( I 998)
A practical guide to the procurement of street lighting projects through the Private Finance Initiative
( 1 999)
Novel sources of funding for public lighting projects (1999)
Lighting and crime (1999)
A guide for crime and disorder reduction through a public lighting strategy (1999)
Appraising the use of remote monitoring and switching technology in street lighting services (1999)
Guidance notes for the reduction of light pollution (1997)
Society of Light and Lighting and CIBSE lighting publications

Code for Interior Lighting ( I 994)
Lighting Guides
2 Hospitals and health care buildings (1989, addendum 1999)
3 The visual environment for display screen use (1996)
4 Sports ( 1 990, addendum 2000)
5 Lecture, teaching and conference rooms (1991)
6 The outdoor environment ( 1 992)
7 Lighting for offices (1 993)
8 Museums and art galleries ( I 994)
9 Lighting for communal residential buildings ( 1 997)
10 Daylighting and window design (1999)
I1 Surface reflectance and colour - its specification and measurement for lighting designers (2001)
Hostile and hazardous environments (1983)
Technical Memoranda
5 Calculation and use of utilisation factors (1 980)
10 Calculation of glare indices (1985)
12 Emergency lighting (1986, addendum 1999)
14 Standard file format for transfer of luminaire photomttric data ( I 988)
Guide to lighting calculations (CD-ROM) (2000)
Joint CIBSEALE publication

Lighting the environment: a guide to good urban lighting (1996)
Index
Acceptance angle 15,34,36 Flux data 37 Photometric data 15
Access, maintenance 22 Flux output 30 Pigmented glass 12
Active light-pipe systems 26 Focusing mechanisWsystem 11, 18 Pits, location 19
Architectural effects 7 Frosted-domedlens 19 Plano-convex lens 15
Architectural features 7 Generator 35 PMMA fibre 17,34
Art galleries 6 Glass fibre 17 Polymer fibre optic 34
Art works 19 Glass fibre optic 34 Pool lighting 6, 19,20
Aspect ratio 33 Goniophotometer 36 Port diameter 24
Attenuation 13,16,34 Graded-index fibre 10,34 Port, projector 11
Barn doors 18 Halogen lamps, single-ended 12 Power supplies 13
Beam angle 18, 24, 34 Handling of fibre-optic harnesses 20 Principles of fibre-optic lighting 9
Beam width to cut-off 17 Harness 10,13,20,35,37 Prism light-guide film 34
Bend radius, minimum 19,22 Heat mirror 34 Prism light guides 8,28,29,30,33
Building outlines, lighting 19 Heliostat 25 Projector 10, 11,13,35,36
Bulk lamp change 22 Hollow light guide 33,34 Projector case temperature 11
Cable-fastening methods 18 Hollow mirror guides 8 Randomisation 14, 1 5 2 4
Cable ties 22 Hot restrike 13 Recess depth 19
Cable trays 19,22 Illuminance 32 Redundancy 23
Candela 32 Industrial buildings 31 Reflectance factor 33
CE marking 12 Infra-red filters 12 Reflector, light-pipe 25
Checking 5 fibre-optic harnesses 20 Installation 20,21 Reflectors, metal 13
CIE tristimulus colour co-ordinates 33 Integrating sphere 36 Refraction 9
Cold-cathode lighting 19 Intensity distribution 36 Refractive index 10,34
Collimated light, collimation 25, 27 Intrinsically safe equipment 20 Repair of fibre-optic harnesses 20
Colour appearance 12 Ip ratings 11,22 Replacement of fibre-optic harnesses,
Coloured filters 12 Lamp starting voltage 13 provision for 20
Colour rendering 12 Lateral fibre 35 Road tunnel lighting 31
Colour-rendering index 33 Launch efficiency 34 Route marking 17, 19
Colour shift 16,22 Lensed light guides 8,33 Scale drawings 23
Colour/sparkle wheels 12 Lensed systems, light-pipe 25 Sculpture 19
Colour temperature 33 Lenses 31 Sheath 34
Common end 10, 11,13,22,35 Light engine 35 Short-arc metal-halide lamps 25
Compatibility, ferrulefluminaire 24 Light extractor 34 Side-emitting fibre 10, 15, 19,35
Condensation 16 Light injector 34 Signs 19,20
Cone diagrams 37 Light losses 28 Single-ended halogen lamps 12
Control gear 11 Light-outout ratio 36 Single-end feed 11
Control protocol 23 Light pi&, systems 5,8,25, 26,29 Size, fibre 15
Corrosion resistance 19 Light pollution 7 Solid-core systems 6,9
Cowls 18 Light propagation 9 Sparkldstar ceilings 15,16, 17
Critical angle 9,lO Light scoop 25 Specifying fibre-optic systems 23,24
Damp location 16 Light sources 12,16,25 Spectral content 33
Daylight 5,7,25,27 Light-transport mechanism 25 Sports buildings 31
Daylight-capturedevice 25 Light-transportsystems 8,25 Spotlighting 15,24
Deep-plan spaces 7 Light tube 25 Starting voltage, lamp 13
Depreciation, light output 13 Locking device 18 Step-index fibre 10,34
Dichroic coatings 12 Loom 35 Stepper motor 13
Dimming 13 Looped feed 10 Steps, lighting 18, 19
Discharge lamps 13,22,25 Low-smoke-and-fumesheathing Steradian 33
Display cabinets 6 materials 22 Stiffness, fibre bundle 19
DMX protocol 12 Lumen 32 Storage of fibre-optic harnesses 20
Double-end feed 11 Lumen output 15 Sulphur lamps 25,29
Dramatic effects 18 Luminaire efficiency 36 Sun-tracking devices 25
Drawings, scale 23 Luminaire,emitter as 15.35 Surface luminance 30
Ducts 19 Luminance 19,20,31,32 Surface reflectance 28
Effect lighting 16 Luminous efficacy 32 Sustainable buildings 5
Efficiency 30,35,36 Luminous flux 32 Swimming pools 19
Electronic ballasts 13 Luminous intensity 33,37 System efficiency 30,37
Emergency lighting 13.22.23 Luminous-intensitydistribution 33 Tail ends 20
Emitters 10, 13, 15; 31; 35 LUX 33 Tails, fibre-optic
End-emitting fibres 10,15 Maintenance 8, 15,20 8,9, 10, 13, 14, 19,22, 35, 36
End fitting 35 Maximum fibre length 20 Tails, maximum length 16
Endoscopes 31 Metal-halide lamps 22 Thermal considerations 6
Environment 16 Metallic-mirror light guide 33 Total internal reflection 9,28
Equipment specification, fibre-optic Metal reflectors 13 Toxic-fume emission 23
systems 24 Minor light pipe 27 Transmission, light 28
EULUMDAT 15 Mirrors, variable-angle 19 Transmittance,system 25
Excess tail length 22 Mock-ups 20 Trial installations 20
Extractor 30 Mounting height 37 Tungsten-halogenlamps I3
Fan, projector 11 Multi-layer light guide 33 Ultra-violet filters 12
Fanless projector 11,22 Museums 6 Ultra-violet radiation 15
Fibre cladding 35 Near-infra-red light 14 Unintenuptible power supplies 23
Fibre core 35 Neutral density filter 13 Variable angle beams 17
Fibre optic 35 Numerical aperture 15.35 Ventilation of projector 11
Fibre-optic illumination system 35 Operation and maintenance manua 22 Warehousing 31
Fibre-optic light guide 35 Optical medium 5 Water ingress 19
Fibre-optic systems 5.8 Outdoor installation 19 Water features 17
Filter wheel 20 Output tail, see also Tails 35 Wavelength 14,33
Filters, infra-red, ultra-violet, Packing fraction 34 Way marking systems 16.23
coloured 12 Performance specification 23 Weather-resistant projectors 11
Fire performance, fibre-opticsystems 22 Perforated metal disc 13 White-light attenuation 24
I
'
I Institution of Lighting Engineers
Regent House
The Society of
Regent Place
1 Rugby
Light and Lighting
222 Balham High Road
i CV21 2PN London SW12 9BS, UK
Tel: 020 8772 3680
www.ile.org.uk Fax: 020 8673 3302
e-mail: sll@cibse.org
The Society of Light and
Tel: 01788 576492 Lighting is part of CIBSE
i Fax: 01788 540145 Registered Charity 278104

Guide To Fibre-Optic and Remote-Source Lighting

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Guide To Fibre-Optic and Remote-Source Lighting

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

...

Institutionof Lighting Engineers

Registered chanty 268547

The Institution of The Society of

Guide to remote-source lighting

Eurlng Patrick Baldrey BSc CEng FIMechE MILE MCIBSE FSLL

Chapter 1 Introduction to remote-source lighting

1.I What is a remote-source lighting system?

1.2 Why might a remote-source system be advantageous?

1.3 Light pipes

Fig. 3 (left). Difficult maintenance access -

3 the pool are very difficult to maintain; here

1.4 Solid-core systems

1.5 Considerations in the use of remote-source systems

Fig. 6. Architectural effects - remote-source lighting offers a real alternative to traditional

Table 1 Summary of light transport systems

Prismatic Yes cm Circular or <30 Can act as Require light

Hollow Yes cm Circular or <30 Will work with Need surfaces

Lensed guides Yes cm NA <30 Potentially Cleaning of

Chapter 2 Fibre-optic lighting systems

2.1 Principles of fibre-optic lighting

Fig. 8. Light propagation through a solid core.

Fig, 9. Fibre-opfic failswith fibres /if.

2.1 .I End-emitting fibres

2.1.2 Side-emitting fibre optics

2.2 Construction of fibre-optic systems

Inner tails are

Fig. 12. Relative tail lengths.

Fig. 13. Fine randomisation (left) and coarse randomisation (right).

length of light. A typical white light source is considered to be a tungsten-halogen or metal-

2.3 Designing with fibre optics

2.3.1 General considerations

Table 2. Comparison of sizes of polymer and glass fibres

Glass fibre (individual glass strands of 0.05 mm each)

2.3.2 End-emitting systems

Fig. 18. Dramatic effects created by fibre. Fig. 1 9. Cable-fastening methods.

2.3.3 Side-emitting systems

2.4 Installation & maintenance

Large bubble jet fountain hea

Plant room housing proje

before splitting Polish floor after cutting

Projector located under

Fibre cable conduit casVcut

2.5 Fire performance and use in emergency lighting systems

2.6 Specifying fibre-optic systems

2.6.1 Performance specification

2.6.2 Equipment specification

Fibre optic and remote source lighting 25

Chapter 3: Principles of light-pipe systems

3.1 Light sources

3.2 Light-transport systems

reflector thin film (PCG)

Fig. 2 1. Active light-pipe system.

UV protected Stainless steel

elbows that can

Fig. 22. Light-pipe system.

3.2.1 Hollow mirrored pipes

3.2.2 Prismatic light guides

Fig. 29. Prismatic installation.

Table 3: Some typical characteristics of conventional and remote source emitters.

Conventional Tubular 1200 x 300 600 9000 40

Conventional Tubular 1200 x 300 750 up to 12 000 50

Prismatic light guide 'Sulphur' Various lengths, 2000 9000 50