An Introduction to

Particle Accelerators
Erik Adli,, University of Oslo/CERN
November, 2007
Erik.Adli@cern.ch

v1.32
 References
• Bibli
Bibliography:
h
– CAS 1992, Fifth General Accelerator Physics Course, Proceedings, 7-18
September 1992
– LHC Design Report [online]
– K. Wille, The Physics of Particle Accelerators, 2000

• Other references
– USPAS resource site, A. Chao, USPAS January 2007
– CAS 2005, Proceedings (in-print), J. Le Duff, B, Holzer et al.
– O. Brüning:
g CERN student summer lectures
– N. Pichoff: Transverse Beam Dynamics in Accelerators, JUAS January 2004
– U. Am aldi, presentation on Hadron therapy at CERN 2006
– Various CLIC and ILC presentations
– Several figures in this presentation have been borrowed from the above
references, thanks to all!
 Part 1

Introduction
Particle accelerators for HEP
•LHC:
LHC: the world
biggest accelerator,
both in energy and
size ((as big
g as
LEP)
•Under construction
at CERN today
•End of magnet
installation in 2007
•First collisions
expected summer
2008
Particle accelerators for HEP
The next big thing. After LHC, a
Linear Collider of over 30 km length,
g ,
will probably be needed (why?)
 Others accelerators
• Historically:
Hi i ll theh main i ddriving
i i fforce off accelerator
l d
development
l was
collision of particles for high-energy physics experiments

• However, today there are estimated to be around 17 000 particle

accelerators in the world, and only a fraction is used in HEP

• Over half of them used in medicine

• Accelerator physics: a disipline in itself, growing field

• Some examples:
 Medical applications
• Therapy
Th
– The last decades: electron accelerators
(converted to X-ray via a target) are used
very successfully for cancer therapy)

– Today's
y research: p proton accelerators
instead (hadron therapy): energy deposition
can be controlled better, but huge technical
challenges

• Imaging
– Isotope production for PET scanners
Advantages of proton / ion
ion-therapy
therapy

( Slide borrowed from U. Am aldi )

 Proton therapy accelerator centre

HIBAC in Chiba

What is all this? Follow the

( Slide borrowed from U. Am aldi )
lectures... :)
 Synchrotron Light Sources
• the llastt ttwo decades,
th d d enormous iincrease iin th
the use off synchrony
h radiation,
di ti
emitted from particle accelerators
• Can produce very intense light (radiation), at a wide range of frequencies
(visible or not)
• Useful in a wide range of scientific applications
 Outline of presentation

Part 1: Intro + Main parameters + Basic Concepts

Part 2: Longitudinal
g Dynamics
y
Part 3: Transverse Dynamics
Case: LHC
Part 4: Intro to synchrotron radiation
Part 5: The road from LEP via LHC to CLIC
Case: CLIC
Main Parameters
 Main parameters: particle type
• Hadron collisions: compound d particles
i l
– Mix of quarks, anti-quarks and gluons: variety of processes
– Parton energygy spread
p
– Hadron collisions ⇒ large discovery range

• Lepton collisions: elementary particles

– Collision process known
– Well defined energy
– Lepton
L collisions
lli i ⇒ precision
i i measurement

“If you know what to look for, collide leptons, if not collide hadrons”
Main parameters: particle type

Discovery Precision

S S / LHC
SppS LEP / LC
 Main parameters: particle energy
• N
New physics
h i can b
be ffound
d att llarger unprobed
b d energies
i

• Energy
gy for p
particle creation: centre-of-mass energy,
gy ECM

• Assume particles in beams with parameters m, E, E >> mc2

– Particle beam on fixed target: E CM = mE

– Colliding
C particle beams: E CM = 2 E

• ⇒ Colliding beams much more efficient

 Main parameters: luminosity
• Hi h energy iis nott enough
High h!

• Cross-sections for interesting

gpprocesses are very
y small ((~ p
pb = 10−36 cm² ) !
– σ(gg → H) = 23 pb [ at s2pp = (14 TeV)2, mH = 150 GeV/c2 ]

R = Lσ
– We need L >> 1030 cm-2s-1 in order to observe a significant amount of
interesting processes!

• L [cm-2s-1] for “bunched colliding beams” depends on

– number of particles per bunch (n1, n2)
– bunch transverse size at the interaction point (σx, σy )
– bunch collision rate ( f)
n1n2
L= f
4πσ xσ y
Main parameters: LEP and LHC
LEP LHC

Particle type(s) e+ and e- p, ions (Pb, Au)

Collision energy (Ecm) 209 GeV (max) p: 14 TeV at p (~ 2-3 TeV

mass reach, depending
on physics)
Pb: 1150 TeV

Luminosity (L) Peak: 1032 cm-2s-1 Peak: 1034 cm-2s-1

Daily avg last years: (IP1 / IP5)
1031 cm-2s-1
Integrated: ~ 1000 pb-1
(per experiment)
 Capabilities of particle accelerators
• A modern
d HEP particle
ti l accelerator
l t can accelerate
l t particles,
ti l kkeeping
i th
them
within millimeters of a defined reference trajectory, and transport them over
a distance of several times the size of the solar system

HOW?
 HOW?
• I this
In thi presentation
t ti we try
t tot explain
l i this
thi b
by studying:
t d i
– the basic components of an accelerator
– the physical mechanisms that determines the particle motion
– how particles (more or less) follow a specified path, even if our accelerator is not
designed perfectly

• At the end, we use what we have learned in a case-study: the LHC

 Part 2

Basic concepts
 An accelerator

• Structures in which the particles will move

• Structures to accelerate the particles
• Structures to steer the particles
• Structures to measure the particles
 Lorentz equation
• Th two
The t main
i tasks
t k off an accelerator
l t
– Increase the particle energy
– Change the particle direction (follow a given trajectory, focusing)

• Lorentz equation:
r r r r r r r r r
F = q ( E + v × B ) = qE + qv × B = F E + FB

• FB ⊥ v ⇒ FB does
d no work
k on th
the particle
ti l
– Only FE can increase the particle energy

• FE or FB for deflection? v ≈ c ⇒ Magnetic field of 1 T (feasible) same

bending power as en electric field of 3⋅108 V/m (NOT feasible)
– FB is by far the most effective in order to change the particle direction
 Acceleration techniques: DC field
• Th simplest
The i l t acceleration
l ti method:
th d DC voltage
lt

• Energy kick: ΔE=qV

• Can accelerate particles over many gaps: electrostatic accelerator

• Problem: breakdown voltage at ~10MV

10MV

• DC field still used at start of injector chain

 Acceleration techniques: RF field
• O ill ti RF ((radio-frequency)
Oscillating di f ) field
fi ld

• “Widerøe accelerator”, after the pioneering work of the Norwegian Rolf

Wid
Widerøe (brother
(b h off theh aviator
i Viggo
Vi Widerøe)
Wid )

• Particle must sees the field onlyy when the field is in the accelerating
g
direction
– Requires the synchronism condition to hold: Tparticle =½TRF L = (1 / 2)vT

• Problem: high power loss due to radiation

 Principle of phase focusing

...what happens to particles with energies slightly off the nominal values...?
 Acceleration techniques: RF cavities
• Electromagnetic power is stored in a resonant volume instead of
being radiated

• RF power feed into cavity, originating from RF power generators,

lik Kl
like Klystrons
t

• RF power oscillating (from magnetic to electric energy), at the

d i d ffrequency
desired

• RF cavities requires bunched beams (as opposed to

coasting
ti b beams))
– particles located in bunches separated in space
Acceleration techniques: Pill
Pill-Box
Box cavity
• Id l cylindrical
Ideal li d i l cavity:
it

• Solution for E and H are oscillating modes (of increasing frequency)

• The fundamental mode normally used for acceleration is named TM010 with
the following features:
– Ez is constant in space along the axis of acceleration, z, at any instant
– λ010 = 2.6a, l < 2 a

• Acceleration efficiency of cavity depends on the transit-time factor

– Ratio of “actual energy gain”, versus “energy gain if the field was constant in time“

T=
ΔEvar
=
∫ eEˆ z cos(ωt )dz eVˆT sin(θ / 2)
= = ,θ=
ωl
ΔEconst eVˆ θ /2
∫ eEˆ z dz v

– Example: l = λ / 2 gives θ=π and T=0.64

 From pill-box
pill box to real cavities

(from A.
Chao)

LHC cavity module ILC cavity

 Why circular accelerators?

• Technological limit on the electrical field in an RF cavity (breakdown)

• Gives a limited ΔE per distance

• ⇒ Circular accelerators,, in order to re-use the same RF cavityy

• This requires a bending field FB in order to follow a circular trajectory (later

slide)
 The synchrotron
• A
Acceleration
l ti is i performed
f d by
b RF cavities
iti

• (Piecewise) circular motion is ensured by a guide field FB

• FB : Bending magnets with a homogenous field

v2 1 qB 1 B[T ]
• In the arc section: FB = m ⇒ = ⇔ [m −1 ] ≈ 0.3
ρ ρ p ρ p[GeV / c]

• RF frequency
q y must stay
y locked to the revolution frequency
q y of a p
particle
(later slide)

• Almost all p
present day
ypparticle accelerators are synchrotrons
y
 Digression: other accelerator types
• C l t
Cyclotron:
– constant B field
– constant RF field in the gap increases energy
– radius increases proportionally to energy
– limit: relativistic energy, RF phase out of synch
– In some respects simpler than the synchrotron,
and often used as medical accelerators

• Synchro-cyclotron
y y
– Cyclotron with varying RF phase

• Betatron
– Acceleration induced by time-varying magnetic field

• The synchrotron will be the only type discussed in this course

 Particle motion

• We separate the particle motion into:

– longitudinal motion: motion tangential to the reference trajectory along the
accelerator structure,
structure us

– transverse motion: degrees of freedom orthogonal to the reference trajectory,

ux, uy

• us, ux, uy are unit vector in a moving coordinate system, following the
particle
?
 Part 3

L
Longitudinal
i di l d dynamics
i
and acceleration

L
Longitudinal
it di l DDynamics:
i d
degrees off ffreedom
d ttangential
ti l tto th
the reference
f ttrajectory
j t
us: tangential to the reference trajectory
 RF acceleration

• We assume a cavity with an oscillating RF-field: E z = Eˆ z sin(ωRF t )

• In this section we neglect the transit-transit factor

– we assume a field constant in time while the particle passes the cavity

• Work done on a particle inside cavity:

W = ∫ Fdz = q ∫ E z dz = q ∫ Eˆ z sin((ω RF t )dz = qVˆ sin((ω RF t )

 Synchrotron with one cavity

• The energy kick of a particle, ΔE, depends on the RF phase seen, φ

ΔE = W = qVˆ sin(ωRF t ) = qVˆ sin φ

• We define a “synchronous particle”, s, which always sees the same phase
φs passing
i the
h cavity
i
⇒ ωRF =h ωrs ( h: “harmonic number” )

• E.g. at constant speed, a synchronous particle circulating in the

synchrotron, assuming no losses in accelerator, will always see φs=0
 Non synchronous particles
Non-synchronous
• A synchronous
h particle
ti l P1 sees a phase
h φs and ki k ΔEs
d gett a energy kick

• A particle N1 arriving early with φ= φs−δ will get a lower energy kick

• A particle M1 arriving late with φ= φs+δ will get a higher energy kick

• Remember:
R b iin a synchrotron
h t we have
h bunches
b h withith a huge
h number
b off
particles, which will always have a certain energy spread!
 Frequency dependence on energy
• IIn order
d tot see the
th effect
ff t off a too l /hi h ΔE,
t low/high ΔE we need
d tto study
t d the
th
relation between the change in energy and the change in the revolution
frequency (η: "slip factor")
df r / f r
η=
dp / p

• Two effects:
1. Higher energy ⇒ higher speed (except ultra-relativistic)

βc
fr =
2πR
2. Higher energy ⇒ larger orbit “Momentum compaction”
 Momentum compaction
• I
Increase in
i energy/mass
/ will
ill llead
d tto a llarger orbit
bit

dR / R
• We define the “momentum compaction factor” as: α=
dp / p

• α is a function of the transverse focusing in the accelerator, α=<Dx> / R

– ⇒ α is a well defined quantity for a given accelerator
 Calculating η
• L
Logarithmic
ith i diff
differentiation
ti ti gives:
i

dff r dβ dR
= −
fr β R
dp dβ β2 dβ 2
= (1 + ) = γ
p β 1− β 2
β
df / f 1
⇒η = r r = 2 −α
d /p γ
dp

• For a momentum increase dp/p:

– η>0: velocity increase dominates ( fr increases )
– η<0: circumference increase dominates ( fr decreases )
 Phase stability
• η>0: velocity increase dominates
dominates, fr increases

• Synchronous particle stable for 0º<φs<90º

– Apparticle N1 arriving y with φ
g early φ= φs−δ will g
get a lower energy
gy kick,, and arrive
relatively later next pass
– A particle M1 arriving late with φ= φs+δ will get a higher energy kick, and arrive
relatively earlier next pass

• η<0: stability for 90º<φs<180º

• η is called transition. When the synchrotron

η=0 y reachingg this energy,
gy, the
RF phase needs to be switched rapidly from φs to 180−φs
 Longitudinal phase
phase-space
space
(from A.
Chao)

δ = Δp/p

Phase-space for a harmonic oscillator:

H = p2 / 2 + x2 / 2

Longitudinal phase-space showing the

synchrotron motion

Synchrotron motion: "particles rotate in the phase-space"

 Synchrotron oscillations
• A l i off smallll amplitude
Analysis lit d oscillations
ill ti gives:
i

• As result of the p
phase stability,
y the energy
gy and p
phase will oscillate, resulting
g
in longitudinal synchrotron oscillations:

&&
φ + Ω s (φ − φs ) = 0,
2

hηωrs eVˆ cos φs

ΩS =
2

2πRs ps
• Equation
q of an Harmonic Oscillator

• For derivations, please refer to [Wille2000]

 Synchrotron: energy ramping
• W now wish
We i h to
t ramp up the
th energy off the
th particle.
ti l What
Wh t d
do we d
do?
?

• Each time the synchronous particle passes the cavity it will receive a
moment m kick
momentum kick:
Δp = ( ΔE ) / v = qV (sin φs )( 2πRf s )
ˆ

• We want the synchronous particle to on the same trajectory (reference

energy. Therefore,
trajectory) regardless of particle energy Therefore we require the field and
the particle momentum to increase proportionally: p& = qρB&

• Combining gives: i φs (1 / 2πR ) = qρB&

Δpff s = p& ⇒ qVˆ sin

• Thus, for a given dB/dt profile the synchronous phase is given as:
2πRqρB&
φs = arcsin
qVˆ
• For a given B’ , the synchronous particles will, by definition, see the phase φs
 Summary: longitudinal dynamics
for a synchrotron

• S
Summary: tto ramp up the
th energy in
i a synchrotron
h t

– Simply ramp up the magnetic field

– With the (automatic) RF frequency modulation the synchronous particle will stay
on the reference orbit

– Due to the phase-stability, the particles in the phase-space vicinity of the

synchronous particle will be captured by the RF and will also be accelerated at
th same rate,
the t undergoing
d i synchrotron
h t oscillations
ill ti
?
 Part 4

Transverse dynamics

Transverse dynamics:
y degrees
g of freedom orthogonal
g to the reference trajectory
j y
ux: the horizontal plane
uy: the vertical plane
 Bending field
• Ci l accelerators:
Circular l t d
deflecting
fl ti fforces are needed
d d
r r r r r r
F = q ( E + v × B ) = FE + FB
• Circular accelerators: piecewise circular orbits with a defined bending radius
ρ
– Straight sections are needed for e.g. particle detectors
– In circular arc sections the magnetic field must provide the desired bending
radius: 1 eB
=
ρ p
• For a constant particle energy we need a constant B field ⇒ dipole magnets
with homogenous field

• In a synchrotron, the bending radius,1/ρ=eB/p, is kept constant during

acceleration (last section)
 The reference trajectory
– W
We need
d to
t steer
t and
d focus
f the
th beam,
b keeping
k i allll particles
ti l close
l tto th
the reference
f
orbit

Reference trajectory

Dipole magnets to steer Focus?

homogenous field or cosθ distribution

 Focusing field: quadrupoles
• Quadrupole magnets gives linear field in x and y:
Bx = -gy
gy
By = -gx

• However, forces are focusing in one plane and defocusing in the orthogonal
plane: Fx = -qvgx (focusing)
Fy = qvgy (defocusing)

Alternating gradient scheme, leading to betatron oscillations

 The Lattice
• An accelerator
A l t is i composed d off b
bending
di magnets,
t ffocusing
i magnets
t and
d
non-linear magnets (later)

• The ensemble of magnets in the accelerator constitutes the “accelerator

lattice”
 Stability of a FODO structure
• There are limitions
Th li iti tto th
the achievable
hi bl ffocusing
i effect;
ff t ttoo short
h t ffocall llength
th
will give overfocusing, and an unstable trajectory:

stability ⇒ f > l / 4
Example: lattice components
 Equations of motion: coordinates
• C di t system:
Coordinate t

• x, y are small deviations from the reference trajectory

– x: deviations in the horizontal plane
– y: deviations in the vertical plane

• r=ρ+x
 Linear equations of motion I
• F
From classical
l i l mechanics
h i we gett th
the exactt equations
ti off motion
ti :

m( &x& − rθ& 2 ) = −erθ&( B − gx )

m&y& = −erθ&gy
• Preferred: x(s) instead of x(t), x’(s) is the slope

2
& d x ds 2
• Approximation:
pp r θ = vθ ≈ v ⇒ &
x&(t) = 2
( ) ≈ v 2
x ′′(s)
d
ds dt
1 e
• Equations of motions become: x′′ =− (B − g
gx)
r mv
eg
′′
y =− y
mv
 Linear equations of motion II
1 1 1 x 1 1 1 Δp
• A
Approximations:
i ti = ≈ (1 − ), = ≈ (1 − ), neglecting 2 ndd o. t.
r ρ+x ρ ρ p p0 + Δp p0 p0

• We use the quadrupole strength: k = eg / p

• Basic linear trajectory equations: 1 1 Δp

x′′ − (k − )x = x
ρ 2
ρ p0
y ' '+ky = 0

– k: normalized quadrupole strength

– 1/ρ: normalized dipole strength
momentum, Δp is the momentum deviation
– p0 is the reference momentum
 Mathematical description
• The linearized deviations from the reference orbit can be
described by Hill's equation
x′′ + K ( s ) x = 0
• no field: K(s)=0
• inside a dipole K(s) = 1/ρ2
• inside a quadrupole K(s)=+\-k

x′′ + Kx = 0 x′′ + K ( s ) x = 0
⇓ ⇓
s dt
x( s ) = A sin( K s + φ0 ) x ( s ) = εβ ( s ) sin(φ ( s ) + φ0 ), φ ( s ) = ∫
s0 β
Particle motion: general solutions of Hill's
Hill s equation

• We have
W h calculated
l l t d particle
ti l motion
ti ffor a single
i l particle
ti l b
by studying
t d i ththe
transfer matrices M(s). We now want to find characteristics of the general
aspects of the motion

• Solution of Hill’s equation with K(s) =K → harmonic oscillator

x′′ + Kx = 0
⇓
x( s ) = A sin( K s + φ0 )
• The general solution of Hill
Hill’s
s equation with is:
x′′ + K ( s ) x = 0
⇓ β(s): the "beta
s dt function"
x ( s ) = εβ ( s ) sin(φ ( s ) + φ0 ), φ ( s ) = ∫
s0 β
• Oscillating solution
solution,but
but with amplitude and phase-advance
phase advance dependent on s !
– a “quasi-harmonic” oscillator
 The transverse beam size
• A very important parameter
– Vacuum chamber
– Interaction point and luminosity

• The transverse beam size is given by the

envelope of the particles:
E ( s ) = εβ ( s )
L tti
Lattice
Beam quality
 function, β
The beta function

• Twiss parameter β(s),

β(s) ”the
the beta function
function”, defines the envelope for the
solutions of Hill’s, and thus envelope for the particle motion (Δp=0)

• IIn a FODO structure the

h beta
b function
f i isi at maximum
i in
i the
h middle
iddl off the
h F
quadrupole and at minimum in the middle of the D quadrupole

• NB: Even if beta function is periodic, the particle motion itself is in general
not periodic (after one revolution the initial condition φ0 is altered)

• The beta function should be kept at minimum, β∗, at interaction points to

maximize the luminosity
Example: motion in a FODO lattice

(From CAS 1992)

 Transverse phase
phase-space
space
• The phase-space
phase space of the horizontal plane is spanned by the two coordinates
[x, x’]
x ( s ) = Aβ ( s ) sin(φ ( s ) + φ0 )
⇓
A β'
x' ( s) = (cos(φ ( s ) + φ0 ) +
sin(φ ( s ) + φ0 ))
β 2
• ⇒ For a fixed p
point,, s,, on the accelerator [x,
[ , x’]] is a parametric
p
representation of an ellipse

– envelope:
l E ( s) = ε β
– divergence: A( s ) = ε γ

• For each turn the particle moves around the ellipse according to its tune
(non-integer part)

• The shape of the ellipse depends β(s) and β'(s),

and thus the position along the ring
 Emittance
x ( s ) = εβ ( s ) sin(φ ( s ) + φ0 ),
• The solution
Th l ti off Hill's
Hill' ffor a given
i particle
ti l iis d
determined
t i db by iinitial
iti l conditions
diti
[x0, x'0]. An ideal particle will have [x0, x'0] = [0, 0] and x(s) = 0

• A given beam consists of particles of various amplitude and angle. At a

certain point s, the particles will fill the phase-space ellipse

• As long as a particle is inside the phase-space ellipse, it will remain there,

and the area of the ellipse is constant (Liouville's theorem)

area = πε = constant
• ε is called the beam emittance (horizontal / vertical)
– very important parameter for beam quality

• Small emittance strongly desired:

– Keep beam envelope and beam divergence small
– Keep luminosity high
 RMS transverse beam size
• In reality: what is often quoted is the RMS
emittance,, and the RMS beam size

• RMS emittance
itt εrms: resulting
lti phase-
h
space ellipse contains one σ of particles

• RMS beam si
size:
e σ ( s ) = ε rms β ( s )
Beam quality Lattice
 Conclusion: transverse dynamics
• We have
W h now studied
t di d th
the ttransverse optics
ti off a circular
i l accelerator
l t and d we
have had a look at the optics elements,
– the dipole for bending
– the quadrupole for focusing
– (sextupole for chromaticity correction – not discussed here)

• All optic elements (+ more) are needed in a high performance accelerator,

like the LHC
?
 Intermezzo
Norske storheter innen akseleratorfysikk

Rolf Wideröe Bjørn Wiik

Pioneer både for
betatronprinsippet og for Odd Dahl
lineære akseleratorer
Leder av CERN PS prosjektet
(en viktig del av LHC-
komplekset den dag i dag)
Professor og direktør ved
Europas nest største
akseleratorsenter (DESY i
Hamburg)
Kjell Johnsen
Involvert i en rekke CERN
CERN-
prosjekter, leder av ISR og CERN's
gruppe for akseleratorforskning
Case: LHC
LHC
 LHC: wrt.
wrt to earlier slides
• proton-proton
t t collisions
lli i
⇒ two vacuum chambers, with opposite bending field

• RF cavities
⇒ bunched beams

• Synchrotron with alternating-gradient focusing

• S
Superconducting
d ti lattice t and
l tti magnets d superconducting
d ti RF cavities
iti

• Regular FODO arc-section with sextupoles for chromaticity correction

• Proton chosen as particle type due to low synchrotron radiation

• Magnetic field-strength limiting factor for particle energy

 LHC injector system
• LHC iis responsible
ibl ffor accelerating
l ti
protons from 450 GeV up to 7000
GeV

• 450 GeV protons injected into LHC

from the SPS

• PS injects into the SPS

• LINACS injects into the PS

• The protons are generated by a

Duoplasmatron Proton Source
 LHC layout
• circumference = 26658
26658.9
9m

• 8 interaction points, 4 of which contains

detectors where the beams intersect

• 8 straight sections, containing the IPs,

around 530 m long

• 8 arcs with a regular lattice structure,

containing 23 arc cells

• Each arc cell has a FODO structure,

106.9 m long
 LHC beam transverse size
σ arc = εβ typ ≈ 0.3mm

σ IP = εβ * ≈ 17 μm

beta in drift space:

β typ ≈ 180m, β = 0.55m, ε ≈ 0.5nm × rad
*
β(s) = β* + (s-s*)2 / β∗
 LHC cavities

• Superconducting RF cavities (standing wave, 400 MHz)

• Each beam: one cryostats with 4+4 cavities each
• Located at LHC point 4
 LHC main parameters
at collision energy

Particle type p, Pb
Proton energygy Ep at collision 7000 GeV
Peak luminosity (ATLAS, 10 x 1034 cm-2s-1
CMS)
Circumference C 26 658.9 m
B di radius
Bending di ρ 2804 0 m
2804.0
RF frequency fRF 400.8 MHz
# particles per bunch np 1.15 x 1011
# bunches nb 2808
?
 Part 5

Synchrotron radiation
 1) Synchrotron radiation

• Charged particles undergoing acceleration emit electromagnetic radiation

• Main limitation for circular electron machines

– RF power consumption becomes too high

• The main limitation factor for LEP...

– ...the main reason for building LHC !

• However, synchrotron radiations is also useful (see later slides)

Show RAD2D here

(anim)
Characteristic of SR: power
 Characteristics of SR: distribution
• El t
Electron rest-frame:
tf radiation
di ti didistributed
t ib t d as a "H
"Hertz-dipole"
t di l "

dPS
∝ sin 2 ψ
dΩ

• Relativist electron: Hertz

Hertz-dipole
dipole distribution in the electron rest
rest-frame,
frame but
transformed into the laboratory frame the radiation form a very sharply
peaked light-cone
 Characteristics of SR: spectrum
• Broad
B d spectra
t (due
(d tto short
h t pulses
l as seen b
by
an observer)
• But, 50% of power contained within a well
defined "critical
critical frequency"
frequency

Summary: advantages of Synchrotron Radiation

1. Very high intensity
2. Spectrum that cannot be covered easy with
other sources
3. Critical frequency easily controlled
Typical SR centre

Accelerator + Users Some applications of Synchrotron Radiation:

•material/molecule analysis (UV, X-ray)
•crystallography
•Archaeology
?
 References
• Bibli
Bibliography:
h
– CAS 1992, Fifth General Accelerator Physics Course, Proceedings, 7-18
September 1992
– LHC Design Report [online]
– K. Wille, The Physics of Particle Accelerators, 2000

• Other references
– USPAS resource site, A. Chao, USPAS January 2007
– CAS 2005, Proceedings (in-print), J. Le Duff, B, Holzer et al.
– O. Brüning:
g CERN student summer lectures
– N. Pichoff: Transverse Beam Dynamics in Accelerators, JUAS January 2004
– U. Am aldi, presentation on Hadron therapy at CERN 2006
– Various CLIC and ILC presentations
– Several figures in this presentation have been borrowed from the above
references, thanks to all!