Group #7 August 19, 2019

MD 1Y1-1

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular tissue of the body constitutes from one-third to one-half of the body mass
of the average vertebrate. The human muscular system is made up of more than 600 connecting
muscles. All of the muscles work together in sync to make your body move in innumerable
different ways.

Muscular tissue functions in:

 Movement and locomotion, through its direct connection with the skeletal system
 More subtle movements associated with maintaining posture/vertical position
 Help to generate heat due to catabolic reactions that are associated with muscular activity
 Respiration, it helps push air come into and leave the respiratory system through the
contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm, which is a muscle.
 Circulation, the heart is a muscle that pumps blood throughout the body. The movement
of the heart is outside of conscious control, and it contracts automatically when
stimulated by electrical signals.

The general structure of a muscle fiber include myofibrils (chains of repeating subunits)
composed of two kinds of filaments:

• thin filaments (composed of myosin) and thick filaments (composed

of actin, tropomyosin and troponin) that interact by binding to produce a sliding movement
between the filaments, and that creates tension in the muscle fiber leading to muscle contraction.

There are three generally recognized muscle tissue types: smooth, cardiac and skeletal,
each tissue type with a distinct location in the body, cellular organization (histology), and general
action of the muscle fibers (physiology)

Smooth muscle

 found lining the walls of blood vessels, visceral organs (such as the digestive tract and
uterus) and are also found attached to hairs in the integument.

 two general types:

- unitary smooth muscle has self-initiated or myogenic contraction to aid in sustaining the
rhythmic movement of the organ with which it is associated
- multiunit smooth muscle has neurogenic contraction, which requires action potentials
sent by neurons to regulate its action.
Cardiac muscle

 are found solely in the musculature of the heart wall

 in cardiac muscle the branching of the cells increase its overall connectivity and the cells are
firmly united with each other through the intercalated disks
 cardiac muscle does not fatigue readily, which is a desirable trait in the muscles that maintain
circulation of blood
 action of the cardiac muscle fibers shows mixed control, such that the myogenic rhythm of
the heart is maintained by neurogenic control and the entire unit of the cardiac muscle acts as
a syncytium, or single functional unit

Skeletal muscle

 skeletal muscles are closely associated with the skeleton and are used in locomotion
 each skeletal muscle fiber is also a syncytium due to the close connection between cellular
units
 Fibers are closely associated with connective tissues and are under voluntary control by the
nervous system.

Abilities:
 contractility - its ability to shorten
 Extensibility - can stretch
 Excitability - respond to stimulus
 elasticity - recoil

Skeletal muscle is comprised of a series of muscle fibers made of muscle cells. These muscle
cells are long and multinucleated. At the ends of each skeletal muscle a tendon connects the
muscle to bone. This tendon connects directly to the epimysium, or collagenous outer covering
of skeletal muscle. Underneath the epimysium, muscle fibers are grouped into bundles
called fascicles. These fascicles are surrounded by another protective covering formed from
collagen. The perimysium, as it is called, allows nerve and blood vessels to make their way
through the muscle

Each fascicle is formed from tens to hundreds of bundled muscle fibers. Each muscle
fiber is formed from a chain of multinucleated muscle cells. These fibers are then protected by
another layer called the endomysium as they are bundled into fascicles. Each muscle cell has
distinct regions when viewed under a microscope. These are known as sarcomeres, and give
skeletal muscle a banded or striated appearance. Each sarcomere is a complex of proteins, which
operates to contract the muscle.

Sarcomeres are formed from actin and myosin, as well as a number of associated helper
proteins. The filaments seen between the dark bands are actin and myosin filaments. Actin, as
seen in the image above, is composed of many units of actin and takes the form of a twisting
filament. Actin is accompanied by a number of proteins which help stabilize it and provide a
pathway for muscle contraction. The two most important are troponin and tropomyosin.
Tropomyosin surrounds the actin filament, and stops the heads of myosin from attaching.
Troponin locks tropomyosin in place until receiving the signal to contract. Myosin is a fiber
composed of many interlaced tails of individual myosin units. The heads of the units stick above
the fiber and are attracted to the actin filament.

Sarcomore
 contractile unit
 contains actin and myosin

Z disk
 protein fibers that form attachement
site for actin

H zone
 Center of sacromore
 Contain only myosin

I band
 Contain only actin
A band
 Where actin and myosin overlap
M line
 Where myosin are anchored
The resting membrane potential:
 Depolarization
- change in charges
- inside becomes more (+) and outside
becomes more (-)
- Na+ channels open

Repolarization
- Na+ channels close
- change back to resting potential

Postsynaptic membrane - muscle fiber

membrane

Synaptic cleft - space between presynaptic

terminal and postsynaptic membrane

Synaptic vesicle
- in presynaptic terminal
-store and release neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter - chemicals that stimulate or

inhibit a muscle

Motor unit - group of muscle fibers that motor

neuron stimulates

The Sliding Filament Theory

1. An action potential travels down motor neuron to presynaptic terminal causing Ca2+
channels to open
2. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to release acetylcholine into synaptic left
3. Acetylcholine binds to receptor sites on Na+ channels, Na+ channels open, Na+ rushes
into postsynaptic terminal (depolarization)
4. Na+ causes sarcolemma and t-tubules to increase the permeability of sarcoplasmic
reticulum which releases stored calcium.
5. Ca2+ binds to troponin which is attached to actin.
6. Ca2+ binding to troponin causes tropomyosin to move exposing attachment sites for
myosin.
 7. Myosin heads bind to actin.
8. ATP is released from myosin heads and heads bend toward center of sarcomere.
9. Bending forces actin to slide over myosin.
10. Acetylcholinesterase (enzyme breaks down acetylcholine) is released, Na+ channels
close, and muscle contraction stops

ATP and Muscle Contractions

 Energy for muscle contractions supplied by ATP

 Energy is released as ATP → ADP + P
 ATP is stored in myosin heads
 ATP help form cross-bridge formation between myosin and actin
 New ATP must bind to myosin before cross-bridge is released

Rigor mortis: person dies and no ATP is available to release cross-bridges

 ATP is made in mitochondria from aerobic or anaerobic respiration.

 During a muscle contraction, H zone and I band shorten but A band stays the same.
 Striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle are due to sarcomeres (actin and myosin).

TERMS:

Threshold: weakest stimulus needed to produce a response

All or None Law: muscle contracts or doesn’t (no in between)
Twitch: rapid contraction and relaxation of a muscle
Tetanus: muscle remains contracted

Process of glycolysis
Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it into two
three-carbon molecules called pyruvates. Glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway, meaning
that it evolved long ago, and it is found in the great majority of organisms alive today.
In organisms that perform cellular respiration, glycolysis is the first stage of this process.
However, glycolysis doesn’t require oxygen, and many anaerobic organisms—organisms that do
not use oxygen—also have this pathway.
 Energy-requiring phase. In this phase, the starting molecule of glucose gets rearranged,
and two phosphate groups are attached to it. The phosphate groups make the modified
sugar—now called fructose-1,6-bisphosphate—unstable, allowing it to split in half and
form two phosphate-bearing three-carbon sugars. Because the phosphates used in these
steps come from ATP two ATP molecules get used up.
 Step 1. A phosphate group is transferred from \text{ATP}ATPA, T, P to glucose, making glucose-6-
phosphate. Glucose-6-phosphate is more reactive than glucose, and the addition of the phosphate also
traps glucose inside the cell since glucose with a phosphate can’t readily cross the membrane.

Step 2. Glucose-6-phosphate is converted into its isomer, fructose-6-phosphate.

Step 3. A phosphate group is transferred from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate, producing fructose-

1,6-bisphosphate. This step is catalyzed by the enzyme phosphofructokinase, which can be
regulated to speed up or slow down the glycolysis pathway.

Step 4. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate splits to form two three-carbon sugars: dihydroxyacetone

phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. They are isomers of each other, but only
one—glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate—can directly continue through the next steps of glycolysis.

Step 5. DHAPD is converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. The two molecules exist in

equilibrium, but the equilibrium is “pulled” strongly downward, in the scheme of the diagram
above, as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is used up. Thus, all of the DHAP is eventually converted.
 Energy-releasing phase. In this phase, each three-carbon sugar is converted into another
three-carbon molecule, pyruvate, through a series of reactions. In these reactions,
two ATP molecules and one NADH molecule are made. Because this phase takes place
twice, once for each of the two three-carbon sugars, it makes four ATP and two NADHN
overall.
Step 6. Two half reactions occur simultaneously: 1) Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (one of the
three-carbon sugars formed in the initial phase) is oxidized, and 2) NAD+, is reduced to NADH
and H+. The overall reaction is exergonic, releasing energy that is then used to phosphorylate the
molecule, forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.

Step 7. 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate donates one of its phosphate groups to ADP making a molecule
of ATP and turning into 3-phosphoglycerate in the process.

Step 8. 3-phosphoglycerate is converted into its isomer, 2-phosphoglycerate.

Step 9. 2-phosphoglycerate loses a molecule of water, becoming phosphoenolpyruvate

(PEP). PEP is an unstable molecule, poised to lose its phosphate group in the final step of
glycolysis.

Step 10. PEP readily donates its phosphate group to ADP making a second molecule of ATP. As
it loses its phosphate, PEP is converted to pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis.

Oxygen Dept

 Amount of oxygen needed by liver cells to

use the accumulated lactic acid to produce
glucose
 Oxygen not available
 Glycolysis continues
 Pyruvic acid converted to lactic acid
 Liver converts lactic acid to glucose
 Also the amount of oxygen needed to
replace O2 levels in skeletal muscle to
pre-exercise levels

Heat Production

 Cellular respiration is only about 40% efficient

 About 60% of the energy found in a glucose is lost as heat during cellular respiration
 Muscle contraction generates heat because muscles use large amounts of nutrients to
make ATP, generating large amounts of heat
 Heat is used to maintain body temperature
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

 Origin: nonmovable end

 Insertion: movable end
 Belly: middle
 Synergists: muscles that work together
Antagonist: muscles that oppose each other

Nomenclature

Location:
Ex. tibialis anterior
Origin/insertion:
Ex. Sternocleidomastoid
Size:
Ex. gluteus maximus
Shape:
Ex. deltoid (triangular)
Function:
Ex. masseter

Muscles of Head and Neck

ccipitofrontalis: raises eyebrows

(forehead)

Orbicularis oculi: allows blinking (eyes)

Orbicularis oris: kissing muscle (mouth)

Zygomaticus: smiling muscle (cheek)

Masseter: chewing (mastication) muscle

 Thoracic Muscles

External intercostals: elevate ribs for

inspiration
Internal intercostals: depress ribs during
forced expiration
Diaphragm: moves during quiet
breathing
Rectus abdominis:
- center of abdomen
- compresses abdomen
External abdominal oblique:
- sides of abdomen
- compresses abdomen

Internal abdominal
oblique: compresses abdomen
Transverse abdominis: compresses abdomen

Upper Limbs Muscle

Trapezius:
- shoulders and upper back
- extends neck and head

Pectoralis major:
- chest
- elevates ribs

Serratus anterior:
- between ribs
- elevates ribs

Deltoid:
- shoulder
- abductor or upper limbs

Triceps brachii:
- 3 heads
- extends elbow
Biceps brachii: Brachialis: flexes elbow
- “flexing muscle” Latissimus dorsi:
- flexes elbow and shoulder - lower back
- extends shoulder
Muscles of Hips and Thighs

Iliopsoas: flexes hip

Gluteus maximus:
- buttocks
- extends hip and abducts thigh

Gluteus medius:
- hip
- abducts and rotates thigh

Muscles of Upper Leg

Quadriceps femoris
-4 thigh muscles
Rectus femoris:
- front of thigh
- extends knee and flexes hip
Vastus lateralis: -extends knee
Vastus medialis:-extends knee
Vastus intermedius:-extends
knee
Gracilis: adducts thigh and
flexes knee
Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus:
- hamstring
- back of thigh
- flexes knee, rotates leg, extends hips

Muscles of Lower Leg

Tibialis anterior:
- front of lower leg
- inverts foot

Gastrocnemius:
- calf
- flexes foot and leg

Soleus:
- attaches to ankle - flexes foot