Definitions

Electrical excitability: A property of both muscle and nerve cells which enables them to
respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals called action potentials (impulses).

Contractility: Ability of muscular tissue to contract forcefully when stimulated by an action

potential.

Extensibility: Ability of muscular tissue to stretch, within limits, without being damaged
which is supported by the connective tissues such as tendons and ligaments.

Elasticity: Ability of muscular tissue to return to its original length and shape after contraction
or extension.

Transverse (T) tubules: Structures in sarcolemma (muscle plasma membrane) which tunnel
in from the surface toward the center of each muscle fiber, and filled with interstitial fluid,
which aid in rapid spread of muscle action potentials through throughout the muscle fiber at
the same instant.

Sarcomere: Sarcomere is the basic functional unit of a myofibril that contains all the units for
an efficient muscle contraction.

Z discs: Narrow, plate-shaped regions of dense material that separate one sarcomere from the
next.

A band: Anisotropic band: Dark, middle part of sarcomere that extends entire length of thick
filaments and includes those parts of thin filaments that overlap thick filaments.

I band: Isotropic band: Lighter, less dense area of sarcomere that contains remainder of thin
filaments but no thick filaments, through the center of which Z disc passes.

H zone: Narrow region in center of each A band that contains thick filaments but no thin
filaments.

M line: Region in center of H zone that contains proteins that hold thick filaments together at
center of sarcomere.

Contractile proteins: Proteins that generate force during muscle contractions.

1
Myosin: Contractile protein that makes up thick filament; molecule consists of a tail and two
myosin heads, which bind to myosin binding sites on actin molecules of thin filament during
muscle contraction.

Actin: Contractile protein that is the main component of thin filament; each actin molecule has
a myosin-binding site where myosin head of thick filament binds during muscle contraction.

Regulatory proteins of muscle contraction: Proteins that help switch muscle contraction
process on and off.

Tropomyosin: Regulatory protein that is a component of thin filament which covers the
myosin-binding sites on actin molecules, thereby preventing myosin from binding to actin, at
the time of skeletal muscle fiber relaxation.

Troponin: Regulatory protein that is a component of thin filament which changes shape when
bound to calcium ions, thus inducing a conformational change moving tropomyosin away from
myosin-binding sites on actin molecules, initiating muscle contraction.

Structural proteins of muscle contraction: Proteins that keep thick and thin filaments of
myofibrils in proper alignment, give myofibrils elasticity and extensibility, and link myofibrils
to sarcolemma and extracellular matrix.

Titin: Structural protein that connects Z disc to M line of sarcomere, thereby helping to
stabilize the position of the thick filament, accounting for much of the elasticity and
extensibility of myofibrils.

α-Actinin: Structural protein of Z discs that attaches to actin molecules of thin filaments and
to titin molecules.

Myomesin: Structural protein that forms M line of sarcomere, binds to titin molecules and
connects adjacent thick filaments to one another.

Nebulin: Structural protein that wraps around entire length of each thin filament and helps
anchor thin filaments to Z discs and regulates length of thin filaments during development.

Dystrophin: Structural protein that links thin filaments of sarcomere to integral membrane
proteins in sarcolemma, which are attached in turn to proteins in connective tissue matrix that

2
surrounds muscle fibers, helping to reinforce sarcolemma and transmitting tension generated
by sarcomeres to tendons.

Neuromuscular junction: The synapse between a somatic motor neuron and a skeletal muscle
fiber where muscle action potentials arise.

Motor unit: Contractile unit consisting of a somatic motor neuron along with all the skeletal
muscle fibers it stimulates, forming multiple neuromuscular junctions with each of them.

Twitch contraction: Brief contraction of all the muscle fibers in a motor unit in response to a
single action potential in its motor neuron.

Latent period: Brief delay occurring between application of the stimulus and the beginning of
muscle contraction, lasting about 2 msec, in which the muscle action potential sweeps over the
sarcolemma and calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Contraction period: The phase of muscle contraction lasting about 10–100 msec, during
which, calcium ions bind to troponin, myosin binding sites on actin are exposed, and cross-
bridges form, thereby developing peak tension in the muscle fiber.

Relaxation period: The phase of muscle contraction lasting 10–100 msec in which calcium is
actively transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, myosin-binding sites are covered by
tropomyosin, myosin heads detach from actin, and tension in the muscle fiber decreases.

Refractory period: The period of time after an action potential begins during which an
excitable cell cannot generate another action potential in response to a normal threshold
stimulus is called the refractory period.

3
Isotonic muscle contraction: A type of skeletal muscle contraction in which the tension (force
of contraction) developed in the muscle remains almost constant while the muscle changes its
length. Example: Body movements involving moving objects.

Isometric contraction: A type of skeletal muscle contraction in which the tension generated
is not enough to exceed the resistance of the object to be moved, and the muscle does not
change its length. For example: holding a book steady using an outstretched arm.

Muscular hypertrophy: Enlargement of existing muscle cells

Muscle hyperplasia: An increase in the number of fibers

Action potential: An electrical signal that propagates (travels) along the surface of the
membrane of a neuron which begins and travels due to the movement of ions (such as sodium
and potassium) between interstitial fluid and the inside of a neuron through specific ion
channels in its plasma membrane, that reverses the membrane potential and then eventually
restore it to the resting state.

Nissl bodies: Prominent clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum which help in synthesis of
proteins responsible for growth of neurons and regeneration of damaged axons in the peripheral
nervous system.

Dendrites: Receiving or input portions of a neuron, the plasma membranes of which contain
numerous receptor sites for binding chemical messengers/ neurotransmitters and cytoplasm of
which contains several organelles.

Axon: A long, thin, cylindrical part of a neuron emerging from the cell body which propagates
nerve impulses and neurotransmitters from the cell body towards another neuron, a muscle
fiber, or a gland cell.

Synapse: The junction of communication between two neurons or between a neuron and an
effector cell

Slow axonal transport: The system of unidirectional transport of materials including

chemicals and neurotransmitters from axoplasm from the cell body toward the axon terminals
at the rate of 1-5 mm per day, and used to supply new axoplasm to developing or regenerating
axons and replenishing axoplasm in growing and mature axons.

4
Fast axonal transport: The system of bidirectional transport of materials including chemicals
and neurotransmitters away and towards the cell body at the rate of 200–400 mm per day,
utilizing motor proteins to move materials along the surfaces of microtubules of the neuron’s
cytoskeleton.

Anterograde axonal transport: A type of fast axonal transport that occurs in a forward
direction, meaning, moving organelles and synaptic vesicles from the cell body to the axon
terminals.

Retrograde axonal transport: A type of fast axonal transport that occurs in a backward
direction, meaning, moving membrane vesicles and other cellular materials from the axon
terminals to the cell body to be degraded or recycled.

Multipolar neurons: Neurons which have several dendrites and one axon. For example: most
neurons in the brain and spinal cord, all motor neurons.

Bipolar neurons: Neurons which have one main dendrite and one axon. For example: neurons
in the retina of the eye, the inner ear, and the olfactory area of the brain.

5
Unipolar neurons: Neurons which have dendrites and one axon that are fused together to form
a continuous process that emerges from the cell body. For example: neurons responsible for
touch, pressure, pain, or thermal stimuli.

Sensory or afferent neurons: Neurons which either contain sensory receptors at their distal
ends (dendrites) or are located just after sensory receptors that are separate cells.

Motor or efferent neurons: Neurons which convey action potentials away from the CNS to
effectors (muscles and glands) in the periphery (PNS) through cranial or spinal nerves

Interneurons or association neurons: Neurons which are mainly located within the CNS
between sensory and motor neurons and integrate (process) incoming sensory information from
sensory neurons and then elicit a motor response by activating the appropriate motor neurons.

Schwann cell: A cell which forms myelin sheath around a single axon in the peripheral nervous
system and participates in axon regeneration.

Satellite cells: Flat cells surrounding the cell bodies of neurons of PNS ganglia which provide
structural support and regulate the exchanges of materials between neuronal cell bodies and
interstitial fluid.

Saltatory conduction: The special mode of action potential propagation that occurs along
myelinated axons, from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction
velocity of action potentials.

Synaptic cleft: A space of 20–50 nm between two neurons that is filled with interstitial fluid
wherein neurons communicate with each other through neurotransmitters and not electrical
impulses.
6
Spatial summation: Summation of postsynaptic potentials in response to stimuli that occur at
different locations in the membrane of a postsynaptic cell at the same time. For example, spatial
summation results from the buildup of neurotransmitter released simultaneously by several
presynaptic end bulbs

Temporal summation: summation of postsynaptic potentials in response to stimuli that occur

at the same location in the membrane of the postsynaptic cell but at different times. For
example, temporal summation results from buildup of neurotransmitter released by a single
presynaptic end bulb two or more times in rapid succession.

Hormone: A mediator molecule that is released from one part of the body (generally called as
endocrine gland) into the blood and regulates the activity of cells in other parts (called effectors
or target cells) of the body.

Exocrine glands: Glands which secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions into
body cavities, into the lumen of an organ, or to the outer surface of the body. For example:
sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), mucous, and digestive glands.

Endocrine glands: Glands which secrete their products (hormones) into the interstitial fluid
especially blood, surrounding the secretory cells rather than into ducts. For example: Ovary,
testis, adrenal.

Cardiac output: Volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle (or the right ventricle) into
the aorta (or pulmonary trunk) each minute. Cardiac output equals the stroke volume (SV),
multiplied by the heart rate (HR).
CO = SV X HR
(mL/min) (mL/beat) (beats/min)

Cardiac reserve: Difference between a person’s maximum cardiac output and cardiac output
at rest.

Stroke volume (SV): Volume of blood ejected by the ventricle during each contraction.

Afterload: The pressure that must be overcome before a semilunar valve can open is termed
the afterload.

Pulmonary circulation: Circulation which carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle
to the air sacs (alveoli) within the lungs and returns oxygenated blood from the air sacs to the
left atrium
7
Diastole: The part of the cardiac cycle during which the ventricular myocardium relaxes,
pressure falls and the chamber fills with blood.

Ischaemia: Cessation of blood flow, if continued for too long may result in building up of
metabolic products, depletion of substrates and temporary of irreversible loss of function. This
is a normal condition in some tissues, for example in many muscles during maximal voluntary
contractions.

Surfactant: A complex mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins and lowers the surface
tension of alveolar fluid reducing the tendency of alveoli to collapse and thus maintaining their
patency.

Pulmonary ventilation/ breathing: The inhalation (inflow) and exhalation (outflow) of air
and involves the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs.

External (pulmonary) respiration: The exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs
and the blood in pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory membrane, by process of which
pulmonary blood gains oxygen and loses carbon dioxide.

Internal (tissue) respiration: The exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries
and tissue cells, by which systemic blood loses oxygen and gains carbon dioxide.

Cellular respiration: The metabolic reactions that consume oxygen and give off carbon
dioxide during the production of ATP are termed cellular respiration

Compliance: The change in volume that occurs per unit change in the pressure of the system.

Tidal volume (symbol VT or TV): Lung volume representing the normal volume of air
displaced between normal inhalation and exhalation when extra effort is not applied.

Minute ventilation (MV): The total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute—is
respiratory rate multiplied by tidal volume:
MV = 12 breaths/min X 500 mL/breath = 6 liters/min

Anatomic (respiratory) dead space: The conducting airways with air that does not undergo
respiratory exchange

8
Residual volume: Volume of unexpended air that remains in the lungs following maximum
expiration

Spirometry: Measurement of the volume of air that a person can move into and out of the
lungs

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): Additional amount of air that can be exhaled after a
normal exhalation.
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): Additional amount of air that can be inhaled after a
normal inhalation.

Forced expiratory volume (FEV): The amount of air that can be forced out of the lung over
a specific period, usually one second

Forced vital capacity (FVC): Total amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled as measured
using spirometry

Vital capacity (VC): Maximum amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled during a
respiratory cycle, which is the sum of the expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and
inspiratory reserve volume.

Inspiratory capacity (IC): Amount of air that can be inhaled after the end of a normal
expiration, which is the sum of the tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume.

Functional residual capacity (FRC): The amount of additional air that can be exhaled after a
normal exhalation and which includes the expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume.

Total lung capacity (TLC): Measurement of the total amount of air that the lung can hold,
which is the sum of the residual volume, expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and
inspiratory reserve volume.

Haldane effect: The relationship in which lower the amount of oxyhemoglobin (Hb—O2), the
higher the CO2-carrying capacity of the blood

Deglutition: Movement of food from the mouth into the stomach facilitated by the secretion
of saliva and mucus and involves the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus.

9
Peristalsis: A progression of coordinated contractions and relaxations of the circular and
longitudinal layers of the muscularis of the gastrointestinal tract which pushes the bolus onward
under the control of medulla oblongata.

Juxtamedullary nephrons: Nephrons whose renal corpuscles lie deep in the cortex and Loop
of Henle is long, reaching into the deepest portions of the medulla of the kidney

Glomerular/ Bowman’s capsule: A cup-like specialized structure of the nephron of the kidney
which is responsible for the ultrafiltration of the blood
Podocytes: Cells of the visceral layer of the Bowman’s capsule, having footlike projections
(pedicels) which wrap around the single layer of endothelial cells of the glomerular capillaries,
which aid in filtration of blood at the capsule.

Macula densa: The columnar tubule cells of the last part of the ascending loop of Henle that
makes contact with the afferent arteriole at the glomerulus.

Juxtaglomerular cells: The wall of the afferent arteriole (and sometimes the efferent arteriole)
which contains modified smooth muscle fibers

Juxtaglomerular apparatus: The combination of macula densa and the juxtaglomerular cells
which help in regulating blood pressure within the kidneys, at the renal corpuscle. (Define
macula densa and juxtaglomerular cells here)

Glomerular filtration: The first step of urine production in which water and most solutes in
blood plasma move across the wall of glomerular capillaries through the process of filtration
and enter into the glomerular capsule and then into the renal tubule.

Tubular reabsorption. The absorption of water, ions and other substances from the
glomerular filtrate by the tubular cells of proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle and distal
convoluted tubule and into the blood flowing through the peritubular capillaries and vasa recta.

Tubular secretion. Secretion of materials such as wastes, drugs, and excess ions from the
blood into the tubular fluid at the levels of proximal and distal convoluted tubule

Filtration membrane: A leaky barrier composed of glomerular capillaries and the podocytes,
which permits filtration of water and small solutes but prevents filtration of most plasma
proteins, blood cells, and platelets

10
Glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure (GBHP): Blood pressure in glomerular capillaries
which promotes filtration by forcing water and solutes in blood plasma through the filtration
membrane. It is about 55 mmHg.

Capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP): Hydrostatic pressure exerted against the filtration
membrane by fluid already in the capsular space and renal tubule. CHP opposes filtration and
represents a “back pressure” of about 15 mmHg.

Colloid osmotic pressure (COP)/ Blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP): The pressure
exerted in the capsular space by proteins such as albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen present in
blood plasma which opposes filtration. The average BCOP in glomerular capillaries is 30
mmHg.

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR): The amount of filtrate formed in all the renal corpuscles
of both kidneys each minute. In adults, the GFR averages 125 mL/min in males and 105
mL/min in females.

Renal autoregulation: The capability of the kidneys to maintain a constant renal blood flow
and GFR despite normal, everyday changes in blood pressure

Countercurrent multiplication: The process by which a progressively increasing osmotic

gradient is formed in the interstitial fluid of the renal medulla as a result of countercurrent flow.
Countercurrent multiplication involves the long loops of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons

Countercurrent exchange: The process by which solutes and water are passively exchanged
between the blood of the vasa recta and interstitial fluid of the renal medulla as a result of
countercurrent flow.

Acidosis: Abnormally low pH of the blood which is restored to normal acid-base balance by
increasing respiratory ventilation to reduce the CO2 content of the body (respiratory acidosis),
or it may require retention or injection of HCO3- (metabolic acidosis).

Urinalysis: An analysis of the volume and physical, chemical, and microscopic properties of
urine.

Renal plasma clearance: The volume of blood that is cleared of a substance per unit of time,
usually expressed in units of milliliters per minute.

Micturition: Discharge of urine from the urinary bladder

11
Spermatogenesis: the process of formation of a mature motile sperm from a spermatogonium
in the seminiferous tubules of testis

Spermiogenesis: Last phase of spermatogenesis which involves the development of haploid

spermatids into sperm, in which no cell division occurs

Spermiation: An event in which the fully formed sperm are released from their connections to
Sertoli cells when the sertoli cells dispose of the excess cytoplasm that joins them.

Oogenesis: The formation of mature ovum from the oogonium in the ovaries

Atresia: The degeneration of germ cells in the ovary by birth

Primordial follicle: The structure comprising of a primary oocyte (arrested at prophase of

Meiosis-I), along with a single layer of follicular cells, seen during the phase until puberty

Primary follicles: The structure seen in ovary, after puberty, consisting of a primary oocyte
surrounded by several layers of cuboidal and low-columnar cells called granulosa cells and a
layer of stromal cells called as theca folliculi.

Secondary follicle: The structure seen in ovary, consisting of primary oocyte surrounded by
layers of granulosa cells, two differentiated layers of theca (theca interna and theca externa) nd
an antrum

Theca interna: A highly vascularized internal layer of cuboidal secretory cells present in a
secondary and Graafian follicle that secrete estrogens in response to LH.

Theca externa: An outer layer of stromal cells and collagen fibers present in secondary and
Graafian follicle.

Antrum: A follicular fluid filled cavity lying between oocyte and the granulosa cells in a
secondary and Graafian follicle.

Corona radiate: The innermost layer of granulosa cells which becomes firmly attached to the
zona pellucida during the development of secondary follicle

12
Zona pellucida: A glycoprotein layer surrounding the plasma membrane of mammalian
oocytes present in all stages before and after fertilization with sperm and also in zygote prior
to implantation

Graafian follicle: Matured and larger secondary follicle consisting of several layers of
granulosa and theca cells surrounding the oocyte and a large antrum, in the later stages of which
ovulation of primary ooctyte (which has completed meiosis I, and arrested at metaphase II)
takes place.

Ovarian cycle: A series of events in the ovaries that occur during and after the maturation of
an oocyte.

Uterine (menstrual) cycle: Concurrent series of changes in the endometrium of the uterus to
prepare it for the arrival of a fertilized ovum that will develop there until birth

Preovulatory phase/ proliferative phase: Time between the end of menstruation and
ovulation which includes increase in endometrial stromal cell and gland cell population under
the influence of estradiol

Postovulatory/ Secretory phase: Time between the end of ovulation to the onset of
menstruation which includes increase in glandular secretions and all other changes to
accommodate for implantation, if fertilization takes place.

Corpus luteum: A temporary endocrine structure formed in the ovary after ovulation,
consisting of a mixture of granulosa cells and theca cells, secreting hormones like progesterone,
low levels of estrogen and inhibin.

Corpus albicans: Regressed form of the corpus luteum, formed when there is no fertilization
and consisting of type I collagen formed by fibroblasts due to breakdown of corpus luteum by
macrophages

Implantation: The process by which a blastocyst comes in contact with, attaches and invades
into a receptive endometrium, thereby undergoing a series of cellular changes for development

Active transport: Net movement of a substance across a membrane from a lower to a higher
concentration or (in the case of ions) against an electrochemical gradient, which requires
energy which is provided either by hydrolysis of ATP or the downhill movement of another
substance.

13
Diffusion: The process by which molecules get from one place to another (or across a
membrane) by random motion, down their concentration gradient.

Facilitated diffusion: Special type of diffusion across a membrane where molecules (a

'carrier') move down their concentration gradient through allows diffusion of certain molecules
that would not otherwise get through: rather like a parent who lifts children over a fence.

Electrocardiogram: An instrument for recording the voltage changes using electrodes on the
skin, due to the electrical events of the cardiac cycle.

Embolus: Abnormal fragments of material carried in the circulation, e.g. a blood clot
(thrombus), fat, air (as a bubble) or foreign bodies.

14