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Handbook of Induction Heating
Valery Rudnev, Don Loveless, Raymond L. Cook
Joining Applications
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Valery Rudnev, Don Loveless, Raymond L. Cook
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Joining Applications
There are a number of ways to join parts together. Some of the conventional methods
include brazing, soldering, welding (TIG, spot, rolling resistance), gluing, screwing, bolt-
ing, riveting, and others. Screws, bolts, and threaded items provide a mechanical bond
and are utilized when an assembly must be capable of being relatively easy to take apart.
Components that do not require disassembly are welded, brazed, or soldered as these pro-
cesses create permanent joints [360].
Induction heating is commonly used to join metal components. This chapter focuses
on the following typical induction joining applications: brazing, soldering, bonding, and
shrink fitting. The pieces being joined can be of the same material or distinctly different
materials.
In the cases of brazing and soldering, both joined components should be metallic and
heated to approximately the same temperature (e.g., soldering of radiators, brazing of the
hard insert into a drill tip, assembling superalloy turbine blades and nickel metering plates,
brazing hydraulic fittings, orthodontic parts, tubular assemblies, plumbing fixtures, and
the working tips of tool bits for the mining industry, to name a few). In contrast, when
bonding and shrink fitting, only one metallic component might be heated. For example,
metal threaded inserts that are heated by induction and then pressed into a thermal set
plastic component.
5.1 Brazing and Soldering by Induction

Brazing and soldering are two of the most popular induction joining applications
[1,7–10,360–371], which are accomplished in a similar manner to other induction thermal
processes such as hardening, except quenching usually does not apply and the required
temperatures might be somewhat lower (particularly for soldering, though brazing tem-
peratures may be quite close to hardening). Induction equipment for brazing and solder-
ing would typically include the following: a heating coil, a water-cooling system, a power
supply, the actual components to be joined, filler material, and flux (if required). In most
cases, the parts to be brazed, as well as the filler material, are located and held in a fixture
and moved into proximity to an induction coil where the energy is then applied. The joint
area is heated to a temperature lower than the melting points of the workpieces but higher
than the melting point of the filler. When the filler material liquefies, capillary action and
gravity cause it to flow into the air gap of the joint, where it solidifies almost immedi-
ately, completing the joint. During the brief time that the filler is a liquid, it undergoes
a diffusion-type chemical reaction with the surface of the base metal. In soldering, this
reaction takes place within a depth of a few micrometers, while in brazing (a higher tem-
perature joining process), the depth of reaction is much greater.
463
464 Handbook of Induction Heating
Soldering is typically distinguished from brazing by the temperature at which the filler
melts. The following is the industry-accepted definition: If the melting temperature of the
filler is less than 450°C (840°F), then the process is soldering. If the filler material melts at a
higher temperature, then the joining process is considered to be a brazing process. In addi-
tion to the differences in joining temperatures, the processes of soldering and brazing are
distinguished by a metallurgical reaction between the filler and base metal. Intermetallic
phases are formed in the joint area after a soldering operation, in contrast to solid solutions
being predominantly formed as a result of brazing [360,366].
In the past, the processes of brazing and soldering have been conducted in brazing fur-
naces or using flame heating (i.e., torch). In lower-temperature applications, special heating
devices such as a soldering gun are used.
Induction brazing and soldering have several advantages compared with heating the
workpieces with alternative methods.
There are applications where joining by induction is the only legitimate method. For
example, in the case of using a brazing furnace, the entire assembly must be heated to
brazing temperatures that might make it impractical if the assembly is of appreciable size
or if there are other associated components that prevent achieving too high a temperature
because of metallurgical implications.
Since the joint is induction heated in a localized area in a short time, the rest of the
workpiece will not be significantly affected by the temperature. This can be critical for
controlling distortion, surface corrosion, and oxidation of the components. These factors
are directly associated with reducing the amount of cleaning required after the joining
operation. Other benefits include noticeably reduced grain growth, toxic fume emissions,
and radiant heat.
Brazing and soldering using electromagnetic induction have several other advantages
compared to heating the workpieces with a flame or brazing furnace.
The great majority of induction brazing and soldering applications are carried out in
open air. However, if required, the induction coil can be easily placed in a gas-tight cham-
ber or enclosure containing argon, a H2–N2 mixture, or another protective/reducing/inert
atmosphere. Induction joining also can be done in a vacuum chamber. Unfortunately, the
use of vacuum chambers is not very suitable for a high-production environment.
Induction heating is one of the most economical ways to heat many styles of joints. It pro-
duces clean high-quality joints with a minimal amount of scrap or brazing spatter of the
filler material, because only the desired area is heated for a relatively short time. Extended
times and excessively high temperatures should be avoided since surfaces of workpieces
involved in brazing in open air can be oxidized beyond the flux protection.
A final, major advantage of induction brazing/soldering is piece-to-piece processing and
its ability to be automated. Once the process has been developed, there may be no need
for operator intervention. The energy input is well controlled, and the results are reliable
and consistent (unless the workpiece positioning is altered or other extraordinary events
occur).
Induction brazing/soldering equipment may be built as a simple low-production
machine with manual loading/unloading or a fully automated high-production system
having advanced control, monitoring, and data collection. As an example, Figure 5.1
shows Radyne’s standard carousel feed brazing system that offers fully automatic, semi-
automatic, and manually operated options and a modular rotating fixture solution that can
be easily adapted to fit a variety of components. This system may incorporate an option to
heat in a controlled atmosphere.
Joining Applications 465
FIGURE 5.1
Radyne’s standard carousel feed brazing system that offers fully automatic, semiautomatic, and manually
operated options and a modular rotating fixture solution that can be easily adapted to fit variety of components.
(Courtesy of Radyne Corp., an Inductotherm Group company.)
FIGURE 5.2
Induction brazing system that was designed for brazing copper ring end caps to large (6-ton) rotor assem-
blies for step motors. The concentric brazing system is designed for quick change inductor assemblies/tooling,
allowing for a wide range in part diameters from 0.27 m (11 in.) up to 0.87 m (34 in.). (Courtesy of Radyne Corp.,
an Inductotherm Group company.)
The size of brazed components can vary dramatically. Figure 5.2 shows a unique induc-
tion brazing system that was designed for brazing copper ring end caps to large (6-ton)
rotor assemblies for step motors. This system replaces a labor-intensive flame brazing
operation and can be configured to braze a multitude of parts concentric to one another.
The concentric brazing system is designed for quick change inductor assemblies/tooling,
allowing for a wide range in part diameters from 0.27 m (11 in.) up to 0.87 m (34 in.). The
system features an operator touch screen HMI interface with temperature control feedback.
Instead of carrying both words brazing and soldering, in this section, we use the word
brazing and assume that all discussions hold true for soldering as well, unless mentioned
specifically.
5.1.1 Overview
The term brazing is used to describe the joining of two or more pieces of metallic material
(magnetic or nonmagnetic), using special fillers. In a certain way, brazing is similar to
welding. However, with welding, the filler material is often the same as the pieces being
welded. In brazing applications, the filler material is different compared to the base mate-
rials and it melts at a noticeably lower temperature.
Brazing may be the only way to bond certain types of dissimilar materials, allowing the
design of individual components to facilitate specific design intents. For instance, it is quite
common to braze a stainless steel or brass stud onto a copper component. The process of
welding different materials, on the other hand, can become challenging and much more
power consuming, because the components as well as the filler materials are heated to the
melting point to fuse them. If different metals are used, they can have different melting
points and, therefore, in some cases, the materials may not be compatible to be welded.
As mentioned earlier, brazing of metals is accomplished by melting the filler material
and not the assembly components. Therefore, the filler material has to have a lower melt-
ing point than the liquidus temperatures of the components being joined. Upon melting,
a filler material reacts with the base metal, forming a thin layer called the joint interface,
which represents an alloy of base material and filler. The properties of the joint interface
may be noticeably different compared to the base materials.
Brazing provides a permanent metallurgical bond (an atomic bond at the interface takes
place) between two or more pieces, and it is accomplished through the following stages:
• The joint area is heated to a temperature lower than the melting point of the work-
pieces but higher than the melting point of the filler material.
• After reaching a certain temperature, during both the soldering and brazing pro-
cesses, the surface of the base metal undergoes a diffusion-type chemical reaction
with the liquid filler. In the case of soldering, this reaction takes place within a
few microns, whereas during a brazing operation (which utilizes higher tempera-
tures), it propagates to a much greater depth.
• When the filler material reaches its liquid state, it flows into the air gap of the joint
through a combined impact of capillary action and gravitational force.
• The liquid almost immediately becomes a solid and the joint is complete.
The geometry of the joints and the needed mechanical properties have a pronounced
effect on the brazing process recipe. Properly designed joints in combination with the cor-
rect brazing technique produce strong and reliable joints. In some cases the ductility of the
joint will add better sheer strength. Sometimes, the brazed joint can be stronger than the
joined materials. For example, it has been reported [362] that it is possible to have a brazed
stainless steel joint, which has a tensile strength of 130,000 pounds per square inch.
5.1.2 Types of Joints
There are two basic joint designs: a butt joint (two pieces to be joined are butted up against
each other) and a lap joint (the edges or ends of two pieces to be joined are overlapped). The
butt joint is the simplest type of joint that is used for noncritical applications to produce
flush surfaces. The lap joint improves strength because of the effect of overlapping the two
joint pieces and the ability to have a greater joined area providing better support [360–362].
Several types of lap joints may be employed (e.g., full-lap, half-lap, etc.) as well as var-
ious combinations of the two basic joints (e.g., butt-lap, modified butt-lap, scarf, miter/
corner joint, etc.) to further increase the strength owing to a preferable distribution of load
stresses.
TABLE 5.1
Preferred Clearance of Selected Brazing Fillers

Joint Clearance
Brazing Filler mm in.
Al–Si alloys a 0.15–0.61 0.006–0.024
Mg alloys 0.10–0.25 0.004–0.01
Cu 0.05 0.002
Cu–P 0.03–0.13 0.001–0.005
Cu–Zn 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
Ag alloys 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005
Au alloys 0.03–0.13 0.001–0.005
Ni–P alloys 0.03 0.001
Ni–Cr alloysb 0.03–0.61 0.001–0.024
Pd alloys 0.03–0.1 0.001–0.004
Source: M. Schwartz, Brazing, ASM International, 1987.
a If the joint length is less than 6 mm (0.24 in.), the gap is 0.12 to 0.75 mm
(0.005 to 0.03 in.); if the joint length exceeds 6 mm (0.24 in.), the gap is
0.25 to 0.6 mm (0.01 to 0.024 in.).
b Many different nickel brazing filler metals are available and joint gap
requirements may vary greatly from one filler to another.
The thickness of a full-lap joint equals the combined thickness of both pieces. In con-
trast, the thickness of the half-lap joint or scarf joint equals the thickness of the thickest
piece, because in the joint area, certain portions from both pieces are machined utiliz-
ing straight or gradual cuts. These types of joints have aesthetic advantages and exhibit a
self-supporting effect but require more preparation in providing the suitable accuracy in
machining of the needed angles, special fixtures, and assembling. Some challenges may
occur in maintaining appropriate positioning of the joint pieces.
Because brazing greatly relies on capillary action to form the bond, the clearance between
the mating components (joint gap) should be held to an appropriate range. It is important
to recognize that joint gaps are not constant during a brazing cycle because of thermal
expansion.
Joint gaps are commonly specified at ambient temperatures. In most cases, a clearance
of 0.05 to 0.25 mm (0.002 to 0.01 in.) is desirable. The optimal value of the joint gap in addi-
tion to other factors (e.g., brazing temperature, type of the base metal, etc.) depends on the
particular filler material. Table 5.1 shows the preferred joint clearances for some brazing
filler materials that are recommended in Ref. [361].
If the gap is less than the optimal value, it may not provide sufficient space for the filler
to flow. In contrast, if the clearance is too large, then the joint will have poor load-bearing
capability and the needed capillary action might not take place because of weakening of
the capillary force. It is wise to remember that brazing fillers are not intended to be gap
fillers. The proper clearance combined with the proper heating and suitable joint design
ensures a strong and accurate bond.
5.1.3 Size and Shape Factors

For all forms of brazing, it is very important to pay attention not only to the materials
needed to be brazed but also to the surface conditions, size, and shape of the components
to be brazed. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of assuring a proper fit of parts

when brazing complex geometries. Obviously, as the workpiece size becomes larger, more
energy is required to heat it to the brazing temperature. Because induction brazing uses a
dedicated power supply, the amount of power available is limited to the maximum rating
of the power supply and load-matching specifics.
A separate brazing inductor dedicated to the part being fabricated is usually required.
However, depending on part geometry, families of parts can sometimes be joined using
the same coil. The use of inductor inserts might be a suitable solution to heat a variety of
components using the same inductor while applying interchangeable inserts.
If the size or shape of a component does not allow the induction coil to be positioned suf-
ficiently close to the joint area, undesirable heating can occur in adjacent areas to the joint,
necessitating using flux concentrators and Faraday rings.
Brazed components may be dramatically different in size, mass, and shape. For example,
thin-walled tubes or pipes may be brazed to a solid block. In these cases, preferential
inductor-to-workpiece coupling in combination with slower heating utilizing lower power
levels may be applied. A pulse heating mode can also be helpful in order to minimize local
overheating and the appearance of hot and cold spots.
5.1.4 Frequency Selection
As with any induction application, the success of a brazing operation is greatly affected
by the coil design, frequency choice, and the ability to deliver sufficient power for the job
without overheating the brazed components or unnecessarily lengthening the heat time.
As discussed in Section 3.1.2, because of the skin effect phenomenon, the greatest portion
of the induced current is localized within the δ. Frequency selection for brazing applies the
same guidelines as for other induction heating applications of similar geometry. As has
been discussed in Chapter 4, a high frequency is applied in order to obtain a “shallow”
heating pattern, whereas a lower frequency results in a “deeper” heating effect.
At the same time, frequency selection for brazing is often not as straightforward
because of the existence of various cross sections of components being brazed together
within the same assembly. Deep and intense heating may be required for one component
that comprises the joint, and shallow and slow heating may be needed for the other half
of the joint.
Joining of dissimilar metals using the same power supply may result in noticeably differ-
ent depths of heating and heat intensities for the components being joined. This is because
the electrical resistivity ρ and magnetic permeability μr of the material directly affect the
δ at a given frequency. The metals’ electromagnetic properties affect their ability to attract
a magnetic field. As a result, each electrically conductive component might be heated dif-
ferently while using the same frequency and applied power. Note, too, that differences in
thermal conductivity will lead to different rates of heat transfer (heat soaking). This results
in different masses of metal being heated.
The brazing inductor can usually be arranged to compensate for these differences by
redirecting and refocusing the electromagnetic field (EMF) and induced eddy current in
order to provide uniform heating.
It is also important to evaluate differences in the materials’ thermal expansion coef-
ficients. Thermal expansion should be considered when designing holding fixtures and
choosing proper joint gaps because the joint gap might be either opening or closing to a
measurable degree during the heating cycle, potentially resulting in a disturbance and
blockage, preventing optimal flow of the filler material.
Frequencies in the 10–400-kHz range are commonly chosen for brazing applications,
largely because higher frequencies allow one to better localize the heat generation.
Care must be taken in a frequency selection that will not result in eddy current can-
cellation when induction brazing thin components. Thus, it is important to prevent the
component from “acting” as a transparent or semitransparent body (electromagnetically
speaking) with respect to the field of the induction coil. It is also imperative to keep in
mind that the electrothermal physical properties of the metals change as the temperature
increases. Therefore, the final brazing temperatures should be taken into consideration
when selecting the operating frequency for brazing thin components.
5.1.5 Types of Inductors and Coil Design Features

In addition to the selection of the operating frequency and required power, the other
main considerations are the method by which the components are fixed in place or held
together during the joining operation and the inductor design itself. There are a wide vari-
ety of shapes and sizes of inductors to suit the particular brazing/soldering application,
including single-turn and multiturn solenoids, butterfly inductors, channel coils, split-
return, single-pancake and double-pancake inductors, split helical coils, single-hairpin
and double-hairpin inductors, just to name a few [1,7–10,363–371]. Figures 5.3 and 5.4 show
pancake-, hairpin-, and channel-type inductors used in brazing applications.
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 5.3
Pancake, hairpin, butterfly, and channel coils are also commonly used when assemblies to be brazed are pre-
sented to the induction coil on a continuous basis, such as a conveyor or rotary table. (a) A two-turn channel coil.
(b) Pancake coil. (c) Butterfly coil. (Courtesy of Radyne Corp., an Inductotherm Group company.)
FIGURE 5.4
Double hairpin inductors are used in induction brazing. (Courtesy of Lepel Corp., an Inductotherm Group
company.)
Single-turn or multiturn encircling coils are also used when one joint at a time is to be
brazed on regularly shaped bodies (Figure 5.5). Rotation of the workpiece is sometimes
used when practical, to achieve more uniform heat. However, many configurations of the
assembly to be joined cannot be rotated because of their size or their geometry specifics.
Brazing inductors are commonly made from water-cooled copper tubing configured to con-
form to the brazed joint area. The size and shape of the coil tubing among other factors depend
on the geometry of the brazed component, the frequency, and the required power. The tubing
wall thickness depends on the operating frequency; its selection is discussed in Chapter 4.
As part sizes and shapes change, the inductors may need to be changed or recontoured
to efficiently and uniformly heat the joint. It is the inductor shape and the inductor-to-part
air gap that controls the EMF coupling with the part.
In a well-designed induction brazing system, the areas of the components that are
being joined and the filler are supposed to reach the final brazing temperature all at
the same time. Therefore, part of the know-how for successful induction brazing deals
with choosing the optimal combination of frequency, power density, and a coil geometry
that provides sufficiently uniform heating at the final stage regardless of the different
physical properties or variations of the cross section of the components. Consideration
of real-life deviations (tolerances) in size, shape, and positioning must be taken into
consideration.
In the great majority of induction brazing applications, thermal insulation or refractory
are not used, because the use of a refractory results in a larger inductor-to-workpiece air
gap. Taking into consideration the commonly used frequency range, the larger air gap
deteriorates a respectable coil-to-workpiece electromagnetic coupling, resulting in a mea-
surable decrease in electrical efficiency that cannot be compensated for by a minor gain in
coil thermal efficiency.
There is an optimal value of coil length (in the case of a horizontal coil arrangement) or
height (for a vertical arrangement). Too short an inductor might result in local overheat-
ing and may also prolong the heating time. In contrast, if the inductor is too long, then
more mass of metal will be heated, potentially resulting in excessive distortion and higher
energy consumption.
It is advantageous in some cases to heat not only the joint area but also the adjacent
regions of the workpiece as well.
(a)
(b) (c)
FIGURE 5.5
Single-turn or multiturn encircling coils are used when one joint at a time is to be brazed. (a) Radyne’s multi-
position single-turn coil with fish-tail bus and bolt-on pad mounts. (b) Radyne’s single-turn inductor. (c) Lepel’s
two-turn encircling coil for brazing a brass cap to a steel body.
When a multiturn coil is used, a redistribution of the EMF can be achieved by varying
the air gaps between certain turns and the brazed components and also by adjusting the
spacing between the turns. This will also allow one to provide higher power densities in
specific areas of the workpiece with some preheating effect of neighboring areas. Making
the distance between turns smaller, the coil turn space factor Kspace will be improved,
resulting in increased power density in that area. However, if the power density is too
high, then the Kspace can be decreased locally, providing the needed power density adjust-
ment (Figure 4.103).
When a single-turn coil is used, it is possible to have the effect of power density redistri-
bution by CNC profiling the inductor copper in a similar manner to hardening inductors.
Configurations of the assembly to be joined having such geometrical irregularities as
sharp corners, keyways, different types of projections, and others might be damaged
because of overheating when applying high frequencies in combination with high power
densities. Magnetic flux concentrators and magnetic shields applied to the coil may help
reduce overheating in the irregularities located in proximity to the joint.
In other cases, water-cooled chiller blocks can be added if there is sufficient space
available, and if the component’s surface conditions (including roughness and clean-
liness) and geometrical shape allow the accommodation of a reliable “chiller block–
to–workpiece” contact. The latter may require increasing the total needed power in
order to provide the desired thermal condition of the brazed joints. Numerical com-
puter modeling helps designers optimize the heating and determine the optimal pro-
cess parameters.
If frequent coil changes are required to accommodate a range of components, quick coil
change adapters (similar to those used in hardening) can be used to speed up the induc-
tor replacement process. These adapters allow quick replacement with a new setup, pro-
ducing joints of the required quality while enabling induction joining machines to run a
variety of components.
As discussed in Chapter 3, the highest coil electrical efficiencies are obtained when there
is good electromagnetic coupling (small gap) between the induction coil and the heated
workpiece. However, in induction brazing, the desire to minimize the coil-to-workpiece
air gap in order to obtain the highest coil efficiency may be misleading. It is imperative at
this point to review several typical case studies supporting the statements and suggestions
made above.
Case Study 1. It might sound like a universal rule to attempt to place the brazing inductor
as close to the joint as possible; however, in some cases, it may be more desirable to have
looser coupling to provide intentionally slower heating in certain local areas, which would
result in more uniform overall heating of the joints.
It should be clear at this point that, in order to achieve uniform heating when brazing
dissimilar materials, the inductor design should provide compensation for the differences
in the heating characteristics of each component. This is especially true when one of the
materials is nonmagnetic and the other component to be brazed is ferromagnetic. Figure
5.6 shows two alternative sketches of induction systems for brazing cylindrical compo-
nents. One of the components is made from a magnetic material (carbon steel) and the
other is made from a nonmagnetic metal (copper). The “improper design” (Figure 5.6a) is
a multiturn inductor with a uniformly spaced coil-to-workpiece gap that maximizes coil
electrical efficiency but leads to severely nonuniform heating.
The ferromagnetic steel will better attract the magnetic field and experience much
greater heat intensity than the copper. Worsening this scenario is the fact that copper has
a much lower electrical resistivity than carbon steel. This further reduces the nonmagnetic
Solder Four-turn Solder Four-turn

inductor inductor
Copper Carbon steel Copper Carbon steel
(a) Axis of symmetry (b) Axis of symmetry
FIGURE 5.6
Brazing dissimilar materials. (a) A uniform coupling gap overheats the carbon steel and underheats the copper
part. (b) A larger coupling gap on the steel portion of the joint provides a more uniform heating pattern for both
materials.
material’s ability to be heated by induction (assuming that eddy current cancellation does
not occur).
In addition, copper not only is a good electrical conductor but also is a good thermal
conductor, having a thermal conductivity much higher than that of steel. Therefore, cop-
per absorbs heat much quicker than steel, transferring the heat from the “hot” joint area
toward the colder end much faster than steel and resulting in a larger mass of the cop-
per component being heated because of thermal conduction. As a result, the “improper”
coil design will overheat the carbon steel and underheat the copper. Thus, more heat must
be generated within the copper to obtain thermal condition similar to that of the steel.
Because of these three factors, more heat sources should be generated within the copper
portion of the joint in order to obtain a similar temperature increase to the steel.
The alternative, “proper” coil design (Figure 5.6b) features several coil turns decoupled
from the carbon steel component. The larger air gap intentionally provides reduced mag-
netic field intensity in this region. This coil arrangement will produce a more uniform
heating pattern than the coil design shown in Figure 5.6a.
Case Study 2. Care must also be taken when brazing pieces together that have different
cross sections. An example of such an arrangement is shown in Figure 5.7. In this example,
a thin-walled tube is being joined with heavy-walled tubing made from the same metal.
Thin-wall Multiturn Filler Thick-wall

tube inductor material tube
(a) Incorrect (b) Better (c) Better

design designs designs
FIGURE 5.7
Joining similar materials having different cross sections. (a) A uniform coupling gap results in overheating of
the thin-wall tube. (b and c) Better designs concentrating the heat into the more massive thick-wall tube and
producing reasonably uniform heating.
Thin-wall tube Filler

material
Single-turn
inductor
(a) (b)
Incorrect Correct
FIGURE 5.8
Coupling gaps accommodate differences in component shape and mass. (a) A relatively small mass and incor-
rect placement of the inductor results in overheating of a thin-wall area. (b) Repositioning the induction coil
ensures more uniform heating of the entire joint area.
As expected, under identical heating conditions, the thin-walled tube will be heated to a
higher temperature compared to the thick-walled tube; thus, if a multiturn coil with a uni-
form coupling gap is chosen, a noticeable overheating of the thin-walled tube area occurs.
As a result of redistributing the EMF by intentional weakening the coil-to-workpiece
coupling in the area of the thin-walled tube, it will be possible to balance the heating inten-
sity of both tubes and obtain reasonably uniform heating of the joint region.
An induced power balancing effect may also be achieved by using different coil pitch
windings (also called coil turn space factor Kspace, see Section 3.1.7.1). Tighter pitch windings
result in greater power density compared to loose windings. Application of flux concentra-
tors in localized regions of the induction coil also helps redistribute the heat generation
and to achieve the required temperature uniformity.
Case Study 3. The braze joint sketched in Figure 5.8 has components that differ not only in
thickness but also in shape and mass. In this case, it is necessary to heat both the joint area
and the adjacent mass of the workpiece to ensure the needed thermal conditions for a good
braze. The “incorrect” coil placement (Figure 5.8a) has uniform spacing between the induc-
tor and the components to be joined. The thin-wall tube component will be heated more
intensely compared with the larger mass of the flanged component. This is attributed to
the tube’s lower mass and to the electromagnetic “ring” effect appearing in the coil. In the
“correct” coil configuration (Figure 5.8b), heat is intentionally redirected toward the flange
by weakening the ring effect and taking advantage of the electromagnetic proximity effect.
Similar to the previous case study, when a multiturn coil is used, the redistribution of
the EMF can be achieved not only by varying the air gaps between certain turns and the
components to be brazed but also by adjusting the spacing between the turns. This enables
the power density to be tailored to specific areas of the assembly. Smaller distance between
turns results in increased power density and vice versa.
Complex brazed assemblies may have features that are located close to the joint area,
which could possibly be damaged if overheated. In these cases, electromagnetic shields
can also be added to the coil.
5.1.6 Overview of Filler Materials and Flux Selection

Fillers used for the purpose of soldering are sometimes called solders, and filler materials
used for brazing are often called brazes. As mentioned earlier, the filler material always has
a lower melting point than the base materials being joined. Selection of the filler material
plays an important role in producing a successful brazing operation. The choice of filler
material depends on the physical properties of the filler, the needed mechanical character-
istics of the brazed joint, and the available forms of fillers [360–362,366].
Hundreds of filler alloys are specifically designed for a myriad of metal joining applica-
tions. Selection factors include the physical and mechanical properties, melting character-
istics, and product form required. Properties of interest include melting point, flow point,
fluidity, and “wetting” characteristics (wetting characteristics indicate how well the liquid
filler will flow into the joint owing to capillary action).
The filler material is typically an alloy of two or more metals (though in some not so
frequent cases, pure metals such as copper might also be used as a filler). The chemical
composition of the alloy dictates its physical properties, including melting/fluidity charac-
teristics. The alloy is designed and developed to achieve the desired brazing action based
on the special requirements for the particular application. For example, when soldering
electronic devices, electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity may be a consideration,
or in other cases, corrosion resistance or avoidance of embrittlement might be critical
requirements.
In other applications, there may be requirements for a chemical composition that will
eliminate toxic fumes, be nonvolatile, reduce dross, or provide ductile, fatigue-resistant
joints. The availability of arsenic-free and lead-free fillers can be critical in food and pota-
ble water applications. Appearance or cost can also be major drivers.
It is important to remember that since the filler is an alloy, it may have noticeably differ-
ent liquidus and solidus temperatures compared to the metals comprising the alloy. It is
often advantageous using fillers with a narrow melting range. Challenges may occur when
using fillers with an appreciable difference between the solidus and liquidus temperatures
(wide melting range), because such fillers are often associated with sluggish flow and dif-
ficulty to fill the joints.
The fillers (solders or brazes) can be categorized in several ways including the range
of melting temperatures and the principal alloying elements. As an example, Table 5.2
shows the list of principal alloying elements for some fillers and the approximate appli-
cable temperature range [360–362,366]. It should be emphasized that the temperature
ranges shown are for reference purposes only. In order to obtain more precise informa-
tion regarding a particular filler material, it is strongly recommended to consult with the
filler supplier.
TABLE 5.2
Principal Filler Alloying Elements and Approximate Applicable Temperature Range
Soldering
Element Ga Bi In Sn Pb Au
Temperature °C <40 50–140 60–200 120–230 210–310 170–350
range °F <105 122–284 140–392 252–446 410–590 338–662
Brazing
Element Al Ag Au Cu Ni Pb
Temperature °C 530–570 610–850 830–940 700–1040 880–1100 Appr.1200
range °F 986–1058 1130–1562 1526–1724 1292–1984 1616–2012 Appr.2192
Source: ASM Handbook, Vol. 6: Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, ASM Int’l, 1993; M. Schwartz, Brazing, ASM
International, 1987; The Brazing Book, Handy & Harman Publication, 1985.
It is imperative to distinguish the terms melting point and flow point. The flow point is the
state at which the material flows, which is different from the melting point (liquidus point),
which is the point at which the material begins to melt. The flow point can be a consider-
ation when there is more than one joint to be brazed in an assembly or when a component
is held in a brazing position in an unfavorable way for the filler to flow freely because of
certain restrictions. This is essential in order to provide the proper wetting conditions.
If an assembly comprises a number of joints, one might consider using a higher–melting
point filler on the first joint and a lower–melting point filler on the second. This is an
example where it is advantageous to have fillers with a narrow melting range.
Filler suppliers often provide a list of typical applications for a particular filler as well
as the most suitable heating methods, melting temperatures, flow point, chemical com-
position, and environmental/health hazard aspects associated with a particular filler or
flux. Concern with respect to aspects of environmental/health hazards have resulted in
a noticeable reduction in the use of solders containing lead and arsenic: These are being
replaced by more expensive tin–silver and tin–copper alloys.
The use of brazing fillers that contain appreciable amount of phosphorous should not be
used in open-air brazing because of the risk of developing phosphorus embrittlement [370].
There are different forms and shapes of filler materials available. These include coils or
spools of wire or rods of different diameters and lengths, strips of various thicknesses,
fillers in the form of powder, and preforms (e.g., shims, stamped shapes, washers, rings,
edge-wound strips, shaped wires, etc.) [360–362,371]. Preforms are commonly used in high-
production applications since they allow minimizing waste and they provide a better fit in
or around the braze joint. When high production is needed, automated brazing/soldering
processes are used and custom forms of fillers are developed to produce consistent results.
Fluxes play an important part in a brazing/soldering operation taking place in open air.
Being a chemical compound, flux helps to dramatically minimize the surface oxides and
remove minor contaminations that might be present at the component’s surface. Thanks to
fluxing of the joint area, the surface oxides will be dissolved and absorbed; however, some
minimum time is needed. On the other hand, the brazing time should not be too long,
because the flux might evaporate, negating its protective actions.
It is highly recommended that fluxing should be applied to a clean and degreased sur-
face just before the brazing operation. Remember that the flux is not a cleaning agent.
There are a number of fluxes available on the market. Just as the filler material is designed for
a specific application, the fluxes are also developed for specific requirements that, among
other factors, include the temperature range, filler alloy content, and type of base material.
Common forms of fluxes are paste, powder, and liquid. Solder filler wires/rods are fabri-
cated in such a way that they comprise the flux in the core of the solder. Hot water is typically
used to clean off the flux residuals upon completion of the joining operation.
It is difficult to overstress the importance of applying the fluxes to clean surfaces that are
free from contamination, grease, dirt, and severe oxidation.
The necessity of using fluxes can be eliminated when brazing of clean and degreased
parts is conducted in a protective atmosphere or in a vacuum.
5.1.7 Fixturing and Handling

Fixturing and handling of the parts to be brazed are just as critical as the uniformity of
heating and selection of the proper fillers and fluxes. Fixtures provide the needed support
for the assembly; they permit appropriate workpiece-to-inductor positioning and hold the
assembly during the brazing cycle.
The simplest fixture can be used when the components are self-aligning and hold them-
selves together during the entire brazing cycle, as in the case of brazing a hard insert
directly into the slot of a drill tip. The hard insert is trapped in the slot, simplifying the
induction brazing operation. Another example may be brazing the working tips of tool
bits for the mining industry (Figure 2.27). In both applications, the brazing operation is
combined with through hardening.
The assemblies are clamped or held together using pneumatic or hydraulic means to
maintain their alignment during the heating and cooling/solidification cycles. In other
cases, the weight and geometry of the components might be sufficient to hold them
together. A well-designed fixture provides appropriate positioning of the parts with
respect to each other and with respect to the heating inductor during the entire cycle.
Nonmagnetic metals, high-temperature plastics, ceramics, and heat-resistant, nonelectri-
cally conductive composites can be used as materials for making fixtures. Part nests can
be used as a part of the fixture.
Sometimes, brazing fixtures previously used in torch brazing operations are used in
induction brazing. Often, manufacturers use low-cost and sufficiently strong mild steel
for brazing and soldering fixtures used for torch brazing. Because induction heating uses
electromagnetic energy to heat parts, changing to induction heating generally requires a
change to nonmagnetic fixtures, particularly when joining nonferrous metallic materials.
When magnetic steel fixtures are used to hold nonferrous metals for induction brazing,
the ferromagnetic fixture might become the preferred path for the magnetic field of the
inductor, resulting in excessive heating of the fixture, premature deterioration, and a dra-
matic reduction in the heating efficiency. Therefore, fixtures for induction soldering and
brazing should be nonmagnetic and preferably not electrically conductive. Fixtures should
also have minimal contact area with the part being heated in order to minimize the heat-
sink effect of the fixture.
There are several basic ways to handle parts in induction brazing. Manually loading
a magazine, conveyor feed, or rotary table arrangements are the most common. Manual
loading is usually associated with a low production and low capital cost. An experienced
operator manually assembles and loads the equipment. The operator may also use certain
types of clamps, nests, or other holding devices, if necessary.
When high production is needed, a fully automated system may be used. Such a system
would assemble the components, feed the flux and filler, and hold the part until the joint
has solidified. The heating can be done at an individual station or at more than one station
for the production of multiple brazed joints.
A continuous feed system can be utilized when the configurations of the assembly to be
joined accommodate such processing. In such cases, assemblies can be joined continuously
as they are fed through or carried on a conveyor belt, using chain devices or a turntable.
Continuous feed systems require using inductors that accommodate free entrance to and
exit from the inductor (Figure 2.27, right).
Several types of handheld brazing transformers are available, which allow the induc-
tor to be moved to the part, rather than having to move the part into the inductor. This
can be done either manually or through the use of appropriate automation. Of course,
as with any handheld electrical device, particular attention should be paid to safety and
the magnitude of the external EMF exposure. As discussed in Chapter 4, several interna-
tional organizations have developed an awareness regarding nonionizing radiation and
evaluation of the health risks associated with EMF exposure. A number of international
standards, guidelines, and regulations have been put into force. Some of these organiza-
tions are as follows:
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)

• The International Radio Protection Association (IRPA)
• The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA)
• The World Health Organization (WHO)
Therefore, it is important to remember the most important rule in designing any induc-
tion system: SAFETY FIRST. Precautions should be taken and efforts should be made to
ensure that all required safety standards and regulations are satisfied.
5.1.8 Summary
For all successful brazing applications, there are certain critical process steps and prepara-
tion techniques required before the actual brazing begins. Some of these steps are outlined
below.
1. Geometrical deviations of components (including tolerances and positioning)

involved in the brazing/soldering assembly should be minimized and parts to be
brazed should have the proper gaps (not too big and not too small), allowing the
filler material to flow freely owing to the combined effect of capillary action and
gravitational force.
2. Parts should be clean and free from oxidation and any contaminants such as oil,
grease, scale, and the like. (Heavily oxidized or contaminated surfaces cannot
form sound joints.)
3. The parts should be liberally fluxed. Fluxing the part will help keep the joint clean,
minimizing surface oxidation and corrosion before and during the brazing process
and helping to form quality joints with high repeatability.
4. Fixtures and holding devices should be capable of holding the parts together with
minimum deviation during the entire brazing cycle in order to ensure proper
alignment.
5. When brazing components, the selection of a suitable heat time is important. If
the heat time is too long, excessive shape distortion can occur. In addition, flux
may evaporate before melting the filler, and its protective actions will be negated.
However, if the heat time is too short, the flux might not be able to provide the
required wetting conditions for brazing.
6. Inductor design and process recipe/protocol should assure that at the end of the
heating cycle, all components involved in the brazing process (workpieces, filler,
etc.) achieve the needed final thermal conditions with sufficient temperature
uniformity.
7. Precise controls for power supplies and for the process recipe/protocol allow for optimi-
zation, data logging, reliable monitoring, and the use of a multichannel quality assur-
ance system using the “signature” monitoring concept (see Section 7.13.6).
FIGURE 5.9
Visual inspection ensures that there are no irregularities present within the brazed joint area. (Courtesy of
Radyne Corp., an Inductotherm Group company.)
The quality inspection of the joint is the final step in the brazing/soldering operation.
This procedure involves a visual inspection to ensure that there are no irregularities such
as depressions, cavities, porosity, voids, drips, cracks, unexpected discolorations, and so
on. It is often highly desirable that the joints have smooth fillets (Figure 5.9).
In addition to visual inspection, other means (destructive and non-destructive) are also
available to inspect the joint quality, including checking gages, pull testing, and tensile,
bending, and torque testing. Various non-destructive testing methods may also be utilized
(e.g., x-ray, etc.). Occasional disassembly of the brazed pieces might also be used to verify
the integrity of the assembly [370].
5.2 Bonding
In addition to brazing and soldering, bonding is another popular approach to joining two
or more materials. In contrast to brazing and soldering, bonding is a more universal join-
ing technique because the components being joined do not have to be metallic. Plastic
materials, ceramics, glass, rubber, and other nonmetallic materials can be bonded as well.
One way to accomplish the task of the weight reduction of the final assemblies in auto-
motive and aerospace industries is to utilize nonmetallic components, including compos-
ites. Some components require stronger properties only in certain areas of the assembly. In
these cases, plastic and composites are bonded to metallic materials.
In bonding applications, the bonding effect is provided by an adhesive material. The
adhesive, which is applied before induction heating, is not electrically conductive; thus,
it cannot be heated by induction. Therefore, at least one of the components to be joined
should be electrically conductive. The adhesive will be heated via thermal conduction
from the electrically conductive, induction-heated component in contact with it. (Note: In
some bonding applications, sufficient pressure must also be applied to the components
being joined.)
Adhesive bonding provides several principal benefits to the users of this technology,
including [1,373,374] the following:
• Adhesive bonding provides a lighter structure than those that are welded or
brazed, or those that rely on mechanical fasteners (e.g., bolts, screws, etc.).
• It can be applied to assemblies that cannot be brazed, soldered, or welded (e.g.,
ceramics, rubber, or plastic materials) and cannot use mechanical fasteners owing
to the possibility of being damaged.
• When bonding metallic components, adhesive bonding does not typically accel-
erate corrosion. The use of mechanical fasteners, however, would require drill-
ing holes for the fasteners, disrupting the integrity of the metallic structures,
removing the protective corrosion-resistive layer of the coating, and possibly
causing a galvanic reaction of two dissimilar metals that have been joined. The
latter two features hold true even to a greater degree in welded structures.
Because adhesive bonding is not an electrically conductive material and does
not typically disrupt the surface coating, it eliminates the possibility of galvanic
reaction.
• Adhesives provide good shock and vibration absorption with a certain damping
ability and can accommodate thermal expansion to some degree.
• Welds, brazed joints, and fasteners (e.g., bolts, screws, etc.) are known for their
ability to lead to an uneven distribution of stresses in the joint areas. The presence
of stress-risers may negatively affect the fatigue strength properties of the compo-
nent. In contrast, adhesive bonds provide a more uniform distribution of stresses
and do not alter metallurgical structures of the components (as occurs in welding).
For example, spot welding creates numerous problems. One of them deals with
the necessity to have a subsequent grinding operation. Not only does this add
another operation, it also becomes a stress riser and a source for corrosion initia-
tion because the finish coating would be partially or completely removed during
spot welding and grinding.
• Because adhesive bonding requires relatively low temperatures (typically in the
range of less than 230°C (450°F), thermally induced mechanical strain does not
exceed the elastic limit of most applicable metallic materials (e.g., steel) and it does
not introduce permanent shape distortion of the joint assembly as is the case when
brazing and welding are applied.
• Adhesive bonding is a corrosion-resistant process, as adhesives prevent metal
components from being exposed to moisture and entrapped chemically aggres-
sive dirt.
Although there are numerous adhesives available to meet a vast variety of bonding
applications, the majority of adhesives can be divided into two large groups [1,373,374]:
thermoplastic adhesives and thermosetting adhesives. Thermoplastic adhesives soften
when heated and harden when cooled. Thermosetting adhesives form a bond as a result
of a chemical reaction (polymerization). Induction heating is effective whether it is used to
soften an adhesive or accelerate an adhesive polymerization process.
Induction bonding is often performed on sheet metals or thin metal strips (e.g., brass
strips). The manufacture of electrical connectors may serve as a typical example of induc-
tion bonding.
Bonding is among the low-temperature applications of induction heating. Because
the bonding temperatures are relatively low, power requirements are usually relatively
small. Many bonds are completed using a power of less than 10 kW and a frequency
between 10 and 400 kHz. However, as for all induction heating applications, the optimal
power and frequency are greatly affected by component size, shape, and material of
construction.
Induction bonding systems can provide a fast and reliable full or partial cure of adhe-
sives that delivers adequate strength to maintain dimensional stability of the assembly
during material handling. For example, inner and outer automotive door panels, deck lids,
lift gates, and hoods must be held together, maintaining their positions until they are
completely joined.
Induction bonding and induction sealing provide the needed closure of such compo-
nents as hoods, fenders, and other parts used in the automotive industry, as well as bond-
ing various electrically conductive materials to proprietary electrically nonconductive
materials (e.g., soundproofing mats, glass-to-metal bonding, etc.).
At this point, for illustration purposes, a case study of a typical induction bonding appli-
cation will be provided below.
Case Study. Joining a rubber gasket to a brake pedal support. One challenge for automotive
companies is joining dissimilar materials, such as securing a rubber-like gasket to a metal
automobile brake pedal support. Mechanical joining via fasteners such as rivets or clips
was an option; however, fasteners add to costs and require additional manufacturing oper-
ations. Conventional gluing can be impractical and messy.
The bonding machine (Figure 5.10) uses electromagnetic induction to “heat stake” the
gasket to the pedal support. System components include a table structure which supports
a 5-kW, 30-kHz power supply, an induction heating coil, a fixture for locating the brake
pedal, a clamping device, and palm buttons to start the cycle. The production rate is 500
parts per hour.
The fixture is manually loaded and unloaded, which helps keep the equipment capi-
tal cost down. In the bonding process, the operator loads a brake pedal (with preapplied
adhesive) and gasket on their supports. This automatically locates them directly above
the induction coil. The heating cycle begins by heating the pedal to approximately 205°C
(400°F), which is sufficient to bond the gasket to the pedal. The entire process takes approx-
imately 4 s and uses approximately 2 kW per cycle. Induction bonding was selected for
this application primarily because it is very fast and the temperature can be accurately
controlled, which is critical because rubber can deteriorate if heated above a certain
temperature.
Electromagnetic induction can also be applied for a reversal of the bonding process,
which is called debonding.
FIGURE 5.10
Induction bonding system. Rubber gasket is bonded to metal brake pedal support in 4 s, using 2 kW/30 kHz.
(Courtesy of Inductoheat Inc., an Inductotherm Group company.)
5.3 Cap Sealing
Induction cap sealing is a variation of the induction bonding and has been briefly described
in Section 2.3.10. It is a noncontact process by which a foil disk or “seal” is bonded to a
container. This process is widely used with many styles of containers, jars, and enclosures
for sealing foods, drugs, beverages, chemicals, and so on. The inner seals must meet the
stringent requirements of the Food and Drug Administration and can be used on contain-
ers of all compositions.
Inner seals are available in many variations to meet nearly any standard or customized
packaging need. Practically speaking, there is virtually no limit to the size of container
needing to be sealed.
Inner seals consist of specially treated aluminum foil bonded to various types of propri-
etary films for use with virtually any type of container or closure (HDPE, PE, PET, PETE,
PETG, PVC, PP, Barex, Barrier, Styrene, just to name a few), including most thermoplastic
containers as well as glass. They will provide tamper-evident hermetic seals suitable for use
with foods, drugs, beverages, alkalies, acids, oils, organic solvents, flammables, powders,
pellets, and many other products for domestic and industrial use. They are particularly
effective for products that must be kept free from contamination, oxidation, and moisture.
This process was developed to prevent leakage of chemicals from plastic bottle caps.
The cap is supplied with a foil inner seal, ready to load into the capper. The container is
filled and capped in the standard packaging operation. The capped container is trans-
ferred down the conveyor line and passes underneath a conveyor-mounted induction
sealing head at high line speeds (Figure 5.11a). The sealing head is designed to induc-
tively heat the foil layer of the inner seal structure evenly to prevent liner damage. The
EMF generated by the sealing head penetrates the cap and the aluminum foil layer as
the container passes underneath. This is a noncontact process. As the field penetrates the
electrically conductive foil, it induces an eddy current flow that quickly generates heat.
Elevated temperatures activate the heat seal coating. After leaving the induction field,
the foil cools, and the heat seal film bonds to the container finish, leaving a hermetically
(a) (b)
FIGURE 5.11
Induction cap sealing is a variation of the induction bonding process. (a) Capped container passes underneath an
induction sealing head; (b) Cap Inspector/Line Monitor System checks the integrity of cap seals. (Courtesy of Lepel
Corp., an Inductotherm Group company.)
sealed container. When the cap is removed, the aluminum foil remains bonded to the lip
of the container.
The induction liner is normally supplied to the closure manufacturer in coil strip form,
similar to conventional lining materials. The foil inner seal is then die-cut and inserted
into the closure with a die-cutting system by the closure manufacturer.
The induction sealing equipment is far less costly, requires less maintenance, and is
much easier to install than other types of sealing equipment. The one-step sealing pro-
cess itself is also low in cost; no extra handling or double operations are required since
the capped containers merely pass underneath the induction sealing head without actual
physical contact. The inner seal wafer combines the inner seal and a resealable cap liner
for one-step insertion in the cap, resulting in a combined low cost.
A properly bonded foil seal eliminates product leakage; prevents tampering, pilfer-
age, and adulteration; lengthens shelf life; prevents evaporation; and enhances customer
confidence.
A helpful innovation by the Lepel Corporation is the development of the Cap Inspector/
Line Monitor System that is able to check the integrity of cap seals on a fast-moving pro-
duction line to detect the presence of the foil and the position of the cap (raised or tilted)
to verify proper closure of the cap to the bottle (Figure 5.11b). More details regarding this
technology and its applications can be found in Ref. [372].
5.4 Shrink Fitting
Shrink fitting is a method of joining components without the use of a filler material. The
expansion of metal during heating and its contraction during cooling are exploited to pro-
vide a mechanical bond between the two pieces.
During shrink fitting, the external (or encircling) component is heated to temporarily
expand it, which enables insertion of the other component for a slip or snug fit at assembly.
The assembly is then cooled to room temperature, resulting in a contraction of the external
component permanently locking the parts together. Shrink fitting is a reversible process—
components can be disassembled by reheating (if the parts were only press-fit together
without heating, unacceptable deformation of the assembly could result). Motor housing
disassembly can serve as an example of this application.
Not every workpiece can be shrink fitted. Most often, this process is applied to cylindrical-
shaped hollow parts such as roller bearings, and the like.
In most shrink-fitting applications, the entire part must be heated rather than selected
areas. This means that a low power density and a relatively low frequency are used. The
applied frequency typically ranges from as low as line frequency to 10 kHz, while the
required temperature ranges from approximately 120°C to 400°C (250°C to 750°F), depend-
ing on the geometry of the components and their material (or materials) of construction.
Single-turn or multiturn solenoid coils or “C”-core–type inductors are the ones most com-
monly used.
Figure 5.12 shows an eight-station, automatic induction shrink-fitting system. The
Inductoheat machine’s rotary-indexing unit is driven by a hydraulic motor. C-core induc-
tors powered by a line frequency source heat truck steering knuckles to 345°C–370°C
(650°F–700°F) in two stages.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 5.12
(a) High-production shrink-fitting system for assembling truck steering knuckles. (b) Close-up view at heating
stations 3 and 4 providing preheat and final heat using C-core inductors powered from line frequency power
source. (Courtesy of Inductoheat Inc., an Inductotherm Group company.)
The preheat station heats the knuckle for a minimum of 40 s before final heating. The
part “soaks” at a temperature for approximately 30 s before insertion of the spindle. The
assembly is then cooled with pressurized water to less than 95°C (200°F) before being
removed from the machine. One assembled steering knuckle is produced every 120 s. This
shrink-fitting system is manually loaded and unloaded, and its indexing table is tooled
to accommodate either right- or left-hand knuckles. An optical pyrometer monitors and
controls the part temperature throughout the cycle.
Figure 5.13 shows three standard units for various shrink-fitting applications featuring
interchangeable tooling packages that allow stators, rotors, housings, armatures, gears, bear-
ings, and so on to be effectively heated using C-core Technology (for a review of this tech-
nology, see Section 4.6.3.3). This unit is ideal for high-volume production or rapid prototype
work. Lower your manufacturing costs by utilizing a fraction of the floor space and energy.
FIGURE 5.13
Three compact induction heating units for various shrink-fitting applications utilizing C-core technology and
50/60 Hz frequency. (Courtesy of Inductoheat Inc., an Inductotherm Group company.)
5.5 Motor Rotor Heating

In the production of small- and moderately sized motors (Figure 2.28), induction heating is
used for a variety of applications, such as the following [39]:
• Die-cast aluminum bond breaking (thermal shocking) to improve efficiency.

• Lamination bluing for rust prevention.
• Rotor heating for motor shaft insertion and shrink fit assembly.
• Motor frame heating for disassembly when open frame motor posts are heated to
soften the epoxy. This enables the motor frame to break apart and the parts to be
salvaged.
• Epoxy curing for component assembly. Curing epoxy used in the assembly of the
stator in the housing and also for field ring magnet bonding.
• Varnish curing.
• Motor shaft bearing hardening.
• Preheat for die casting.
• Heating for wire stripping and others.
Because of a wide variety of applications, there are several inductor designs used to
induction heat rotors. A few examples of typical systems are given below.
Figure 2.28 (right) shows an Inductoheat-IHS 100-kW/1-kHz in-line induction rotor
heater consisting of an adjustable load magazine, an electric actuator charge system with
a water-cooled charge lance, a solenoid-type encapsulated heating coil, a rotor up-ending
device, a pick and place unit, operator shaft drop location with an automatic motor shaft
positioner, and a spray quench cooldown system. This induction system provides heating
of rotors up to 510°C (950°F) at a production rate of 240 rotors per hour. The rotor diam-
eter ranges from 57 mm (2.25 in.) to 115 mm (4.5 in.), and stack height ranges from 16 mm
(0.63 in.) to 155 mm (6 in.).
Figure 5.14a shows an Inductoheat 200-kW/1-kHz rotor heating system. The system has
the following specifications:
Rotor size range: 2.810 in. O.D. to 3.725 in. O.D. (0.07 m to 0.095 m)
Lam stack height: 0.75 in. to 5.0 in. (0.019 m to 0.125 m)
Production rate: 1 part/7 to 18 s
Temperature range: 425°C to 485°C (800°F to 900°F)
Load: Manual (operator load adjustable magazine)
Unload: Manual
The machine control is a PLC with an Allen Bradley PanelView HMI. The mechanics
consist of a manually loaded, gravity-fed load table. A manual adjusting crank adjusts the
side guide rails for various rotor lengths. An escapement mechanism releases the rotors
onto the rails that extend into the coil. A pusher mechanism driven by a DC motor and
controlled with a DC motor drive indexes the parts into the coil. The parts are butted end
to end for indexing. A clean-out mode allows the machine to index all rotors through the
machine so that no parts are left in process.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 5.14
Two examples of alternative designs for rotor heating systems. (a) 200 kW/1 kHz rotor heating system and
(b) system with drive belt for heating long rotors. (Courtesy of Inductoheat Inc., an Inductotherm Group company.)
Figure 5.14b shows the Inductoheat system utilizing a servo motor and drive belt for the
pusher to accommodate longer rotors. This machine can heat up to 0.55-m-long (21-in.-long)
rotors. The rotors were a nominal 0.05 m (2 in.) O.D. The specifications for the machine are
as follows:
Rotor size range: 2.0 in. (0.05 m) O.D. nominal

Lam stack height: 0.07 to 0.55 m (2.75 to 21.0 in.)
In some cases, the design of induction rotor heating systems is similar to the design of
billet heaters for warm working applications.
In the past, fuel-fired ovens and furnaces have been widely used for rotor heating appli-
cations. Eventually, induction heating dominated this market. There are several reasons
why manufacturers of small- and moderately sized rotors have turned to using induction
heating.
Fossil fuel–fired ovens and furnaces can consume valuable floor space, contribute to
unfriendly working environments, and involve large quantities of product maintained in
process. Start-up, shutdown, and, in some cases, product changeover are time-consuming
and costly processes.
As a result of gases escaping from the aluminum, furnace heating can produce hot spots
and blisters on the die-cast rotors. Such undesirable effects cannot be tolerated because of
the rotor-to-stator clearance of 0.05 mm (0.002 in.) to 0.08 mm (0.003 in.). Induction heat-
ing noticeably reduces or eliminates these problems, providing some additional attractive
features compared to furnace heating that have been reviewed in Ref. [405]. Some of these
features are discussed below.
Floor Space and Manpower Requirements. Oven and furnace heating often requires two
operators and floor space requirements can vary from 37 m2 (400 ft2) to as large
as 93 m2 (1000 ft2) depending on the production rate and rotor size. In compari-
son, the induction equipment in most cases occupies from 2.3 m2 (25 ft2) to 4.6 m2
(50 ft2) of floor space and generally requires only one operator.
Working Environment. Induction systems can be placed in-line, not only occupying
minimal floor space but also minimizing the heat exposure and industrial noise.
Work in Progress. Furnace heating times can be as long as 4 to 6 h with potentially

thousands of parts tied up in process flow. The heating time of induction rotor
heating typically ranges from 1 to 2 min. Production cycle time ranges from 4.5 to
15 s per rotor, and in most cases, there are less than 20 rotors in process.
Process Control and Quality. Process recipe/protocol is easily and reliably controlled,
assuring required repeatability and quality of each heated rotor. This high level
of repeatability makes it ideally suited to the shrink-fitting process. Heating for
shrink fit assembly of the shaft requires that the rotors be consistently heated
to the specified temperature in order to provide for the proper bore expansion
that typically ranges from 0.05 mm (0.002 in.) to 0.08 mm (0.003 in.). The energy
induced in each rotor is the same every time. Systems are PLC or computer con-
trolled, requiring minimal setup and operator input.
Motor manufacturers that have heated rotors by induction heating with conse-
quent quenching report a significant reduction of rpm variation between motors
[39,405].
Efficiency. Fractional horsepower motor manufacturers comment that rotors in their
product area have shown an efficiency improvement of up to 2% when processed
through an induction heating system.
In conclusion, there are many convincing reasons some of them were outlined
above that lead practitioners today to pursue induction heating for motor rotors as
opposed to conventional means.

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Handbook of Induction Heating

Valery Rudnev, Don Loveless, Raymond L. Cook

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5.1 Brazing and Soldering by Induction

Preferred Clearance of Selected Brazing Fillers

requirements may vary greatly from one filler to another.

5.1.3 Size and Shape Factors

to be brazed. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of assuring a proper fit of parts

5.1.5 Types of Inductors and Coil Design Features

(a) (b) (c)

Solder Four-turn Solder Four-turn

Copper Carbon steel Copper Carbon steel

(a) Axis of symmetry (b) Axis of symmetry

Thin-wall Multiturn Filler Thick-wall

(a) Incorrect (b) Better (c) Better

Thin-wall tube Filler

5.1.6 Overview of Filler Materials and Flux Selection

5.1.7 Fixturing and Handling

tions are as follows:

• The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)

1. Geometrical deviations of components (including tolerances and positioning)

5.5 Motor Rotor Heating

• Die-cast aluminum bond breaking (thermal shocking) to improve efficiency.

Rotor size range: 2.0 in. (0.05 m) O.D. nominal

Work in Progress. Furnace heating times can be as long as 4 to 6 h with potentially

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5.1 Brazing and Soldering by Induction

5.1.3 Size and Shape Factors

5.1.5 Types of Inductors and Coil Design Features

5.1.6 Overview of Filler Materials and Flux Selection

5.1.7 Fixturing and Handling

5.5 Motor Rotor Heating