energies
Article
An Improved Frequency-Adaptive Virtual Variable
Sampling-Based Repetitive Control for an Active Power Filter
Dong Liu *, Baojin Li, Songtao Huang, Linguo Liu, Haozhe Wang and Yukai Huang
Citation: Liu, D.; Li, B.; Huang, S.;
Liu, L.; Wang, H.; Huang, Y. An
Improved Frequency-Adaptive
Virtual Variable Sampling-Based
Repetitive Control for an Active
Power Filter. Energies 2022, 15, 7227.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15197227
Academic Editor: Andrea Mariscotti
Received: 10 August 2022
Accepted: 28 September 2022
Published: 1 October 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 7227. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15197227
School of Artificial Intelligence and Automation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan 430074, China
* Correspondence: m202072704@hust.edu.cn
Abstract: To eliminate the harmonics caused by nonlinear loads, repetitive controllers are widely
applied as current controllers for active power filters (APF). In practice, a variation in grid frequency
leads to the appearance of a fractional-order delay filter. As a result, the resonant frequency of
the repetitive controller will deviate from the fundamental frequency and the controller cannot
compensate for harmonics accurately. To solve this problem, an improved frequency-adaptive
repetitive controller based on virtual variable sampling (IMFA-VVS-RC) for APF is proposed in
this paper. To enhance the system stability margin, the proposed RC introduces an infinite impulse
response (IIR) low-pass filter. The proposed RC has a high stability margin at high frequencies
due to the low gain of the IIR low-pass filter in the region above the cutoff frequency. In this way,
the influence of model uncertainty and parameter uncertainty on system stability are reduced at
high frequencies. At the same time, compared with the conventional repetitive controller (CRC),
the proposed RC for APF has a better harmonic suppression ability when the frequency varies.
Experiments have verified the effectiveness of the scheme adopted for APF.
Keywords: active power filter; harmonics compensation; repetitive controller; frequency-adaptive
control; system stability margin
1. Introduction
In recent years, the demand for new energy such as wind power and hydropower has
been increasing day by day. As a result, a large number of nonlinear loads using switching
devices are connected to the power grid, such as rectifiers and grid-connected inverters [1].
The currents flowing through nonlinear loads are not sinusoidal, so many harmonics are
injected into the grid, which affects the stability and safety of the power system. To deal
with this problem, the APF is widely used in harmonic compensation because of its small
size and low resonance [2–8].
In the application of the APF, the selection of the current controller can be crucial.
The proportional–integral (PI) controller has a simple structure, is easy to adjust, and has
strong robustness. As a result, it has become one of the most widely used controllers.
However, according to the internal model principle proposed by Inoue in 1981 [9], since
the internal model only contains a DC signal, the PI controller cannot track the periodic
signal without steady-state error. Therefore, it is necessary to perform complex Park’s
transformation and convert it into a DC signal on the synchronous rotating coordinate
system. The proportional–resonant (PR) controller has infinite gain at a specific frequency
and can control a periodic signal at that frequency without steady-state error. In the use
process, multiple PR controllers need to be connected in parallel and the parameter design
is complicated. Therefore, it is difficult to guarantee system stability.
The internal model of the CRC contains periodic signals, and the CRC is widely used
for APF in tracking periodic signals without error [10–16]. As a result, it can be applied to
tracking the fundamental wave and multiple specific frequency harmonics. The CRC is
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Energies 2022, 15, 7227 2 of 20

realized by an N-order delay filter z− N , where N = f s / f r . f s stands for sampling frequency

and f r stands for the fundamental frequency of the reference signal (or grid frequency).
When the grid frequency is normal, N is kept as an integer, and CRC can compensate
for harmonics well. However, in actual situations, the ratio N cannot remain an integer
because of the variation in grid frequency f r . The fractional-order delay filter cannot be
realized digitally, so the nearest integer is generally taken. This approximation leads to
the deviation of resonant frequencies from the reference fundamental frequencies and
harmonic frequencies [17–22]. Therefore, the gain of CRC at the resonant frequencies is
greatly reduced. This affects the harmonic rejection capability of the CRC.
To deal with this problem, a great deal of research has been conducted on frequency-
adaptive repetitive controllers (FARCs). One method is to increase the gain of the controller
at the resonant frequency. A scheme that introduces a correction factor has been pro-
posed [23,24]. This scheme can bring the resonant frequency close to the fundamental and
harmonic frequencies. However, its limitation is the need to design parameters for multiple
controllers in parallel. The difficulty of parameter design is increased. Another method
is to solve the problem of N being a fraction. When the grid frequency varies, the ratio N
can be kept constant by changing the sampling frequency accordingly. For this purpose, a
variable sampling technique based on a phase sampling circuit has been developed [25–27].
The phase sampling circuit can sample at every fixed phase interval ∆θ, where ∆θ = 2π/N.
However, the additional circuit increases the complexity of the system, and the variable
sampling frequency is not conducive to hardware implementation. In order to ensure that
this method can be implemented in hardware, a fixed sampling frequency is required. A
frequency-adaptive variable virtual sampling (VVS) technique for grid-connected inverters
has been proposed [28,29]. This technique enables the use of a variable sampling frequency
with virtual delay filters. Virtual delay filters are composed of integer-order delay filters in
the form of polynomials. In this way, hardware implementation can be accomplished due
to the use of a fixed sampling frequency.
In this paper, an improved frequency-adaptive repetitive controller based on VVS
(IMFA-VVS-RC) is proposed. On the basis of the controller based on VVS technique, an
infinite impulse response (IIR) low-pass filter is added to enhance the robustness of the
system. At the same time, the variation of the resonant frequencies due to the IIR filter is
successfully eliminated by changing the virtual sampling frequency. The IIR low-pass filter
can enhance the stability margin of the system at a high frequency due to its low gain at
high frequencies. Compared with the FIR filter, the IIR filter possesses better high-frequency
attenuation characteristics. In this way, the frequency range at which the system is stable
is widened. Moreover, the influence of model uncertainty and parameter uncertainty are
attenuated at high frequencies, mainly including changes in inductance and capacitance in
the LCL filter. The parameter robustness of the proposed controller is enhanced. This paper
selects the Butterworth filter as the IIR filter, which satisfies the maximally flat criterion.
The VVS scheme is applied to the repetitive controller of the single-phase APF system
because of its frequency-adaptive characteristics.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 illustrates the functioning and
drawbacks of the CRC. This section mainly describes the variation of resonant frequency
when the power grid frequency varies. In Section 3, a detailed discussion of the VVS
technique is provided and the VVS technique is applied to IMFA-VVS-RC. The stability
criteria and the harmonic suppression capability of the proposed RC are analyzed. In
Section 4, the parameter of the proposed RC is designed. In Section 5, the IMFA-VVS-RC
is used for LCL-type APF and the control structure is designed. The experiments mainly
compare the harmonic suppression capability of the proposed RC and the CRC. At the
same time, the dynamic characteristics of the proposed RC under parameter changing and
load changing conditions are verified. The conclusion is given in Section 6.
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 3 of 20

2. Conventional Repetitive Controller

CRC is typically used in plug-in form. Figure 1 shows the close-loop plug-in CRC
control system, where R(z) is the reference input, Y (z) is the output of closed-loop system,
and U (z) is the output of the controller. E(z) = R(z) − Y (z) is the tracking error and
D (z) is the disturbance. P(z) is the plant. GCRC (z) is the CRC controller and k p_RC is the
proportional gain of the plug-in system. In the CRC structure, Q(z) is the low-pass filter,
where Q(z) = α1 z + α0 + α1 z−1 , 2α1 z + α0 = 1. kr is the RC gain and zm is the phase
lead compensation filter. S(z) is the compensator, which is used to compensate for the
magnitude response of the controller to unity.

kp_RC
D(z)
GCRC(z)
R(z) + E(z) + + U(z) + Y(z)
+ +
Q(z)z-N krS(z)zm P(z)
- +

Figure 1. Plug-in CRC control system.

According to Figure 1, the transfer function of the CRC in the control system can be
expressed as (1).
z− N Q(z)
GCRC (z) = kr S(z)zm (1)
1 − z− N Q(z)
Consider that, without Q(z), CRC can provide infinite gain at a fundamental frequency
and harmonic frequencies. As a result, the harmonics can be compensated exactly by the
controller. However, in the actual situation, the performance of the CRC is sensitive to the
grid frequency variation. As shown in Figure 2, for kr = 15, Q(z) = 0.1z + 0.8 + 0.1z−1 ,
m = 3, and S(z) = 1, obtaining a magnitude response in the range of 10 Hz–680 Hz. When
the reference fundamental wave frequency varies in the range of 50 ± 1 Hz, the variation
range of the nth harmonic is n(50 ± 1) Hz. As shown in the little picture in Figure 2, the
magnitude response curve at around 150 Hz can be obtained by locally magnifying the
3rd resonant frequency. When the frequency varies from 150 Hz to 150 ± 3 Hz, the CRC
gain decreases from 83.3 dB to 32.0 dB. In the same way, when the frequency varies from
350 Hz to 350 ± 7 Hz, the CRC gain decreases from 69.8 dB to 24.9 dB. Thus, the higher the
frequency is, the farther the frequency will vary from the resonant frequency. As a result,
the the gain drop at the reference harmonic frequency will be greater. Therefore, the CRC’s
capability to suppress the harmonics of these frequencies deteriorates.

3th
3th 83.3dB

147Hz 153Hz

32.0dB

140 150 160

69.8dB
7th

343Hz 357Hz

24.9dB

340 350 360

Figure 2. CRC magnitude response: 10 Hz–680 Hz, 3rd harmonic, and 7th harmonic.

3. Improved Frequency-Adaptive Repetitive Controller

3.1. Description of Control Scheme
The variable virtual sampling delay filter can eliminate the fractional-order delay filter
caused by frequency variation. As shown in Figure 3, the variable virtual sampling period
0
Tv will change accordingly when the reference signal period changes from Tr to Tr . The
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 4 of 20

VVS period Tv can be obtained by Tv = Tr /Nv . As a consequence, the ratio Nv will remain
an integer and the control scheme becomes realizable. In contrast, the period Ts of the fixed
sampling scheme cannot be adjustable, which will cause errors.
A polynomial composed of fixed sample delay filters z−1 (including z−1 , z−2 , . . . , z−n )
is used to represent a variable virtual sample delay filter z− 1
v . To make a trade-off between
the approximation accuracy and the system complexity, select n as 3. As shown in (2),
the polynomial coefficients xi are calculated via the Lagrange interpolation method. The
polynomial coefficients change accordingly when the grid frequency varies. In this way,
frequency adaptation is added to the sampling process.
n n
Tv − jTs
z− 1
v = ∑ xi z−i , with xi = ∏ iTs − jTs
(2)
i =1 j=1,j6=i

Figure 4 shows the IMFA-VVS-RC system with a plug-in structure. By applying

the virtual sampling delay filter to RC and combining it with (1), the open-loop transfer
function of IMFA-VVS-RC can be obtained.

k r z−
v
Nv
Q(zv )
G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv ) = S(zv )zm
v (3)
1 − z−
v
Nv
Q(zv )

In s-domain, (4) can be expressed as:

kr e−Tr s Q(s)
G I MFA_−VVS− RC (s) = S(s)emTv s
1 − e−Tr s Q(s)
(4)
= kr GRC (s)S(s)emTv s

By considering GRC , (5) can be obtained.

e−Tr s Q(s)
GRC (s) =
1 − e−Tr s Q(s)
e−(Tr s−lnQ(s)) (5)
=
1 − e−(Tr s−lnQ(s))

In favor of linearization, a first-order Taylor expansion of Q(s) is performed at the

origin, and the remainder is ignored.

Q 0 (0)
ln Q(s) ≈ ln Q(0) + s (6)
Q (0)

According to [30], the transfer function can be expanded as:

0
e−[Tr −Q (0)/Q(0)]s+ln Q(0)
GRC (s) ≈ 0
1 − e−[Tr −Q (0)/Q(0)]s+ln Q(0)
∞
1 1 1 2
≈− +
2 (1 − γ) Tr s − ln Q(0)
+
(1 − γ) Tr ∑ A(k) (7)
(1−γ) Tr k =1

In (7), A(k) can be expressed as:

ln Q(0)
s − (1− γ ) T
r
A(k) =  (8)
ln Q(0) 2
  2
s − (1− γ ) T
r
+ k (1−2π
γ) T r
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 5 of 20

where γ = Q0 (0)/[ Q(0) Tr ]. According to (7) and (8), it can be deduced that resonant
frequencies are deviated to k f r /(1 − γ) by the inverse Laplace transform. The deviation of
resonant frequencies is attributed to the introduction of the IIR low-pass filter.

Ts Ts Ts Ts Ts Ts
Fixed
Sampling ... ...

N N
Variable Tv Tv Tv Tv' Tv' T'v
Virtual ... ...
Sampling
Nv Nv

Tr T r'

Figure 3. The schematic diagram of variable virtual sampling.

kp_RC
GFA-VVS-RC(zv)
E(zv) + U(zv)
+ +
Q(zv)z-N
v krS(zv)zmv
+

Figure 4. Plug-in IMFA-VVS-RC system.

To compensate for the deviation of the resonant frequency, a delay filter e−γTr s is
0 ( S ) in s-domain
introduced into the transfer function GRC (s). The transfer function GRC
after compensation is shown in (9). Similar to the derivation process from (3) to (8), the
resonant frequencies can be deduced back to f r .

0 e−(1+γ)Tr s Q(s)
GRC (s) = (9)
1 − e−(1+γ)Tr s Q(s)

Convert (9) to z-domain, (10) can be obtained.

−( Nv + β)
k r zv Q(zv )
G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv ) = −( Nv + β)
S(zv )zm
v (10)
1 − zv Q(zv )

where β = γTr /Tv . β may be a fraction, making the proposed RC unrealizable. Change
the virtual sampling frequency from Tv to Tv1 , where Tv1 = Tv ( β + Nv )/Nv . So (11) can be
obtained.
Tr
Tr Tr β + Nv
= β+ N = β+TvN = β+ N = Nv (11)
Tv1 v
Tv v v
Nv Nv Nv
−( N + β)
As described in (12), the fractional-order delay filter zv v caused by the IIR low-
pass filter is eliminated by changing the virtual sampling period(frequency). z− 1
v1 is a delay
filter whose virtual sampling frequency changes to Tv1 . By replacing the z− 1
v in (3) with
−1
zv1 , the relation (12) can be deduced.

k r z− Nv
v1 Q ( zv1 )
G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv1 ) = S(zv1 )zm
v1 (12)
1 − z− Nv
v1 Q ( zv1 )
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 6 of 20

By changing the virtual sampling frequency, the influence of the introduction of an IIR
low-pass filter on the resonant frequency is successfully eliminated. Therefore, the transfer
function of the proposed RC can be realized digitally.

3.2. Stability Analysis

In order to verify the influence of IIR low-pass filter Q(zv1 ) on the stability margin,
the stability criteria of the system needs to be derived. The stability criteria are obtained
from the system characteristic equation, which needs to be derived later.
Considering the feedback loop, the closed-loop transfer function of the system can be
obtained as (13):

[k p_RC + G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv1 )] P(z)

Gloop (z) = (13)
1 + [k p_RC + G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv1 )] P(z)

where 1 + [k p_RC + G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv1 )] P(z) is the system characteristic polynomial, which
can be expressed as:

[1 + k p_RC P(z)][1 + G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv1 ) G p (z)] (14)

In (14), G p (z) represents:

P(z)
G p (z) = (15)
1 + k p_RC P(z)

According to the characteristic polynomial, the system is stable when the characteristic
polynomial satisfies the following two conditions.
1. 1 + G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv1 ) G p (z) 6= 0.
2. The roots of 1 + k p_RC P(z) = 0 are all inside the unit circle.
Substituting (3) and (15) into 1 + G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv1 ) G p (z) 6= 0, we can obtain the
following equations:
 
−N −N
1 − Q(zv1 )zv1 v + kr Q(zv1 )zv1 v S(zv1 )zm G ( z )  6= 0 (16)
 
v1 p

(16) can be satisfied if:

1 − kr G p (z)S(zv1 )zm  <

  1
v1 (17)
| Q(zv1 )|

Adding a IIR low-pass filter Q(zv1 ) changes the right-hand side of the Equation (17)
from 1 to 1/Q(zv1 ). When the frequency is upper than the IIR low-pass filter cutoff
frequency, the magnitude of the IIR low-pass filter decreases considerably. As a result,
the right-hand side of the Equation (17) increases dramatically. We define the following
formula:
T (z) = Q(zv1 )1 − kr G p (z)S(zv1 )zm
 
v1
 (18)
Some symbols are defined as follows:
1. S(zv1 ) = Ns (ω ) exp[θs (ω )]
2. G p (z) = Ng (ω ) exp[θ g (ω )]
3. Q(zv1 ) = Nq (ω ) exp[θq (ω )]
where Ns (ω ), Ng (ω ), and Nq (ω ) are the magnitude responses of S(zv1 ), G p (z), and Q(zv1 ),
respectively, and θs (ω ), θ g (ω ), and θq (ω ) are the phase responses of S(zv1 ), G p (z), and
Q(zv1 ), respectively. According to Euler’s formula, the stability criterion of the plug-in
IMFA-VVS-RC system can be obtained.
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 7 of 20

1 − Nq2 (ω )
0 < kr <
kr Nq2 (ω ) Ns2 (ω ) Ng2 (ω )
2 cos(θ g (ω ) + θs (ω ) + mω ) (19)
+
Ng (ω ) Ns (ω )

According to Figure 5, the influence of Q(zv1 ) on the stability margin can be quantita-
tively analyzed in the form of vectors and Nyquist curves. The IIR low-pass filter can be
expressed as (20):
n
∑ αk z−
v1
k
k =0
Q(zv1 ) = n (20)
1 + ∑ β k z−
v1
k
k =1

As shown in Figure 5a, in order to enhance the stability of the system, an IIR low-pass
filter is added to the proposed RC. At low and medium frequencies, the system model
can be established and compensated accurately. The end of kr G p (z)S(zv1 )zm v1 is close to
(1, 0), and the left side of (17) is inside the unit circle (blue circle). Thus, the system stability
criterion can be satisfied and it is similar to the situation when Q(zv1 ) = 1. At high
frequencies, the magnitude of 1/Q(zv1 ) (yellow circle) increases and the stability margin
of the system grows larger. Thus, the influence of parameter uncertainty on the system
stability is solved to a certain extent.
Figure 5b specifically illustrates the influence of IIR low-pass filter Q(zv1 ) on system
stability at high frequencies. The variation trend of T (z) with the cutoff frequency of the
filter is also shown. When the IIR low-pass filter is introduced, the Nyquist curve of the
T (z) is all inside the unit circle. On the contrary, in the absence of an IIR low-pass filter,
the Nyquist curve is outside the unit circle at high frequencies. As the cutoff frequency of
the IIR rises from 800Hz to 1200Hz, the Nyquist curves of the T (z) gradually approach the
unit circle, leading to a decrease in the stability margin.

Im

Unit Circle

1.0
1000Hz

R=1/Q (z ) 1200Hz
0.5
Imaginary Axis

R=1
0.0
800Hz
k Re
r G
op (z
v )S -0.5
(z
v )z m
v

Without Q(z )
-1.0
v

-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

Real Axis

(a) (b)

Figure 5. The graphical expression of system stability criteria. (a) vector description. (b) Nyquist
curves.

As shown in Figure 6a,b, when the grid-side inductance varies from 0.1 mH to 2.1 mH,
the Nyquist curves are close to the unit circle at low frequencies and vary slightly at
high frequencies. Figure 6a,b adopt a Butterworth filter with cutoff frequency of 1200 Hz
and a zero-phase-shift FIR filter Q(zv1 ) = 0.2zv1 + 0.6 + 0.2z− 1
v1 , respectively. Comparing
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 8 of 20

Figure 6a,b, the IIR filter can restrict the Nyquist curves to a circle with R = 0.6, so the
stability margin can be defined as 1/R = 1.67. When a FIR filter is used, there is no
guarantee that the Nyquist curves are always inside the circle with R = 0.6. Through
specific quantitative analysis, when the inductance is 0.1 mH, the curve is out of the circle
with R = 0.6 in the range of 550 Hz–9470 Hz, while when the inductance is 1.1 mH, the
curve is out of the circle with R = 0.6 in the range of 1050 Hz–1860 Hz. By comparison, it
can be verified that IIR filter can improve the stability of the system more than the FIR filter.

1.0 1.0
R
=1.0
R =1.0

R
=0.6
R =0.6

0.5
mH 0.5
mH
1.1
1.1
2.1 mH
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
9470H z
0.0 0.0
2.1 mH
0.1 mH 1860H z
0.1 mH 1050H z
0.5 0.5
550H z

1.0 1.0

1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

Real Axis Real Axis

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Nyquist curves of T (z) when grid-side inductance varies. (a) IIR filter. (b) FIR fliter.

3.3. Harmonic Suppression Analysis

In this subsection, the harmonic suppression capability analysis of the proposed RC is
displayed. At the same time, the influence of Q(zv1 ) is considered. According to the closed-
loop plug-in IMFA-VVS-RC control system, the transfer function from the disturbance
D (zv1 ) to the tracking error E(zv1 ) is obtained. The transfer function represents the ability
of the proposed RC to suppress the steady-state errors caused by periodic disturbances.
The transfer function is shown in (21):
E(zv1 ) −1
=
D (zv1 ) 1 + [k p_RC + G I MFA−VVS− RC (zv1 )] P(z)
−1
=
k r z− Nv
v1 Q ( zv1 )
1 + [k p_RC + − Nv S(zv1 )zm
v1 ] P ( z ) (21)
1−zv1 Q(zv1 )

−1 + z − Nv
v1 Q ( zv1 )
= − Nv
1 − zv1 Q(zv1 ) + [k p_RC (1 − z− Nv − Nv m
v1 Q ( zv1 )) + k r zv1 Q ( zv1 ) S ( zv1 ) zv1 ] P ( z )

When ω = 2πl f r , l = 1, 2, 3, . . ., z−
v1
Nv
= e− jωTv1 Nv = 1 is satisfied. In this way, (21) can
be simplified to (22)

E(zv1 ) −1 + Q(zv1 )
=
D (zv1 ) 1 − Q(zv1 ) + [k p_RC (1 − Q(zv1 )) + kr Q(zv1 )S(zv1 )zm
v1 ] P ( z ) (22)

Considering the magnitude, (23) can be obtained.

| E(zv1 )| |1 − Q(zv1 )|
= (23)
| D (zv1 )| |1 − W (zv1 )|

where W (zv1 ) = Q(zv1 )[1 − kr Q(zv1 )S(zv1 )zm

v1 P ( z )] − k p_RC ( zv1 )(1 − Q ( zv1 )) P ( z ).
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 9 of 20

From (23), it can be verified that, when Q(zv1 ) is a constant 1, there is no steady-state
error. Therefore, although the use of IIR low-pass filter enhances the system stability, it
brings about steady-state error. Thus, it is necessary to make |1 − W (zv1 )| as large as
possible to reduce the steady-state error when the parameter is designed.
The magnitude response is displayed in Figure 7 for when the VVS scheme is applied
in RC. When the frequency changes to 49 Hz and 51 Hz, the resonant frequency of the
controller will also change accordingly. As shown in the thumbnail in the upper right
corner of Figure 7, when the grid frequency is 49 Hz, the 3rd resonant frequency varies
from 150 Hz to 147 Hz. Thus, the 3rd resonant frequency is exactly at the 3rd harmonic
frequency. In this way, the proposed RC can still ensure a high gain at the corresponding
resonant frequency under the condition of frequency variation. Similarly, this conclusion
can also be reached when the grid frequency is 51 Hz. As shown in the thumbnail in the
upper left corner of Figure 7, the 7th resonant frequency also varies with the fundamental
frequency. Therefore, the proposed RC has good harmonic suppression capability when
the frequency varies. However, due to the introduction of a IIR low-pass filter, the 7th
resonant frequency is not as accurate as the 3rd resonant frequency, and there is an error
within 0.8 Hz.

3th
3th

147Hz 153Hz

140 150 160

7th

343Hz 357Hz

340 350 360

3th

Figure 7. Proposed RC magnitude response: 10 Hz–680 Hz, 3rd harmonic, and 7th harmonic.

Figure 8 illustrates the effect of the cutoff frequency of the IIR filter on the resonant
frequency and gain of the proposed RC. When the cutoff frequency varies from 800 Hz to
1200 Hz, the gain of the proposed RC becomes higher at the resonant frequencies, which is
especially obvious at the high frequencies. At the same time, a higher cutoff frequency can
reduce the resonant frequencies shift at high frequencies.

100

80
Mag (dB)

1000Hz
1200Hz 800Hz
60

40

20

0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Figure 8. Proposed RC magnitude response when the cutoff frequency of low-pass filter varies.

4. Parameter Design
This section shows the design progress of the proposed RC parameter.

4.1. Design of k p_RC

As shown in Figure 9, the changing progress of the pole locations when k p_RC increases
from 6 to 14 is shown. In the range k p_RC = 6 to k p_RC = 14, the poles of G p (z) are all in
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 10 of 20

the unit circle, and the system remains stable. As k p_RC increases, poles on the real axis
approach the origin, while poles not on the real axis approach the unit circle. To guarantee
the system stability, k p_RC is chosen as 10.

1.0

0.5
Imaginary Axis

kp=6:2:14

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

Real Axis

Figure 9. The pole location of G p (z) when k p_RC changes.

4.2. Design of m
The phase lead compensation filter zmv1 needs to compensate for the phase lag of G p ( z )
to 0°. The phase response of G p (z)zm
v1 when m changes from 1 to 5 is shown in Figure 10.
When m = 1, the phase response of G p (z)zm v1 can be kept in the range of −45° to 45° until
4000 Hz. In this way, the best choice for m is 1.

300

m=5 m=4

m=3
200
Phase (°
)

m=2
100

45Hz
m=1
0

-45Hz

100

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 10. The phase response of G p (z)zm

v1 when m changes.

4.3. Design of kr
As shown in Figure 11, the Nyquist curves of the T (z) approach the unit circle as kr
increases from 11 to 19. The values of kr of adjacent curves differ by 2. To ensure the system
stability, kr should be as small as possible. But correspondingly, a small kr causes a slow
convergence rate. According to the trade-off of the stability margin and the convergence
rate, we select kr to be 15.
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 11 of 20

kr:11:2:19
1.0

0.5

Imaginary Axis
0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

Real Axis

Figure 11. Nyquist curves of the T (z) when kr changes.

4.4. Design of Cutoff Frequency

Considering the complexity of the design, the second-order Butterworth low-pass filter
is selected. According to the influence of cutoff frequency on system stability and harmonic
suppression capability mentioned above, the cutoff frequency is selected as 1200 Hz.

0.0913 + 0.1826z− 1 −2
v1 + 0.0913zv1
Q(zv1 ) = (24)
1 − 0.9824z− 1 −2
v1 + 0.3476zv1

5. Experiment
Before building the experimental platform, the main circuit and control loop need to
be modeled mathematically. The control loop and main circuit of the single-phase APF
system are displayed in Figure 12. The main circuit is composed of a power grid, nonlinear
load, LCL filter, and H-bridge. u g is the grid voltage, i g is the grid current, and L g is the
grid inductor. The nonlinear loads consist of an uncontrolled bridge rectifier, an inductor
Lr , a capacitor Cr , and a resistor R. i L is the current of the nonlinear load. The LCL filter
consists of L1 , L2 , and C f . i1 and i2 are the current of L1 and L2 , respectively. Rd is passive
damping. uinv is the output voltage of the inverter. C is the capacitor in the DC side of the
inverter. udc is the DC bus voltage.
Because the current flowing through the capacitor C f is small, the capacitor branch
can be ignored in the mathematical modeling process. Therefore, the LCL filter can be
approximately regarded as an L filter. The grid inductance L g and grid-side inductance L1
of LCL filter are considered simultaneously. Define the equivalent grid-side inductance
L1e = L1 + L g . Let L = L1e + L2 and ic = i1 = i2 . (25) and Equation (26) can be obtained
by Kirchhoff’s law. According to (25) and (26), the model of the single-phase shunt APF
system can be established. 
L dic = uinv − u g
 dt



(25)


 C dudc = S(t)i

dt c

1 G1, G4on
S(t) = (26)
−1 G2, G3on
In order to ensure that the total energy of the APF converter remains constant, u2dc
should be kept constant during the control process. As shown in Figure 12, the PI controller
is selected as the outer loop control strategy. To obtain the reference grid current i gre f
synchronized with the grid voltage, the output of the PI controller is multiplied by the
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 12 of 20

phase of the grid voltage. In summary, (27) and (28) can be obtained. The proposed RC is
selected as the inner loop control strategy to control the grid current.
Z
2
u = k p (udcre f − u2dc ) + k i (u2dcre f − u2dc )dt (27)

i gre f = u • u g (28)

Nonlinear Load
Grid
ig PCC iL Lr
R
ug Lg Cr
uPCC
LCL filter
i1 i2
C H-Bridge
L1 C L2 uinv udc
f
Rd

PLL ig f -
+
2
udcref
sinθ Proposed PWM
-+ PI
RC Generator
u igref

Control loop

Figure 12. Single-phase shunt APF system.

According to the parameters shown in the Table 1, a single-phase shunt APF system
model based on NI PXIe-1071 and YuanKuan MT1050 is established. The setups are
shown in the Figure 13. We select k p = 1.5, k i = 30, k p_RC = 10, kr = 15, Q(zv1 ) =
0.1zv1 + 0.8 + 0.1z− 1
v1 , m = 1, S ( z ) = 1, and Nv = 120. The LCL single-phase APF model
was configured in the StarSim Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) platform with a time step of
1 µs. The controller was configured in the FPGA-based StarSim rapid control prototyping
(RCP) platform with a time step of 100 µs.

RCP Platform

HIL Platform
I/O board

Oscillocope

Control Desk

Figure 13. Experiment setups.

Energies 2022, 15, 7227 13 of 20

Table 1. APF simulation model parameters.

Parameters Symbol Values

Nonlinear load inductor Lr 4 mH
Nonlinear load capacitor Cr 4400 µF
Nonlinear load resistance R 8√Ω
Grid Voltage ug 120/ 2 V
Equivalent grid-side inductance L1e 0.1 mH
Inverter-side inductance L2 3.5 mH
Filter capacitor Cf 7 µF
Passive damping Rd 10 Ω
Sampling frequency fs 10 kHz
Grid frequency f0 50 Hz
DC bus capacitor C 2200 µF
DC bus voltage udcre f 250 V

As shown in Figure 14, CRC and the proposed RC can reduce the harmonics injected
into the grid. It can be proven that with CRC, the THD of the grid current i g is 2.02%.
Meanwhile, with the proposed RC, the THD of grid current i g is 2.81%. By comparing
Figure 14a,b, it can be proven that CRC and the proposed RC have similar control effects
under the condition of 50 Hz. As shown in Figure 14, with CRC and the proposed RC, the
phase of the grid current is synchronized with the grid voltage. In this way, the unit power
factor is maintained.
vg vg
ig ig
10A/div 10A/div
40V/div Time 0.01s/div
40V/div Time 0.01s/div
ic ic

10A/div Time 0.01s/div 10A/div Time 0.01s/div

iL iL
10A/div 10A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(a) (b)
Figure 14. The current waveform at 50Hz when different controllers are used. (a) the proposed RC.
(b) CRC.

The output current waveform at 51 Hz is shown in Figure 15. The THD of the grid
current i g is 7.72% when CRC is adopted, and the THD of the grid current i g is 2.84% when
the proposed RC is adopted. In the same way, Figure 16 shows the output current waveform
at 49 Hz. When CRC is adopted, the THD of the grid current i g is 7.53%. Furthermore, the
THD of the grid current i g is 2.43% when the proposed RC is adopted. It can be verified
that the harmonic suppression ability of the proposed is better than that of CRC when the
frequency varies. As can be seen from Figures 15b and 16b, CRC works at an abnormal
frequency, resulting in a phase shift between the grid voltage u g and grid current i g .
In Figure 17, the FFT analysis of the grid current is displayed. Figure 17 compares the
magnitude from the second harmonic to the 25th harmonic when the proposed RC (the
green columns) and the CRC (the orange columns) are used. As shown in Figure 17b, when
the grid frequency is normal (50 Hz), the harmonic magnitudes of the proposed RC and
CRC are relatively close, which is the same as the conclusion drawn in Figure 14 above. As
shown in Figure 17a,c, when the proposed RC is used, the harmonic magnitude of i g is
smaller at low and middle frequencies to those of the CRC. Therefore, it is proven from
another angle that the proposed RC still has a good harmonic suppression capability when
the frequency varies.
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 14 of 20

vg Phase Shift vg
ig ig
10A/div 10A/div
40V/div Time 0.01s/div
40V/div Time 0.01s/div
ic ic

10A/div Time 0.01s/div 10A/div Time 0.01s/div

iL iL
10A/div 10A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(a) (b)
Figure 15. The current waveform at 51 Hz when different controllers are used. (a) the proposed RC.
(b) CRC.
vg Phase Shift vg
ig ig
10A/div 10A/div
40V/div Time 0.01s/div
40V/div Time 0.01s/div
ic ic

10A/div Time 0.01s/div 10A/div Time 0.01s/div

iL iL
10A/div 10A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(a) (b)
Figure 16. The current waveform at 49 Hz when different controllers are used. (a) the proposed RC.
(b) CRC.
1.4 1.4 1.4
CRC CRC CRC
VVS-RC VVS-RC VVS-RC
1.2 1.2 1.2

1.0 1.0 1.0

Mag (dB)

Mag (dB)

Mag (dB)
0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0 0.0

5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25
Harmonic Order Harmonic Order Harmonic Order

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 17. The FFT analysis of the grid current. (a) at 49 Hz. (b) at 50 Hz. (c) at 51 Hz.

When the grid frequency is between 49 Hz and 51 Hz, multiple experiments are
repeated and the THD of the grid current i g and load current iL is calculated. The results
obtained are displayed in Tables 2 and 3. The THD of the load current is around 41%.
Compared Table 2 with Table 3, the harmonic suppression function of APF is shown. With
the increase in frequency variation, the THD gained with the use of the proposed RC always
remains below 5%, in line with the IEEE std 1547. On the contrary, when the CRC is used,
the THD of i g increases gradually when the variation increases. Compared with CRC, the
proposed RC can operate over a wider range of grid frequencies.
In order to verify the parameter robustness of the two controllers, the grid-side in-
ductance L1e , the Inverter-side inductance L1e , and filter capacitor C f are changed. The
waveforms of u g and i g are shown in Figure 18, and the parameters of LCL filter are shown
in Table 1. In this case, the quality of the current controlled by RC with FIR filter and IIR
filter is similar. At the same time, due to the implementation of VVS technology, the RC
control effect is not affected by frequency variation. Figures 19–21 respectively show the
waveforms of i g and u g when L1e , L2 , and C f are changed. Comparing the above figures
with Figure 18, when an IIR filter is adopted, the control effect of the i g changes slightly
when LCL parameters vary. Compared with the IIR filter, the parameter robustness of
the FIR filter is worse, and the quality of the grid current deteriorates with the parameter
variation of the LCL filter.
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 15 of 20

When the load changes from 16 Ω to 8 Ω, the steady-state error of the grid current at
50 Hz is shown in Figure 22a,b. When CRC is used, the steady-state error can reach stability
after 16 periods. At the same time, when the proposed RC is used, the steady-state error
can reach stability within 16 periods. Comparing Figure 22a,b, it is proven that the response
speed of the proposed RC is close to that of CRC. When the grid frequency is 49 Hz or
51 Hz, the steady-state error of the grid current is shown in Figures 23a,b and 24a,b. As
shown in Figures 23b and 24b, the error is larger than that of Figures 23a and 24a.

Table 2. The THD of the grid current i g .

49 Hz 49.5 Hz
CRC 7.53% 4.73%
IMFA-VVS-RC 2.43% 2.51%
50 Hz
CRC 2.02%
IMFA-VVS-RC 2.81%
50.5 Hz 51 Hz
CRC 4.51% 7.72%
IMFA-VVS-RC 2.50% 2.84%

Table 3. The THD of the load current i L .

49 Hz 49.5 Hz 50 Hz 50.5 Hz 51 Hz
41.05% 40.8% 40.62% 40.41% 40.2%

ug:50V/div ug:50V/div ug:50V/div

ig:20A/div ig:20A/div ig:20A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(a) (b) (c)

ug:50V/div ug:50V/div ug:50V/div

ig:20A/div ig:20A/div ig:20A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 18. The waveform of grid voltage u g and grid current i g when L1e = 0.1 mH, L2 = 3.5 mH,
and C f = 7.5 µF. (a–c): using FIR filters when the grid frequency is 49 Hz, 50 Hz, and 51 Hz. (d–f):
using IIR filters when the grid frequency is 49 Hz, 50 Hz, and 51 Hz.
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 16 of 20

ug:50V/div ug:50V/div ug:50V/div

ig:20A/div ig:20A/div ig:20A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(a) (b) (c)

ug:50V/div ug:50V/div ug:50V/div

ig:20A/div ig:20A/div ig:20A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 19. The waveform of grid voltage u g and grid current i g when L1e varies to 2.6 mH. (a–c):
using FIR filters when the grid frequency is 49 Hz, 50 Hz, and 51 Hz. (d–f): using IIR filters when the
grid frequency is 49 Hz, 50 Hz, and 51 Hz.

ug:50V/div ug:50V/div ug:50V/div

ig:20A/div ig:20A/div ig:20A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(a) (b) (c)

ug:50V/div ug:50V/div ug:50V/div

ig:20A/div ig:20A/div ig:20A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 20. The waveform of grid voltage u g and grid current i g when L2 varies to 4 mH. (a–c): using
FIR filters when the grid frequency is 49 Hz, 50 Hz, and 51 Hz. (d–f): using IIR filters when the grid
frequency is 49 Hz, 50 Hz, and 51 Hz.
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 17 of 20

ug:50V/div ug:50V/div ug:50V/div

ig:20A/div ig:20A/div ig:20A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(a) (b) (c)

ug:50V/div ug:50V/div ug:50V/div

ig:20A/div ig:20A/div ig:20A/div

Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div Time 0.01s/div

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 21. The waveform of grid voltage u g and grid current i g when C f varies to 8 µF. (a–c): using
FIR filters when the grid frequency is 49 Hz, 50 Hz, and 51 Hz. (d–f): using IIR filters when the grid
frequency is 49 Hz, 50 Hz, and 51 Hz.

(a) (b)
Figure 22. The tracking error and the grid current when the controller is used at 50 Hz. (a) VVS.
(b) CRC.

(a) (b)
Figure 23. Thetracking error and the grid current when the controller is used at 49 Hz. (a) VVS.
(b) CRC.
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 18 of 20

(a) (b)
Figure 24. The tracking error and the grid current when the controller is used at 51 Hz. (a) VVS.
(b) CRC.

6. Conclusions
This paper proposes the use of a repetitive controller based on VVS. In order to im-
prove the robustness of the system, a IIR low-pass filter Q(z) is added to the proposed RC.
The VVS scheme realizes a variable sampling frequency by using a virtual sampling unit.
In this way, RC can still achieve a better control effect under the condition of frequency
variation. The experimental results show that compared with CRC, the harmonic suppres-
sion capability of the proposed RC is stronger when RC is 49 Hz and 51 Hz. When the
frequency is 49 Hz, the THD of the grid current is 7.72% when CRC is used and 2.84%
when the proposed RC is used. When the frequency is 51Hz, the THD of the grid current is
7.53% when CRC is used and 2.43% when the proposed RC is used. Compared with CRC,
the proposed RC still has good harmonic suppression capability in the case of frequency
variation. Moreover, the harmonic suppression capability of the proposed RC is similar
to that of CRC at 50 Hz. When the frequency is 50 Hz, the THD of the grid current is
2.02% when CRC is used and 2.81% when the proposed RC is used. The proposed RC
does not affect the harmonic suppression process under normal working conditions. In
addition, the harmonic suppression capability of the proposed RC is still excellent when
the grid-side inductance value changes. When L1e changes from 0.1 mH to 2.6 mH, the
system is no longer stable when CRC is used. When the proposed RC is used, the system
remains stable. When L2 and C f vary, the grid current waveform will deteriorate when
CRC is used. Therefore, it can be proved that the parameter robustness of the proposed RC
is better than that of CRC. When the grid frequency is 50 Hz, the grid current has a similar
dynamic response when the proposed RC and CRC are used. When the grid frequency
varies, the grid current has a smaller steady-state error when the proposed RC is used.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.L. and B.L.; methodology, D.L. and S.H.; software, D.L.
and L.L.; validation, D.L., H.W. and B.L.; formal analysis, D.L. and Y.H.; investigation, D.L.; resources,
D.L.; data curation, D.L. and B.L.; writing—original draft preparation, D.L. and S.H.; writing—review
and editing, D.L.; visualization, D.L. and L.L.; supervision, D.L., B.L. and S.H.; project administration,
D.L.; funding acquisition, B.L. and S.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant 62173156.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the staff, students, and the entire management team of
the School of Artificial Intelligence and Automation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2022, 15, 7227 19 of 20

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