Science – Grade 9

Topic 1. Forces and Interactions

Objectives :
1. Student should be able to draw an accurate free body diagram locating each forces acting
on an object or a system of object.
2. Student should be able to determine the net force acting on an object.
3. Student should be able to use free body diagrams and Newton’s laws of motion to solve
words problem.
4. To understand that the change in motion (or acceleration) of an object is caused by
unbalanced forces
5. To apply Newton's second law to predict the motion of an object experiencing a net force.
6. To determine the distance, velocity, time and acceleration of an object, or measure these
values to learn about the forces acting on the object through its relationship.

Introduction
Force is the push on an object with mass that causes it to change its velocity
Force calculation
F = m . g; F= m . a
F = force (N or kg m/s2)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
m = mass (kg)
g = gravity (9.8 m/s2)

Aimee has a toy car of mass 2000 g. How much force should she apply on the car so that it
should travel with the acceleration of 8 m/s2?
F=mxa
= 2 x 8 = 16 N

Concept of force with real world examples

1. Forces that act on all objects; examples: weight.
2. Forces that associated with solids; normal and friction
3. Fundamental forces; gravity
4. Forces that is transmitted through a rope; tension

Additional sources:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fiT2R88Zt58
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/3.1

Free Body Diagram

A diagram showing the forces acting on the object. The object is represented by a dot with
forces are drawn as arrows pointing away from the dot.
1. Draw the object (could be a box/block) and draw the forces from the center of the object.
2. Include all forces that act on the object (representing these forces as vectors). The stronger
the force is, the longer the arrow is.
a. A book is at rest on a tabletop. b. An egg is free-falling from a next in a
Diagram the forces acting on the book tree. Neglect air resistance

c. A flying squirrel is gliding (no wing flaps) d. A car is coasting to the right and
from a tree to the ground at constant velocity. slowing down. Neglect air resistance
Consider air resistance

e. An applied force is used to drag the book book in order to move it across a desk with a
rightward acceleration. Consider frictional forces. Neglect air resistance

Additional sources:
https://www.ck12.org/c/physics/free-body-diagrams/lesson/Free-Body-Diagrams-
PPC/?referrer=concept_details
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-physics/forces-and-newtons-laws-of-
motion/introduction-to-forces-and-free-body-diagrams/v/types-of-forces-and-free-body-
diagrams
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics-Interactives/Newtons-Laws/Free-Body-
Diagrams/Free-Body-Diagram-Interactive

Practice: Free body diagram

Determining Net Force using Free Body Diagram

1. A flying squirrel is falling from a tree. It weights 8N and the force of air friction created
her webbed arms and legs in 7.5 N. Draw the body diagram and calculate the net force.

Ffrict = +7.5 N Fnet = (+8) + (-7.5) = 0.5N

Fg = -8 N
2. Blindfolded Bunny pushes on Monkey to the right with a 95N force while Deer pushes on
Monker to the left with a 75 N force. Monkey weights 50 N. Draw the body diagram and
calculate the net force.

Fg = +50 N Fy = (+50N) + (-50N) = 0N

FN = -50 N Fx = (+95N) + (-75N) = +20N
Fapp = +95 N
Fapp = -75N Net force = 20 N

Determining Net Force using Free Body Diagram

1. An egg is free-falling from a nest in a tree. Neglect air resistance. Egg’s mass is 0.2 kg.
Draw the free body diagram and calculate the acceleration.
F=m.g F = m. a
= 0.2 x 9.8 1.96 = 0.2 x a
= 1.96 N a = 9.8 m/s2

m . g = m . a are the same if its free-falling

2. A skydiver is falling through the air with 50 N air resistance but has not reached terminal
velocity where the upward and downward are equal. The mass of skydiver is 78 kg. Draw
the free body diagram and calculate the acceleration

F=m.g Fnet = 764.4 – 50

= 78 . 9.8 = 714.4 N
= 764.4 N
F=m.a
714.4 = 78 x a
a = 9.2 m/s2

Practice : Determining net force using free body diagram

Determining net force using free body diagram 2

First law of motion

An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion will remain in motion with the same
speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an outside force (unbalanced forced).
So, in the definition of force itself, it explicitly states that force is something that causes a
change in the state of motion. A change in the state of motion corresponds to either a change
in the speed of the object and/ or a change in the direction of motion of the object.
The change in speed could mean speeding up (acceleration) or speeding down (deceleration).

Additional source:
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/

Practice : #1, #2, #3

Second law of motion (Kinematics)
If you apply more force to an object, it accelerates at a higher rate.
F=m.a
It means
Acceleration is directly proportional to net force
Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass

Relationship between distance, velocity, acceleration, time and force (kinematics)

u = initial velocity (m/s)

v = final velocity (m/s)
t = time (s)
s = distance (m)
a = acceleration (m/s2)

1. A race car has a mass of 710 kg. It starts from rest and travels 40.0 m in 3.0 s. The car is
uniformly accelerated during the entire time. How big is the net force acting on the car?
s = u t + ½ a t2 Fnet = m . a
40 = 0 + ½ a . 32 = 710 kg x 8.89 m/s2
40 = 4.5 a = 6312 N
a = 8.89 m/s2

2. Suppose that a 1000 kg car is traveling at 25 m/s. Then it brakes and can apply a force of
5000N. What is the minimum distance required for the car to stop?

a=F/m v2 = u2 + 2 a s
a = 5000 N/ 1000kg 0 = 252 + 2 . 5 . s
a = 5.0 m/s2 0 = 625 + 10 s
-625 = 10 s
s = -62.5 m

3. A 65 kg person dives into the water from the 10m platform. What is her speed as she
enters the water? (a= 10 m/s2)
v2 = u2 + 2 a s
= 0 + 2 (10) (10)
2
v = 200
v = 14.14 m/s
She comes to a stop 4.0 m below the surface of the water. Find acceleration on the
swimmer by the water
v2 = u2 + 2 a s
0 = 14.42 + 2 a (4)
a = 25 m/s2
Additional sources:
Kinematics #1, Kinematics #2, Kinematics #3, Kinematics #4, Kinematics #5.

Practice:
#1, #2, #3, #4

Topic 2. Ecosystem
Objectives :
1. Student should be able to describe the relationship between population and a balanced
ecosystem.
2. Students should be able to describe what are factors of population growth; population
characteristics, population growth; exponential growth; and it’s relation with limit to
growth and carrying capacity
3. Student should be able to describe limiting factors such as density-independent limiting
factors (competition, predation and herbivory, parasitism and disease and stress from
overcrowding) and density-dependent limiting factors
4. Students should be able to explain how human population size changed over time and why
do population growth rates differ among countries?
5. Students should understand how the flow and cycling matter.
6. Students should be able to understand the concept of pyramid energy, calculate the portion
of energy of each trophic level and draw them.

A sustainable habitat of interdependent animals, plants, and microorganisms and their

environment represents a balanced ecosystem

Main Characteristics of Population

- Geographic range
The area inhabited by a population is called its geographic range
- Density and distribution
The number of individuals per unit area
- Growth rate
Determines whether the size of the population increases, decreases, or stays the same
- Age structure
The number of males and females of each age a population contains

Factors affect population growth

A population will increase or decrease in size depending on how many individuals are added
to it or removed from it. The factors that can affect population size are the birthrate, death rate,
and the rate at which individuals enter or leave the population.

1. Birthrate and Death Rate Populations can grow if more individuals are born than die in
any period of time. In other words, a population can grow when its birthrate is higher
than its death rate. If the birthrate equals the death rate, the population may stay the
same size. If the death rate is greater than the birthrate, the population is likely to shrink.
Note that birth means different things in different species. Lions are born much like
humans are born. Codfish, however, release eggs that hatch into new individuals.
2. Immigration and Emigration A population may grow if individuals move into its range
from elsewhere, a process called immigration. Suppose, for example, that an oak grove
in a forest produces a bumper crop of acorns one year. The squirrel population in that
 grove may increase as squirrels immigrate in search of food. On the other hand, a
population may decrease in size if individuals move out of the population’s range, a
process called emigration. For example, a local food shortage or overcrowding can
cause emigration. Young animals approaching maturity may emigrate from the area
where they were born to find mates or establish new territories.

Exponential growth
If you provide a population with all the food and space it needs, protect it from predators and
disease, and remove its waste products, the population will grow. Why? The population will
increase because members of the population will be able to produce offspring. After a time,
those offspring will produce their own offspring. Then, the offspring of those offspring will
produce offspring. So, over time, the population will grow. But notice that something
interesting will happen: The size of each generation of offspring will be larger than the
generation before it. This situation is called exponential growth. In exponential growth, the
larger a population gets, the faster it grows. Under ideal conditions with unlimited resources, a
population will grow exponentially.

Phases of Growth
One way to begin answering this question is to watch how populations behave in nature.
Suppose that a few individuals are introduced into a real-world environment.
Phase 1: Exponential Growth After a short time, the population begins to grow
exponentially. During this phase, resources are unlimited, so individuals grow and
reproduce rapidly. Few individuals die, and many offspring are produced, so both
the population size and the rate of growth increase more and more rapidly.
Phase 2: Growth Slows Down. In real-world populations, exponential growth does not
continue for long. At some point, the rate of population growth begins to slow
down. This does not mean that the population size decreases. The population still
grows, but the rate of growth slows down, so the population size increases more
slowly.
Phase 3: Growth Stops. At some point, the rate of population growth drops to zero. This
means that the size of the population levels off. Under some conditions, the
population will remain at or near this size indefinitely.
Carrying Capacity
When the birthrate and the death rate are the same, and when immigration equals emigration,
population growth stops. The population may still rise and fall somewhat, but the ups and
downs average out around a certain population size. If you look again at Figure above, you will
see a broken, horizontal line through the region of the graph where population growth levels
off. The point at which that line intersects the y-axis represents what ecologists call the carrying
capacity. Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals of a particular species that
a particular environment can support. Once a population reaches the carrying capacity of its
environment, a variety of factors act to stabilize it at that size.

Limiting factors
Recall that the productivity of an ecosystem can be controlled by a limiting nutrient. A
limiting nutrient is an example of a general ecological concept: a limiting factor. In the
context of populations, a limiting factor is a factor that controls the growth of a population
1. Density-dependent limiting factors
a. Competition.
When populations become crowded, individuals compete for food, water, space,
sunlight, and other essentials. Some individuals obtain enough to survive and
reproduce. Others may obtain just enough to live but not enough to enable them to raise
offspring. Still others may starve to death or die from lack of shelter. Thus, competition
can lower birthrates, increase death rates, or both. Competition can also occur among
members of different species that are attempting to use similar or overlapping
resources. This type of competition is a major force behind evolutionary change.
b. Predation and herbivory
The effects of predators on prey and the effects of herbivores on plants are two very
important density- dependent population controls. In a predator-prey relationship,
populations of predators and prey may cycle up and down over time. Herbivory can
also contribute to changes in population numbers. From a plant’s perspective,
herbivores are predators. So it isn’t surprising that populations of herbivores and plants
cycle up and down, just like populations of predators and prey.
In some situations, human activity limits populations. For example, humans are major
predators of codfish in New England. Fishing fleets, by catching more and more fish
every year, have raised cod death rates so high that birthrates cannot keep up. As a
result, the cod population has been dropping.
 c. Parasitism and Disease
Parasites and disease-causing organisms feed at the expense of their hosts, weakening
them and often causing disease or death.
d. Stress From Overcrowding
Some species fight amongst themselves if overcrowded. Too much fighting can cause
high levels of stress, which can weaken the body’s ability to resist disease.

2. Density-independent limiting factors

Unusual weather such as hurricanes, droughts, or floods, and natural disasters such as
wildfires, can act as density independent limiting factors. In response to such factors, a
population may “crash.” After the crash, the population may build up again quickly, or it
may stay low for some time. For some species, storms can nearly extinguish local
populations.

Human population growth

The human population, like populations of other organisms, tends to increase. The rate of that
increase has changed dramatically over time. For most of human existence, the population
grew slowly because life was harsh. Food was hard to find. Predators and diseases were
common and life-threatening. These limiting factors kept human death rates very high. Until
fairly recently, only half the children in the world survived to adulthood. Because death rates
were so high, families had many children, just to make sure that some would survive.

As civilization advanced, life became easier, and the human population began to grow more
rapidly. That trend continued through the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s. Food supplies
became more reliable, and essential goods could be shipped around the globe. Several
factors, including improved nutrition, sanitation, medicine, and healthcare, dramatically
reduced death rates. Yet, birthrates in most parts of the world remained high. The
combination of lower death rates and high birthrates led to exponential growth.

Human birthrates and death rates are high for most of history (Stage I). Advances in nutrition,
sanitation, and medicine lead to lower death rates. Birthrates remain high for a time, so births
greatly exceed deaths (Stage II), and the population increases exponentially. As levels of
education and living standards rise, families have fewer children and the birthrate falls (Stage
III), and population growth slows. The demographic transition is complete when the birthrate
meets the death rate, and population growth stops.

The Demographic Transition Human societies had equally high birthrates and death rates
during most of history. But over the past century, population growth in the United States,
Japan, and much of Europe slowed dramatically. Demographers developed a hypothesis to
explain this shift. According to this hypothesis, these countries have completed the
demographic transition, a dramatic change from high birthrates and death rates to low
birthrates and death rates. The demographic transition is divided into three stages, as shown
in Figure below. To date, the United States, Japan, and Europe have completed the
demographic transition. Parts of South America, Africa, and Asia are passing through Stage
II. (The United States passed through Stage II between 1790 and 1910.) A large part of
ongoing human population growth is happening in only ten countries, with India and China in
the lead. Globally, human population is still growing rapidly, but the rate of growth is
slowing down. Our J-shaped growth curve may be changing into a logistic growth curve.

Age Structure and Population Growth To understand population growth in different

countries, we turn to age-structure diagrams. Figure 5–13 compares the age structure of the
U.S. population with that of Guatemala, a country in Central America. In the United States,
there are nearly equal numbers of people in each age group. This age structure predicts a slow
but steady growth rate for the near future. In Guatemala, on the other hand, there are many
more young children than teenagers, and many more teenagers than adults. This age structure
predicts a population that will double in about 30 years.

Additional sources:
Ecosystem, Logistic growth curve, limit to growth, competition, population dynamics

The cycling of matter

Matter moves through the biosphere differently than the way in which energy moves. Solar
and chemical energy are captured by primary producers and then pass in a one-way fashion
from one trophic level to the next—dissipating in the environment as heat along the way. But
while energy in the form of sunlight is constantly entering the biosphere, Earth doesn’t
receive a significant, steady supply of new matter from space. Unlike the one-way flow of
energy, matter is recycled within and between ecosystems. Elements pass from one organism
to another and among parts of the biosphere through closed loops called biogeochemical
cycles, which are powered by the flow of energy.
The energy is for ecosystem originally comes from the sun and this energy will be within the
ecosystem as biomass. Starting with inorganic molecules (from inorganic nutrient pool and
by absorbing the energy from the sun, producers create biomolecules (glucose) that store
energy from through a photosynthesis. Thus, the chemical energy is stored in these biological
molecules. In order to live and grow, producers are having a respiration by consuming the
carbon from the air using the energy that is stored in biomolecules and releasing oxygen and
heat.

At the same time, consumers that eat the plants to get the energy from the biomolecules in
the plants. The chemical energy is passed to the first consumers and it is used to live and
grow, respiration and also releasing the heat when the process is occurred. The second, third
or final consumer will have the same process. At one point, these all living organisms are
going to die and the energy will be transferred to decomposer while they decompose these
dead organisms. They will also release the heat and at the same return back the biomolecules
to the inorganic nutrient pool. The process will be again repeated by the producers

Food chains and food webs

In every ecosystem, primary producers and consumers are linked through feeding
relationships. Despite the great variety of feeding relationships in different ecosystems,
energy always flows in similar ways. Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way
stream, from primary producers to various consumers.

Food Chains You can think of energy as passing through an ecosystem along a food chain. A
food chain is a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten.
Food chains can vary in length. For example, in a prairie ecosystem, a primary producer,
such as grass, is eaten by an herbivore, such as a grazing antelope. A carnivore, such as a
coyote, in turn feeds upon the antelope. In this two-step chain, the carnivore is just two steps
removed from the primary producer.

Food Webs in most ecosystems, feeding relationships are much more complicated than the
relationships described in a single, simple chain. One reason for this is that many animals eat
more than one kind of food. For example, on Africa’s Serengeti Plain, herbivores, such as
zebras, gazelles, and buffaloes, often graze upon several different species of grasses. Several
predators such as lions, hyenas, and leopards, in turn, often prey upon those herbivores!
Ecologists call this network of feeding interactions a food web.

Decomposers and Detritivores in Food Webs Decomposers and detritivores are as important
in most food webs as other consumers are. In the detritus pathway, decomposers convert that
dead material to detritus, which is eaten by detritivores, such as crayfish, grass shrimp, and
worms. At the same time, the decomposition process releases nutrients that can be used by
primary producers. Thus, decomposers recycle nutrients in food webs. Without decomposers,
nutrients would remain locked within dead organisms.

Ecological pyramid
Each step in a food chain or food web is called a trophic level. Primary producers always
make up the first trophic level. Various consumers occupy every other level. One way to
illustrate the trophic levels in an ecosystem is with an ecological pyramid. Ecological
pyramids show the relative amount of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in
a given food chain or food web. There are three different types of ecological pyramids:
pyramids of energy, pyramids of biomass, and pyramids of numbers.
Pyramids of Energy Theoretically, there is no limit to the number of trophic levels in a food
web or the number of organisms that live on each level. But there is one catch. Only a small
portion of the energy that passes through any given trophic level is ultimately stored in the
bodies of organisms at the next level. This is because organisms expend much of the energy
they acquire on life processes, such as respiration, movement, growth, and reproduction.
Most of the remaining energy is released into the environment as heat—a byproduct of these
activities. Pyramids of energy show the relative amount of energy available at each trophic
level of a food chain or food web.
The efficiency of energy transfer from one trophic level to another varies. On average, about
10 percent of the energy available within one trophic level is transferred to the next trophic
level. For instance, one tenth of the solar energy captured and stored in the leaves of grasses
ends up stored in the tissues of cows and other grazers. One tenth of that energy—10 percent
of 10 percent, or 1 percent of the original amount—gets stored in the tissues of humans
who eat cows. Thus, the more levels that exist between a producer and a given consumer, the
smaller the percentage of the original energy from producers that is available to that
consumer.

Pyramids of Biomass and Numbers The total amount of living tissue within a given trophic
level is called its biomass. Biomass is usually measured in grams of organic matter per unit
area. The amount of biomass a given trophic level can support is determined, in part, by the
amount of energy available.
A pyramid of biomass illustrates the relative amount of living organic matter available at
each trophic level in an ecosystem. Ecologists interested in the number of organisms
at each trophic level uses a pyramid of numbers. A pyramid of numbers shows the relative
number of individual organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem. In most ecosystems,
the shape of the pyramid of numbers is similar to the shape of the pyramid of biomass for the
same ecosystem. In this shape, the numbers of individuals on each level decrease from the
level below it. To understand this point more clearly, imagine that an ecologist marked
off several square meters in a field, and then weighed and counted every organism in that
area.
Additional sources:
Flow of energy and matter, food chains and food webs, trophic levels, trophic pyramids.

Topic 3: Matter and its interaction

Objectives:
1. To know the basic structure of atom (particles in atom), stating the atomic number, atomic
mass number and the chemical symbol
2. To be able to calculate the number of protons, neutrons, electrons and maximum number
of electrons that can occupy a specific
3. To be able to sketch an atom and indicate the location of the nucleus, the shells, the
electronic orbitals and the charge of atom
4. Able to identify the group and period of an element
5. To write the formula and name the chemical compounds
6. To understand how the chemical is reacted, calculate the total atoms of chemical
compounds and balancing the chemical equations
7. To understand the stoichiometry concepts such as moles and mass conversion, moles ratio,
volume-volume and mass-volume

Structure of atom
Atom is the smallest component of an element, characterized by a sharing of the chemical
properties of the element and a nucleus with neutrons, protons and electrons.
A compound is a type of molecule. A molecule is formed when two or more atoms of an
element chemically join together. If the types of atoms are different from each other, a
compound is formed. Not all molecules are compounds, because some molecules, such as
hydrogen gas or ozone, consist only of one element or type of atom.

Number of proton = atomic number

Number of neutron = atomic mass – number of proton
Neutral atom = number of proton is equal to number of electron
The charge of atom
A normal atom has a neutral charge with equal numbers of positive and negative particles.
That means an atom with a neutral charge is one where the number of electrons is equal to
the atomic number. Ions are atoms with extra electrons or missing electrons.
The charge of atom can be divided to be 2:
1. Cation : positive ion where number of proton is bigger than number of electron
2. Anion : negative ion where number of proton is smaller than number of electron.

Atom gains or loses electrons in order to attain eight valence electrons

Valence electrons = electrons on the outermost shell

Cl atom → proton = 17
electron = 17
 Cl ion (anion) → proton = 17
Electron = 18

For positive ion and negative ion, to calculate the total number of protons and neutrons are
the same with neutral atom. For positive ion, number of electrons is reduced by how
many ”plus” or change of ion from their proton numbers.
For negative ion, number of electrons is added by how many “negative” or charge of ion
from their proton numbers

Find number of proton, neutron, electron of the following ions

1. Ca2+ 2. Al3+ 3. F- 4. Se2- 5. Rb+
p= 20 p= 13 p= 9 p= 34 p= 37
e= 18 e= 10 e= 10 e= 36 e= 36
n= 20 n= 14 n= 10 n= 45 n= 48

Shell Model – Group and Period of an element

The great benefit of learning these essentials is that they help us to understand the
organization of the periodic table. According to the noble gas shell model, electrons behave
as though they are arranged in a series of concentric shells. A single noble gas shell is a
region of space around the atomic nucleus upon which electrons may reside.

(a) (b)

(a) A cutaway view of the seven shells, showing the number of electrons each shell can hold.
(b) An easy-to-draw cross-sectional view that resembles Bohr’s planetary model
Valence shell is the outermost shell of every element.
A valence electron is an outer shell electron that is associated with an atom, and that can
participate in the formation of a chemical bond

1. Draw the shell model of the following atom

Li, Na and K
Li; p = 3; e= 3; n=4 Na; p=11; e=11; n=12 K; p=19; e=19; n=20

Valence electron of Li, Na, and K are 1

Therefore they are on the group 1 A
A group is a vertical/column of the periodic table, based on the organization of
valence electrons
2. Draw the shell model of the following atom
Na, Mg and Al
Na; p=11; e=11; n=12 Mg; p=12; e=12; n=12 Al; p=13; e=13; n=14

Total shells of Na, Mg and Al are 3

They are on period 3
A period is a horizontal row of the periodic table. There are seven periods in
the periodic table, with each one beginning at the far left.

3. Draw the shell model of the following ions

O2- S2- Cl-
p= 8; n= 8; e= 10 p= 16; n=16; e=18 p= 17; n=18; e=18
Chemical name and Formula

A chemical formula is a way of presenting information about the chemical proportions of

atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound or molecule, using chemical elements
symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets,
commas and plus (+) and minus (−) signs.

Example: between hydrogen and oxygen

It will form H2O

Naming compound
1. Always put the metal (cation-positive ion) before the non-metal (anion-negative ion)
2. The name of the metal (cation) stays the same but the non-metal (anion) with have
a new ending: Use -ide when the anion is only One type of element

Li2O = Lithium oxide

Al2O3 = Aluminium oxide
MgBr2 = Magnesium bromide
H2O = Hydrogen oxide
Al2S3 = Aluminium sulfide

What if between Magnesium and Bromide

1. Write the ion forms for both elements
2. Criss-cross the number for the ion place it as a subscript.
3. Reduce the subscript to the lowest whole-number value when necessary
Examples: Magnesium and Bromide ; Aluminium oxide
Chemical reactions
Whenever a chemical change occurs → there is a chemical reaction
During a chemical reaction, atoms rearrange to create one or more new compounds.
This activity is neatly summed up in written form as a chemical equation.
A chemical equation shows the reacting substances, called reactants, to the left of an arrow
that points toward the newly formed substances, called products
Reactant --> Product
Phases are also often shown:
(s) for solid,
(l) for liquid,
(g) for gas.
Compounds dissolved in water are designated (aq) for aqueous solution.
Numbers are placed in front of the reactants or products to show the ratio in which they either
combine or form. These numbers are called coefficients and they represent numbers of
individual atoms and molecules.

Reactants -----→ Products

Calculate total atom of compounds below
Chemical equation

Easy step to balance a chemical equation

Balancing chemical equations below

Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry us about measuring the amounts of elements and compounds involved in a

reaction.
Molar mass is defined as the mass in grams of one mole of a substance. The units of molar
mass are grams per mole, abbreviated as g/mol

Calculate molar mass of the following compouds:

Stoichiometry equations
1. Moles and mass reactions
n = m/Mr
n = mol (mole)
m = mass (gram)
Mr = molar mass (g/mol)

a. Calculate the mole of 184g KClO3.

KClO3 → KCl + O2
m 184
n = Mr n KClO3 = 122.55 = 1.50 mol

b. Calculate the mole of 184g of O2.

2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

m 184
n = Mr n O2 = = 5.75 mol
32

c. How many grams of KClO3 contain 2.32 moles of KClO3.

KClO3 → KCl + O2

m = n x Mr m = 2.32 x 122.55 = 284.32 grams

d. How many grams of O2 contain 0.5 moles of O2.

2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

m = n x Mr m = 0.5 x 32 = 16 grams

2. Moles ratio
Known : The substance you are given a value for
Unknown : The substance you are trying to find the value for
3. Concentration
n=CxV C = Concentration (mol/dm3) 1 dm3 =
1000 cm3
n=MxV M = Molarity (mol/dm3) 1 cm3 = 0.001 cm3
V = volume (dm3) 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
n = mol (mole) 1 dm3 = 1 L
m = mass (gram) 1 cm3 = 1 mL
Mr = Molar mass (g/mol)
Additional sources:
Matter, mass, and volume, chemical reaction, chemical change, chemical symbols and
formulas, chemical symbols and formulas#1, reactant and product,
Atom, atom#1, the charge of atom, build an atom, subatomic particles, subatomic particles#1,
atomic number, atomic number#1, mass number, mass number#1, valence electron, noble
gases,
Periodic law, metals, nonmetals,
Molecular formula, conversion between moles and mass, writing chemical equation,
balancing chemical equation, balancing chemical equation#1, mole ratios, mass-mole
stoichiometry, volume, mass-volume,

Practice#1, Practice#2, Practice#3, Practice#4, Practice#5, Practice#6, Practice#7, Practice#8,

Practice#9, Practice#10, Practice#11, Practice#12, Practice#13, Practice#14, Practice#15,
Practice#16
Topic 4: Earth and Human Activity
Objectives:
1. To differentiate and identify how does the human activities give an impact on climate and
weather
2. To identify the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming potential
3. To understand the concept of Ecological footprint and how its differ from one county to
another
4. To understand the concept of natural resources and natural capital and how it can be
renewed.

Weather and climate

It is important to understand the different between climate and weather with respect to
climate change. Weather is the daily result of changes of temperature, pressure and
precipitation in our atmosphere. Weather varies from place to place, sometimes over very
short distances. There are too many variables that interact in such a complex way. Weather
can fluctuate wildly .-a very hot day or a very cold one does not mean that average
temperatures are changing.

Climate is the average weather pattern over many years for a location on Earth. Climate may
show long-term trends and changes if records are kept for long enough. The difference
between weather and climate is the timescale on which they are measured.
The similarity is that both are affected by ocean and atmospheric circulatory systems.
Both are also affected by:
- Clouds - may trap heat underneath them or reflect sunlight away from Earth above them.
- Forest fires - releases carbon dioxide, a GHG, but regrowth traps it again in carbon stores.
- Volcanic eruptions - release huge quantities f. ash which circulate in the atmosphere,
cooling the Earth.
- Human activities - we burn fossil fuels and keep livestock, both of which release GHGs.

Climate change is long- term change and has always happened. Factors that influence climate
change:
- Fluctuations in solar insolation affecting temperature.
- Changing proportions o. gases in the atmosphere released by organisms.
For climate to change on a global scale, inputs and outputs have to change, e.g. heat input
increases or heat output decreases or both if the climate warms up.

Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases reduce heat loss from the atmosphere. If there are more greenhouse gases,
less heat is lost. Long- term records show that the global average surface
temperature of Earth is increasing although there are fluctuations from
year to year.
There is very little carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (0.04% of the total gases) but it and
other GHGs are increasing through anthropogenic activities (activities of humans).
The list of greenhouse gases not only includes carbon dioxide, water vapor and methane but
also chlorofuorocarbons (CFCs and HCFCs) , nitrous oxide and ozone.
Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about
−18 °C (0 °F), rather than the present average of 15 °C (59 °F).
As humans increase emissions o. some greenhouse gases (GHGs) , the greenhouse effect is
exaggerated or enhanced. Most climate scientistsbelieve that this is causing global warming
and climate change.
Gas that has the property of absorbing infrared radiation emitted from Earth’s surface and
reradiating it back to Earth’s surface, thus contributing to the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect showing percentages absorbed, reflected or scattered

Global warming potential (GWP)

GWP is a relative measure of how much heat a known mass of a GHG traps over a number
of years compared to the same mass of carbon dioxide. The greenhouse effect o. a molecule
o. a GHG varies depending whichgas it is.

Carbon dioxide has a GWP of 1. Methane has a GWP of 21 so traps 21 times as much heat as
the same mass o. carbon dioxide. Ozone occurs in the lower two layers of the atmosphere. In
the troposphere it is a GHG but in the stratosphere it forms a layer that absorbs much of the
ultraviolet radiation from the sun and so acts as a coolant. There is no direct link between
global warming and ozone depletion but, because the climate is so complex, there are indirect
links.
The thinning of the ozone layer is certainly allowing more ultraviolet radiation to reach the
Earth surface but this amounts to less than 1% of solar radiation reaching Earth and is not
significant in causing warming. CFCs are chemicals made by humans that coincidentally
break down ozone when they reach the stratosphere but act as GHGs in the troposphere.
CFCs are human-made chemicals so are not present in the atmosphere as a result of natural
processes.
There are many types e.g. CFC-1 1 and CFC-1 2 as well as HCFCs. Although their
concentration in the atmosphere is measured in parts per trillion, they have a large
contribution to the enhanced greenhouse effect because each molecule has a high GWP and a
long lifetime in the atmosphere. Their GWPs may be thousands of times that of carbon
dioxide. That means a molecule of a CFC is up to 1 0,000 times more effective at trapping
long-wave radiation than a molecule o. carbon dioxide which has a GWP of 1.
When data is presented, consider whether the contribution of water vapor is included or
excluded. Water vapor has the largest effect on trapping heat energy so is the most potent
greenhouse gas but it is not usually listed because it varies so much in concentration and is
constantly condensing to water, snow and ice that stops it acting as a GHG. Somewhere in
the region o. 36.66% o. the greenhouse effect is due to water vapor.
Clouds may contribute up to 25% (depending on the type of cloud and its altitude) and other
GHGs cause the rest, with carbon dioxide having the largest effect. Also remember that most
GHGs in the atmosphere are there through natural processes (except CFCs which are human-
made) and it is the increase in these due to anthropogenic activities that is of concern. Carbon
dioxide concentration may be higher now than at any time during the last 1 60,000 years. The
recent rapid rate of increase of 30ppm in 30 years is unprecedented and is due to human
activities.

What is climate change and what will happen?

Changes in the climate can be seen in different ways. It may be in changed temperatures or
rainfall patterns, more severe storms, ice sheet thinning or thickening and sea level rises.
There are five ways in which the climate can change over time due to a change in greenhouse
gas levels.
a. There may be a direct relationship - more forcing ( changes in solar radiation) , more
change in proportion.
b. There may be a buffering action in which forcing increases but climate change does not
follow in a linear way. It is insensitive to change.
c. It may respond slowly at first but then accelerate until it reaches a new equilibrium.
d. It may reach a tipping point . that is the climate makes no response to changes but then
reaches a threshold, at which point it changes rapidly until a new, much higher equilibrium
is reached.
e. In addition to the threshold change, it may then get stuck at the new equilibrium even
when the forcing decreases until it then tips over a new threshold and falls rapidly. These
threshold changes could occur in just a few decades.
Impacts of climate change
1. On oceans and sea levels
Sea levels are rising. This is because water expands as it heats up and ice melting on land
slips off the land and into the sea increasing the volume of sea water. The Greenland and the
Antarctic ice sheets are on land and are thinning. This and the thermal expansion o. the seas
will mean that sea levels rise more. The oceans absorb carbon dioxide and this makes them
slightly acidic. They are slightly more acidic by 0.1 pH as they have absorbed about half the
carbon produced by anthropogenic activities. This may affect marine organisms, particularly
corals. But as they warm, they absorb less CO2.

2. On polar ice caps

Melting of land ice in Antarctica and Greenland will cause sea levels to rise as it flows into
the oceans. Melting of the floating ice cap of the Arctic will not increase the volume o. water
as ice has the same displacement as liquid water. Melting in the Arctic could open up trade
routes, make travel in the region easier and allow exploitation o. undersea minerals and fossil
fuel reserves. Methane clathrate is a form o. ice under the Arctic Ocean floor that traps
methane. If this were to melt and reach the surface, the release of methane may trigger a rapid
increase in temperature.

3. On glaciers
In the Little Ice Age between about 1550 and 1850, glaciers increased in size. They then
decreased (except for the period 1950-90 when global dimming possibly masked global
warming) and have continued to decrease in size. Some have melted completely. Loss o.
glacier ice leads to flooding and landslides. Glacier summer melt provides a fresh water
supply to people living below the glacier and this has provided water to many major Asian
rivers.

4. On weather patterns
More heat means more energy in the climate and so the weather will be more violent and
sporadic with bigger storms and more severe droughts. Global precipitation may increase by
up to 1 5%. This will cause more soil erosion and lack o. water will mean more irrigation and
consequent salinization.

5. On food production
Warmer temperatures should increase the rate of biochemical reactions so photosynthesis
should increase. But respiration will increase too so there may be no increase in NPP. In
Europe, the crop growing season has expanded. But if biomes shift away .rom the equator,
there will be winners and losers. It very much depends on the fertility of the soils as
well.

6. On biodiversity and ecosystems

Melting of the tundra permafrost would also release methane which is trapped in the frozen
soils. In Alaska, Canada and Russia, permafrost is melting and houses built on it are shifting
as it thaws. Animals can move to cooler regions but plants cannot. The distribution of plants
can shift as they disperse seeds which germinate and grow in more favorable habitats. But
this happens slowly at about 1 km per year and perhaps too slowly to stop them becoming
extinct. Species in alpine or tundra regions have nowhere to go, neither higher up nor towards
higher latitudes. Polar species could become extinct in the wild. Birds and butterflies have
already shifted their ranges to higher latitudes. Plants are breaking their winter dormancy
earlier.
7. On water supplies
Increased evaporation rates may cause some rivers and lakes to dry up. Without a water
supply, populations would have to move away. The UN says that 2.4 billion people live in the
river basins led by the Himalayas and their water supply is reducing. In Europe and North
America, glaciers are also in retreat.

8. On human health
Heatwaves killed many in Europe in 2006. These may increase. Insect disease vectors will
spread to more regions as the less cold winters means they will not be killed off. Malaria,
yellow fever and dengue fever could spread to higher latitudes. Algal blooms may be more
common as seas and lakes warm and some are toxic ( red tides) and can kill humans. In a
wetter climate, fungal disease will increase; in drier areas, dust increases leading to asthma
and chest infections. Warmer temperatures in higher latitudes would reduce the number
of people dying from the cold each year and reduce heating bills for households. And fewer
snow storms and icy roads means lower death tolls on the roads.

9. On human migration
If people cannot grow food or find water, they will move to regions where they can. Global
migration of millions of environmental refugees is quite possible and this would have
implications for nation states, services and economic and security policies.

10. On national economies

Some would suffer if water supplies decrease or drought occurs. Others would gain if it
became easier to exploit mineral reserves that would have been frozen in the permafrost or
under ice sheets. If rivers do not freeze, hydroelectric power generation is possible at higher
latitudes. Overall, there will be gains and losses for national economies. Agricultural
production may rise in higher latitudes but fall in the tropics. Africa will probably lose food
production and rainfall. Northern Darfur has seen desertification on a massive scale already
and many millions of hectares become desert.

Ecological footprints
An ecological footprint (EF) is the area of land and water required to sustainably provide all
resources at the rate at which they are being consumed by a given population.
EF is a model used to estimate the demands that human populations place on the
environment. The measure takes into account the area required to provide all the resources
needed by the population, and the assimilation of all wastes. Where the EF is greater than the
area available to the population, this is an indication o. unsustainability as the
population exceeds the carrying capacity of the area.
EFs may vary significantly .rom country to country and person to person and include aspects
such as lifestyle choices (EVS) , productivity of food production systems, land use and
industry.
 Our ecological footprint

Personal ecological footprint

A fair Earthshare is the amount of land each person would get if all the ecologically
productive land on Earth were divided evenly among the present world population.

A fair Earthshare if all productive land were shared equally.

Area of circle =1.8 global hectares

The ecological footprint of a country depends on several factors: its population size and
consumption per capita . how many people and how much land each one uses. It includes the
cropland and other land that is needed to grow food, grow biofuels, graze animals for meat,
produce wood, dig up minerals and the area of land needed to absorb wastes, not just solid
waste but waste water, sewage and carbon dioxide. The creditors have smaller footprints than
their biocapacity (living capacity or natural resources) and the debtors have larger footprints,
represented here by changing the sizes of the countries in proportion. Debtors could be
harvesting resources unsustainably in their countries, importing goods or exporting wastes.
There is no such thing as ‘throwing away’ on the Earth. There is no ‘away’ in a closed
system.
Natural capital and natural income
Natural capital is a resource which has some value to humans. Resources are goods or
services that we use. Natural income is the rate of replacement of a particular resource or
natural capital. In the past, economists spoke o. capital as the products of manufacturing,
human-made goods, and separated these from land and labor. But we now recognize that
capital includes:
- natural resources that have value to us, e.g. trees, soil, water, living organisms and ores
bearing minerals,
- natural resources that provide services that support life, e.g. food and
- erosion protection provided by forests, and processes, e.g. photosynthesis that provides
oxygen for life forms to. respire, the water cycle or other processes that maintain healthy
ecosystems.

So the term natural capital is now used to describe these goods or services that are not
manufactured but have value to humans. They can be improved or degraded and given a
value - we can begin to give monetary values to ecosystems. We may be able to process these
to add value to them, e.g. mine tin or uranium, turn trees into timber, but they are still natural
capital. The terms resource and natural capital are interchangeable.
Just as capital yields income in terms of economics, natural capital yields natural income
(yield or harvest or services), factories produce objects, cherry trees produce cherries, and the
water cycle provides us with fresh water. The measure o. the true wealth o. a country must
include its natural capital, e.g. how many mineral resources, forests, rivers it has.
In general MEDCs add value to natural income by manufacturing goods from it and LEDCs
may have greater unprocessed natural capital.
The World Bank now calculates the wealth of a country by including the rate of extraction of
natural resources and the ecological damage caused by this, including carbon dioxide
emissions.

Renewable natural capital includes:

1. living species and ecosystems that use solar energy and photosynthesis
2. non- living items, such as groundwater and the ozone layer.

If renewable natural capital is used beyond its natural income, this use is unsustainable.
Renewable natural capital can run out f. the standing stock (how much is there) is harvested
unsustainably, i.e. more is taken than can be replaced by the natural growth rate. Then, it will
eventually run out. The depletion of natural resources at unsustainable levels and efforts
to conserve these resources are often the source of conflict within and between political
parties and countries. The impacts of extraction, transport and processing of a renewable
natural capital may cause damage making this natural capital unsustainable.

Non-renewable natural capital are resources that exist infinite amounts on Earth and are not
renewed or replaced after they have been used or depleted (or only over a long timescale -
normally geological scales). Non- renewable resources include minerals, soil, water in
aquifers and fossil fuels. As the resource is used, natural capital or stocks are depleted. New
sources of stock or alternatives need to be found. Depending on your source of drinking
water, where you live and the annual rainfall, water may be considered renewable natural
capital (high rainfall regions where most rain is collected and used for drinking)
or non-renewable natural capital dynamic nature of natural capital.
The importance of types of natural capital varies over time. A resource available today may
not be a resource in the future. A resource available in the past may not be a resource today,
or it may not have the resource value it previously had. Our use of natural capital depends on
cultural, social, economic, environmental, technological and political factors.

Examples of changing value of natural capital

1. Cork forests
Cork from the bark of the cork oak tree has been essential for centuries to seal wine bottles.
But now plastic corks, screw- top bottles and plastic lids are replacing cork. Many of these
are not biodegradable like cork. And they are made from fossil fuels. Cork forests are losing
their value as natural capital to humans so they are cut down and the land used for other
purposes.
You might think that is a good thing but it is not. Cork oak forests in the Mediterranean
region have high biodiversity, second only to that o. the Amazon rainforest. In harvesting
cork, the tree continues to live and only the bark is harvested by hand every 9 years.

2. Lithium
We use lithium carbonate batteries i. we have a mobile phone, tablet or electric car. Thirty
years ago, we had little idea where lithium-containing ores were in the world because we did
not use much o. it as a resource. Now we cannot get enough of them. More than half the
world’s known reserves of lithium are underneath a desert salt plain in Bolivia. More is under
the Chilean Atacama desert. China has found some in Tibet. But the annual production of
lithium is not nearly enough to power electric cars if they were to replace cars with petrol
engines.

Additional sources:
Greenhouse gases, greenhouse gases #1, greenhouse effect, ecological footprint, ecological
footprint#1, calculate your ecological footprint

Topic 5. Energy
Objectives:
1. To explain the meaning of work and power, their components, relationship and calculation.
2. To explain the meaning of potential and kinetic energy, their components, relationship and
calculation.
3. To relate the concept work with potential and kinetic energy
4. To relate the concept of motion with potential and kinetic energy
5. To explain the law of conservation energy in terms of kinetic and potential
6. To perform calculation to kinetic and potential energy and applying the law of
conservation energy
7. To distinguish between chemical energy and thermal energy
8. To understand heat and temperature as they relate to kinetic energy and thermal energy; to
calculate thermal energy.

Work and power

When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement of the object, it is said
that work was done upon the object. There are three key ingredients to work - force,
displacement, and cause. In order for a force to qualify as having done work on an object,
there must be a displacement and the force must cause the displacement.
There are several good examples of work that can be observed in everyday life - a horse
pulling a plow through the field, a father pushing a grocery cart down the aisle of a grocery
store, a freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon her shoulder, a weightlifter lifting a
barbell above his head, an Olympian launching the shot-put, etc. In each case described here
there is a force exerted upon an object to cause that object to be displaced.

To Do Work, Forces Must Cause Displacements

When the waiter who carried a tray full of meals above his head by one arm straight across
the room at constant speed. The waiter does not do work upon the tray as he carries it across
the room. The force supplied by the waiter on the tray is an upward force and the
displacement of the tray is a horizontal displacement.
It can be accurately noted that the waiter's hand did push forward on the tray for a brief
period of time to accelerate it from rest to a final walking speed. But once up to speed, the
tray will stay in its straight-line motion at a constant speed without a forward force. And if
the only force exerted upon the tray during the constant speed stage of its motion is upward,
then no work is done upon the tray. Again, a vertical force does not do work on a horizontally
displaced object.
Negative works
On occasion, a force acts upon a moving object to hinder a displacement. Examples might
include a car skidding to a stop on a roadway surface or a baseball runner sliding to a stop on
the infield dirt. In such instances, the force acts in the direction opposite the objects motion in
order to slow it down. The force doesn't cause the displacement but rather hinders it. These
situations involve what is commonly called negative work. The negative of negative work
refers to the numerical value that results when values of F and d are substituted into the work
equation.

W =Fxd
Joule = Newton x meter
W= work (joule); F= force (N); d= distance (m)

The quantity work has to do with a force causing a displacement. Work has nothing to do
with the amount of time that this force acts to cause the displacement. Sometimes, the work is
done very quickly and other times the work is done rather slowly. For example, a rock
climber takes an abnormally long time to elevate her body up a few meters along the side of a
cliff. On the other hand, a trail hiker (who selects the easier path up the mountain) might
elevate her body a few meters in a short amount of time. The two people might do the same
amount of work, yet the hiker does the work in considerably less time than the rock climber.
The quantity that has to do with the rate at which a certain amount of work is done is known
as the power. The hiker has a greater power rating than the rock climber.
Power is the rate at which work is done. It is the work/time ratio. Mathematically, it is
computed using the following equation.
P = W/t
Power = work done / time interval
Watts = Joule / second
Potential energy
An object can store energy as the result of its position. For example, the heavy ball of a
demolition machine is storing energy when it is held at an elevated position. This stored
energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Similarly, a drawn bow is able to store
energy as the result of its position. When assuming its usual position (i.e., when not drawn),
there is no energy stored in the bow. Yet when its position is altered from its usual
equilibrium position, the bow is able to store energy by virtue of its position. This stored
energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Potential energy is the stored energy of
position possessed by an object.

Gravitational Potential Energy The two examples above illustrate the two forms of
potential energy to be discussed in this course - gravitational potential energy and elastic
 potential energy. Gravitational potential
energy is the energy stored in an object as
the result of its vertical position or height.
The energy is stored as the result of the
gravitational attraction of the Earth for the
object. The gravitational potential energy
of the massive ball of a demolition
machine is dependent on two variables - the mass of the ball and the height to which it is
raised. There is a direct relation between gravitational potential energy and the mass of an
object. More massive objects have greater gravitational potential energy. There is also a
direct relation between gravitational potential energy and the height of an object. The higher
that an object is elevated, the greater the gravitational potential energy. These relationships
are expressed by the following equation:
PEgrav = mass • g • height

PEgrav = m *• g • h
In the above equation, m represents the mass of the object, h represents the height of the
object and g represents the gravitational field strength (9.8 N/kg on Earth) - sometimes
referred to as the acceleration of gravity.

Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. An object that has motion - whether it is vertical or
horizontal motion - has kinetic energy. There are many forms of kinetic energy - vibrational
(the energy due to vibrational motion), rotational (the energy due to rotational motion), and
translational (the energy due to motion from one location to another). To keep matters
simple, we will focus upon translational kinetic energy. The amount of translational kinetic
energy (from here on, the phrase kinetic energy will refer to translational kinetic energy) that
an object has depends upon two variables: the mass (m) of the object and the speed (v) of the
object. The following equation is used to represent the kinetic energy (KE) of an object.

KE = 0.5 • m • v2

where m = mass of object

v = speed of object
This equation reveals that the kinetic energy of an object
is directly proportional to the square of its speed. That
means that for a twofold increase in speed, the kinetic
energy will increase by a factor of four. For a threefold
increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a
factor of nine. And for a fourfold increase in speed, the
kinetic energy will increase by a factor of sixteen. The
kinetic energy is dependent upon the square of the speed. As it is often said, an equation is
not merely a recipe for algebraic problem solving, but also a guide to thinking about the
relationship between quantities. Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity; it does not have a
direction. Unlike velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum, the kinetic energy of an object
is completely described by magnitude alone. Like work and potential energy, the standard
metric unit of measurement for kinetic energy is the Joule. As might be implied by the above
equation, 1 Joule is equivalent to 1 kg*(m/s)2.
1. Calculate the potential energy of a 3-kilogram potted plant that is on a 2 meter-high plant
stand.
Ep = m g h = (3) (9.8) (2) = 58.8 J

2. Calculate the total work done in lifting a chemistry textbook with mass 1.5 kg a vertical
distance of 2 m.
W = F x d = m g d = (1.5) (9.8) (2) = 29.4 J

3. 0.8 kg mass at constant speed is lifted a vertical distance of 2.5 m by a small electric motor
in 4.0 s. Calculate the average power developed by the motor.
P= F x d/t = m g d/t = (0.8) (9.8) (2.5) / 4 = 4.9 Watts

4. Which book that has highest potential energy if a 4-newton book is moved to three
different shelves on a bookcase and the high are 2.5 meter, 3,5 meter and 4.0 meter.
Ep1 = (4)(2.5) = 10 J Ep2 = (4) (3.5) = 14 J Ep3 = (4) (4) = 16 J
Apple with the high 4.0 meter.

5. Calculate the kinetic energy of 2-kilogram ball that is rolling at 4 meter per second.
Ek = ½ (2) (4)2 = 16 J

6. What is the mass of the apple in grams if the potential energy is 8 J with 2.00-meters high.
8 J = (m) (9.8) (2.00) → 0.408 kg = 408 gram

7. An athlete moves from rest to a velocity of 15 m/s in 3 second. The mass of the athlete is
70 kg.
a. How much work did the athlete do to reach 15 m.

W = F x d = m g d = m a d = 70 x 5 x 15 = 5250 J

v=u+at
15m/s = 0m/s + a . 3 s
15 = 3a
a = 5 m/s2

b. Calculate the average power of the athlete.

P = W/t = 5250J / 3s = 1750 watts

8. An athlete stops after moving from a velocity of 10 m/s in 2.5 second. The mass of the
athlete is 60 kg.
How much work did the athlete do to reach 10 m.

W = F x d = m g d = m a d = 60 x -5 x 10 = -3000 J

v=u+at
0m/s = 10m/s + a . 5 s
-10 = 2 a
a = -5 m/s2
9. How far the apple was lifted if 3.0 J of work is done in raising 156 g of apple?
F=m.g d = W/F = 3/1.53 = 1.96 m
= 0.156 . 9.8
= 1.53 N

10. Calculate the amount of a work require to stop a puck in 1.2 s if it was traveling 13 m/s
and a force 40 N is applied.
W = F x d = 40 x 7.8 = 312 J

s = [(v+u) t ]/ 2
= [(0 + 13) 1.2] /2
= 7.8 m

The law of conservation energy

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed - only converted from one form of energy to
another. Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due to its motion or
due to its position. Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or
potential energy (stored energy of position).
Quite a bit of potential energy is gained by a roller coaster car and its passengers when they
are raised to the top of the first hill. Remember that the potential part of the term means that
energy has been stored and can be used at another time. You will see that this stored energy
can either be used to do work or can be transformed into kinetic energy. For example, when
an object that has gravitational potential energy falls, its energy is converted to kinetic
energy. Remember that both work and energy are expressed in joules.
On an actual roller coaster, there are many ups and downs, and each of these is accompanied
by transitions between kinetic and potential energy. Assume that no energy is lost to friction.
At any point in the ride, the total mechanical energy is the same, and it is equal to the energy
the car had at the top of the first rise. This is a result of the law of conservation of energy,
this law is expressed as KE1+PE1=KE2+PE2

The equation illustrates that the total mechanical energy (KE + PE) of the object is changed
as a result of work done by external forces. There are a host of other situations in which the
only forces doing work are internal or conservative forces. In such situations, the total
mechanical energy of the object is not changed. The external work term cancels from the
above equation and mechanical energy is conserved. The previous equation is simplified to
the following form: KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf
In these situations, the sum of the kinetic and potential energy is everywhere the same. As the
potential energy is increased due to the stretch/compression of a spring or an increase in its
height above the earth, the kinetic energy is decreased due to the object slowing down. As the
potential energy is decreased due to the return of a spring to its rest position or a decrease in
height above the earth, the kinetic energy is increased due to the object speeding up. We
would say that energy is transformed or changes its form from kinetic energy to potential
energy (or vice versa); yet the total amount present is conserved - i.e., always the same.
1. Find the force is applied in 4 kg ball going 5 m/s that stops in 6 m.
Ek = W
½ m v2 = F d
½ 4 (5)2 = F 6
50/6 = F
8.33 N = F
2. How fast was ball going when thrown into the air if the mass of the ball is 6 kg and reaches
a height of 1.8 m?
v2 = 2 g h
= 2 10. 1.8
= 36 m/s
v = 6 m/s

3. How fast is ball going halfway down if the mass is of the ball is 4 kg and it is dropped
from 12 m.
KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf note m will be cancelled
½ m vi2 + m g hi = ½ m vf2 + m g hf
0 + 9.8 . 12 = ½ vf2 + 9.8 . 6
117.6 = ½ vf2 + 58.8
117.6 = vf 2

10.84 = vf

4. An object drops from 570 meters to 450 meters. How fast is it going 450 meter above the
ground [4]
KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf note m will be cancelled
2 2
½ m vi + m g hi = ½ m vf + m g hf
0 + 10 . 570 = ½ vf2 + 10 . 450
5700 = ½ vf2 4500
1200/ ½ = vf2
2400 = vf2
48.9 = vf

5. Calculate the initial speed of a football player when he slows down a 84 kg opponent down
to 2.5m/s if the work done is -3200 J. Mass of football player is 84 kg.
W = EKfinal – EKinitial
= ½ (84) (3)2 – ½ (84) (vi)2
-3200 = 378 – 42 x (vi)2
-3200 - 378 = – 42 (vi)2
85.19 = (vi)2
Vi = 9.23 m/s

Chemical energy
Energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds.
It is released in the chemical reaction and mostly produces heat as a by-product, known as
an exothermic reaction. The examples of stored chemical energy are biomass,
batteries, natural gas, petroleum, and coal. Mostly, when the chemical energy is released from
a substance, it is transformed into a new substance completely.
For instance, when an explosion goes off, the chemical energy in it is transferred to the
surroundings as thermal energy, kinetic energy, and sound energy.

Reactions that require an input of heat to proceed may store some of that energy as chemical
energy in newly formed bonds. The chemical energy in food is converted by the body
into mechanical energy and heat. The chemical energy in coal is converted into electrical
energy at a power plant. The chemical energy in a battery can also supply electrical power by
means of electrolysis.
Chemical Energy Examples
The dry wood is the storage of chemical energy. When it burns, the chemical energy is liberated
and converted into light energy and thermal energy. Please note that the wood transforms into
ashes which is a new substance.
The food we eat is also another appropriate example of stored chemical energy, released during
digestion. The molecules in food breakdown into small pieces. When the bonds between these
atoms break, a chemical reaction takes place, and new compounds are formed and as the bonds
break, the oxidation takes place instantly.

Thermal energy
Why do the air and sand of Death Valley feel so hot? It’s because their particles are moving
very rapidly. Anything that is moving has kinetic energy, and the faster it is moving, the more
kinetic energy it has. The total kinetic energy of moving particles of matter is called thermal
energy. It’s not just hot things such as the air and sand of Death Valley that have thermal
energy. All matter has thermal energy, even matter that feels cold. That’s because the
particles of all matter are in constant motion and have kinetic energy.

Temperature
The temperature of a gas is a measure of the amount of average kinetic energy that the atoms
in the gas possess. If you heat something, you increase its internal energy, so you increase the
movement of molecules that make up this thing, thus it expands. This is called heat
expansion; most everything expands as heated and contracts as cooled. Most materials
expand as they are heated.
Thermal energy transfer
The first theory about how a hot object differs from a cold object was formed in the 18th
century. The suggested explanation was that when an object was heated, an invisible fluid
called “caloric” was added to the object. Hot objects contained more caloric than cold
objects. The caloric theory could explain some observations about heated objects (such as
that the fact that objects expanded as they were heated) but could not explain others (such as
why your hands got warm when you rub them together).
In the mid-19th century, scientists devised a new theory to explain heat. The new theory was
based on the assumption that matter is made up of tiny particles that are always in motion. In
a hot object, the particles move faster and therefore have greater kinetic energy. The theory is
called the kinetic-molecular theory and is the accepted theory of heat. Just as a baseball has a
certain amount of kinetic energy due to its mass and velocity, each molecule has a certain
amount of kinetic energy due to its mass and velocity. Adding up the kinetic energy of all the
molecules in an object yields the thermal energy of the object.
When a hot object and a cold object touch each other, the molecules of the objects collide
along the surface where they touch. When higher kinetic energy molecules collide with lower
kinetic energy molecules, kinetic energy is passed from the molecules with more kinetic
energy to those with less kinetic energy. In this way, heat always flows from hot to cold and
heat will continue to flow until the two objects have the same temperature. The movement of
heat from one object to another by molecular collision is called conduction.
Kelvin and Celcius
The most commonly used temperature scale in the United States is the Fahrenheit scale.
However, this scale is rarely used throughout the world; the metric temperature scale is
Celsius. This scale, based on the properties of water, was devised by the Swedish physicist,
Anders Celsius (1704 – 1744). The freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point of
water was assigned to be 100°C. The kinetic energies between these two points was divided
evenly into 100 “degrees Celsius”.
The Kelvin or “Absolute” temperature scale is the scale often used by chemists and
physicists. It is based on the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases; this
temperature is called absolute zero and is 0 K. This temperature corresponds to -273.15°C.
Since absolute zero is the coldest possible temperature, there are no negative values on the
Kelvin temperature scale. Conveniently, the Kelvin and Celsius scales have the same
definition of a degree, which makes it very easy to convert from one scale to the other. The
relationship between Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales is given by:
K = °C + 273.15
On the Kelvin scale, water freezes at 273 K and boils at 373 K.
Example
Convert 25°C to Kelvin.
K = °C + 273 = 25°C + 273 = 298 K

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

Different substances respond to heat in different ways. If a metal chair sits in the
bright sun on a hot day, it may become quite hot to the touch. An equal mass of water in the
same sun will not become nearly as hot. We would say that water has a high heat
capacity (the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by 1°C.) Water is
very resistant to changes in temperature, while metals in general are not. The specific heat of
a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the
substance by 1°C. Table below lists the specific heats of some common substances. The
symbol for specific heat is cp, with the p subscript referring to the fact that specific heats are
measured at constant pressure. The units for specific heat can either be joules per gram per
degree (J/g°C) or calories per gram per degree (cal/g°C). This text will use J/g°C for specific
heat.

Exothermic reaction
All chemical reactions involve energy. Energy is used to break bonds in reactants, and energy
is released when new bonds form in products. In some chemical reactions, called
endothermic reactions, less energy is released when new bonds form in the products than is
needed to break bonds in the reactants. The opposite is true of exothermic reactions. In
an exothermic reaction, it takes less energy to break bonds in the reactants than is released
when new bonds form in the products.

Endothermic Reaction
All chemical reactions involve energy. Energy is used to break bonds in reactants, and energy
is released when new bonds form in products. In some chemical reactions, called exothermic
reactions, more energy is released when new bonds form in the products than is needed to
break bonds in the reactants. The opposite is true of endothermic reactions. In
an endothermic reaction, it takes more energy to break bonds in the reactants than is
released when new bonds form in the products.

Relating the Quantity of Heat to the Temperature Change

Specific heat capacities provide a means of mathematically relating the amount of thermal
energy gained (or lost) by a sample of any substance to the sample's mass and its resulting
temperature change. The relationship between these four quantities is often expressed by the
following equation.
Q = m•C•ΔT
where Q is the quantity of heat transferred to or
from the object, m is the mass of the object, C is the
specific heat capacity of the material the object is
composed of, and ΔT is the resulting temperature
change of the object. As in all situations in science,
a delta (∆) value for any quantity is calculated by
subtracting the initial value of the quantity from the
final value of the quantity. In this case, ΔT is equal
to Tfinal - Tinitial. When using the above equation, the Q value can turn out to be either
positive or negative. As always, a positive and a negative result from a calculation has
physical significance. A positive Q value indicates that the object gained thermal energy from
its surroundings; this would correspond to an increase in temperature and a positive ΔT
value. A negative Q value indicates that the object released thermal energy to its
surroundings; this would correspond to a decrease in temperature and a negative ΔT value.
Calorimetry is the science associated with determining the changes in energy of a system by
measuring the heat exchanged with the surroundings. A calorimeter is a device used to
measure the quantity of heat transferred to or from an object. Most students likely do not
remember using such a fancy piece of equipment known as a calorimeter. Fear not; the reason
for the lack of memory is not a sign of early Alzheimer's. Rather, it is because the calorimeter
used in high school science labs is more commonly referred to as a Styrofoam cup. It is
a coffee cup calorimeter - usually filled with water. The more sophisticated cases include a
lid on the cup with an inserted thermometer and maybe even a stirrer.

Enthalpy
Heat changes in chemical reactions are most often measured in the laboratory under
conditions in which the reacting system is open to the atmosphere. In that case, the system is
at a constant pressure. Enthalpy (H)(H) is the heat content of a system at constant pressure.
Chemists routinely measure changes in enthalpy of chemical systems as reactants are
converted into products. The heat that is absorbed or released by a reaction at constant
pressure is the same as the enthalpy change, and is given the symbol ΔHΔH. Unless
otherwise specified, all reactions in this material are assumed to take place at constant
pressure.
The change in enthalpy of a reaction is a measure of the differences in enthalpy of
the reactants and products. The enthalpy of a system is determined by the energies needed to
break chemical bonds and the energies needed to form chemical bonds. Energy needs to be
put into the system in order to break chemical bonds – they do not come apart spontaneously
in most cases. Bond formation to produce products will involve release of energy. The
change in enthalpy shows the trade-offs made in these two processes. Does it take more
energy to break bonds that that needed to form bonds? If so, the reaction is endothermic and
the enthalpy change is positive. If more energy is produced in bond formation than that
needed for bond breaking, the reaction is exothermic and the enthalpy is negative.
Several factors influence the enthalpy of a system. Enthalpy is an extensive property,
determined in part by the amount of material we work with. The state of reactants and
products (solid, liquid, or gas) influences the enthalpy value for a system. The direction of the
reaction affects the enthalpy value. A reaction that takes place in the opposite direction has
the same numerical enthalpy value, but the opposite sign.

Bomb Calorimetry
The coffee cup calorimeters used in high school science labs provides students with a
worthwhile exercise in calorimetry. But at the professional level, a cheap Styrofoam cup and
a thermometer isn't going to assist a commercial food manufacturer in determining the
Calorie content of their products. For situations in which exactness and accuracy is at stake, a
more expensive calorimeter is needed. Chemists often use a device known as a bomb
calorimeter to measure the heat exchanges associated with chemical reactions, especially
combustion reactions. Having little to nothing to do with bombs of the military variety, a
bomb calorimeter includes a reaction chamber where the reaction (usually a combustion
reaction) takes place. The reaction chamber is a strong vessel that can withstand the intense
pressure of heated gases with exploding. The chamber is typically filled with mostly oxygen
gas and the fuel. An electrical circuit is wired into the chamber in order to electrically ignite
the contents in order to perform a study of the heat released upon combustion. The reaction
chamber is surrounded by a jacket of water with a thermometer inserted. The heat released
from the chamber warms the water-filled jacket, allowing a scientist to determine the quantity
of energy released by the reaction.

The key to all calorimetry experiments is the assumption that there is no heat exchange
between the insulated calorimeter and the room. Consider the case of a reaction taking place
between aqueous reactants. The water in which the solids have been dissolved is the
surroundings, while the dissolved substances are the system. The temperature change that is
measured is the temperature change that is occurring in the surroundings. If the temperature
of the water increases as the reaction occurs, the reaction is exothermic. Heat was released by
the system into the surrounding water. An endothermic reaction absorbs heat from the
surroundings, so the temperature of the water decreases as heat leaves the surroundings to
enter the system.
The temperature change of the water is measured in the experiment and the specific heat of
water can be used to calculate the heat absorbed by the surroundings.
 𝑚 . 𝑐 . ∆T
∆H = - Negative ( - )when the temperature increases
#𝑚𝑜𝑙
Positive ( + )when the temperature decreases
∆H = enthalpy change (J/mol)
q = heat capacity (J)
m = mass of water in grams ( same as volume in cm3)
c = the specific heat capacity of water (4.18 JK-1g-1)
∆T = the change in temperature (K)

1. Calculate the specific heat of Copper if the temperature of a 24.9 g sample of copper is
increased by 19.2oC when 5780 J is added
∆T = 19.2 + 273 = 292.2 K
q 578
q = m x c x ∆T → c= → c= = 0.79 J/g K
m x ∆T 24.9 x 292.2

2. Calculate the enthalpy of hexane if the water rises 29 K. (c= 4.18 J/g K)
18 grams of butane (C4H10) is combusted in a bomb calorimeter containing 191 grams
of water.
n= m/Mr = 18/58 = 0.31 g/mol

m x c x ∆T 191 x 4.18 x 29
∆H = - ∆H = - = - 74687.16 J
#mol 0.31

3. Calculate the molar mass of 122 g of a compound if it is burned in a bomb calorimeter

which contains 70 g of water. 33 K of temperature was raised in the calorimeter with
the heat of combustion of 2232 J/mol (c= 4.18 J/g K)
q = m x c x T H = q/n
= 70 x 4.18 x 33 9655.8 = 2232 / n
= 9655.8 J n = 0.23 mol

n = m/Mr
0.23 mol = 122 g/Mr
Mr = 530.43 g/mol
4. How much will the temperature increase if 470.5 J of heat is added to a 25.4 g sample of
silver. The specific heat of silver is 0.55 J/g K.
q = m x c x ∆T → q → 470.5 = 33.68 K
∆T = ∆T =
mxc 25.4 x 0.55
5. If 1.06 moles of ethane (C2H6) is combusted in a bomb calorimeter containing 170
grams of water. Calculate the enthalpy of ethane if the water rises 32 K. (c= 4.18 J/g K)

m x c x ∆T 170 x 4.18 x 32
∆H = - ∆H = - = 21452.07
#mol 1.06

Additional resources:
Energy, forms of energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, conservation of energy,
Conservation of energy, chemical energy, heat transfer, calorimetry and enthalpy

Topic 6: Evolution
Objectives:
1. To understand the principle of natural selection, mechanism of microevolution and genetic
equilibrium
2. To understand the patterns of evolution observable in nature
3. To Identify evidence of evolution
4. To understand the concept of phylogenetics

Evolution
The process of biological change that makes descendants differ from their ancestors

Types of evolution
• Evolution can occur on a small scale affecting a single population (microevolution)
• Evolution on a large scale affecting changes in species across populations
(macroevolution)

Natural selection
Natural selection is the process by which organisms with variations most suited to their local
environment survive and leave more offspring. In both artificial and natural selection, only
certain individuals in a population produce new individuals. But in natural selection, the
environment—not a farmer or animal breeder—influences fitness.

When does natural selection occur? Natural selection occurs in any situation in which more
individuals are born than can survive (the struggle for existence), there is natural heritable
variation (variation and adaptation), and there is variable fitness among individuals (survival
of the fittest). Well-adapted individuals survive and reproduce. From generation to
generation, populations continue to change as they become better adapted, or as their
environment changes.
Notice that natural selection acts only on inherited traits because those are the only
characteristics that parents can pass on to their offspring. Natural selection does not make
organisms “better.” Adaptations don’t have to be perfect—just good enough to enable an
organism to pass its genes to the next generation. Natural selection also doesn’t move in a
fixed direction.
Natural selection is simply a process that enables species to survive and reproduce in a
local environment. If local environmental conditions change, some traits that were once
adaptive may no longer be useful, and different traits may become adaptive. And if
environmental conditions change faster than a species can adapt to those changes, the species
may become extinct. Of course, natural selection is not the only mechanism driving
evolution.

Darwin’s overall observation

• Left unchecked, the number of organisms of each species will increase
• In nature, populations tend to remain stable in size
• Environmental resources are limited
• Individuals of a population vary in characteristics, with no 2 individuals being exactly
alike
• Much of this variation between individuals is heritable

Natural selection principles

1. Overproduction of offspring
Malthus argued that human populations grow exponentially if unchecked, but that disease,
starvation, or war will limit population growth eventually. High birth rates and high death
rates were characteristic of human history. Darwin himself had ten children; three died before
maturity. Darwin reasoned that populations of all species have the capacity to grow. Simply
put, species produce more offspring than can survive. However, his observations showed that
most populations remained stable due to environmental limits. He concluded that population
sizes to remain stable, many offspring must die. The phrases "overproduction of offspring"
and "struggle for existence" summarize this idea.

2. Variation
Here’s where individual variation plays a vital role. Darwin knew that individuals have
natural variations among their heritable traits. He hypothesized that some of those variants
are better suited to life in their environment than others. Members of a predatory species that
are faster or have longer claws or sharper teeth can catch more prey. And members of a prey
species that are faster or better camouflaged can avoid being caught.
3. Adaptations
Adaptations are logical because the environment imposes limits on organisms, selecting
against those who are not “fit.” Adaptations arise through gradual accumulation of chance
variations, so they cannot be predicted, despite the fact that they appear to be goal-directed or
intentional. Adaptations relate to every aspect of life: food, water, oxygen, nutrients, shelter,
growth, response, reproduction, movement, behavior, and ability to learn. Adaptations
connect organisms to the resources in their environments.

4. Descent with modification

Natural selection explains how today’s organisms could be related – through “descent with
modification” from common ancestors. Natural selection explains the story told by the fossil
record – the long history of life on Earth.
In the light of natural selection, it is easy to see that variation – differences among individuals
within a population – increases the chance that at least some individuals will survive if the
environment changes. Here is a strong argument against cloning humans: if we were all
genetically identical – if variation (or genetic variation) did not exist – a virus which
previously could kill just some of us would either kill all of us or none of us. Throughout the
long history of life, variation has provided insurance that inevitable changes in the
environmental will not mean the extinction of a species. Similarly, the diversity of species
ensures that environmental change will not mean the extinction of life. Life has evolved (or
the Earth’s changing environment has selected for) variation and diversity because they
ensure survival. Causes of mutation may have pre-existed, but in a sense, life has embraced
them. Sexual reproduction has evolved to add further variation and diversity.
Darwin’s overall conclusion
1. Variation exists in every population which may have been inherited and the result of a
mutation
2. Production of more individuals (overproduction of offspring) than can be supported by
the environment leads to a struggle for existence among individuals
• Only a fraction of offspring survive each generation
• Survival of the Fittest
3. Adaptation: Individuals who inherit characteristics (adaptations) that are most fit
(suitable/favorable) for their environment are likely to leave more offspring than less fit
individuals
• Called fitness
High survival = more offspring = more fit
4. Descent with Modification: Over time these adaptations will increase in the population.

Mechanism of microevolution
A change in gene frequency within a population. Evolution at this scale can be observed over
short periods of time — for example, between one generation and the next, the frequency of a
gene for pesticide resistance in a population of crop pests increases.

The five "forces" that can cause shifts in gene frequency (microevolution) are:
▪ Natural Selection: when some genes are more beneficial than others to survival and/or
reproduction, those genes tend to increase in frequency in the population over generations.

▪ Gene Flow (Migration): when there is mixing of genes from previously isolated
populations that have diverged, this can rapidly change gene frequencies in the newly
merged population.

▪
▪ Mutation: when an advantageous mutation spontaneously arises in an organism, this
mutated gene can increase in frequency over generations if it conveys an advantage over
those who do not have it. If a neutral mutation (one that is neither beneficial nor harmful)
arises in a population, it can increase in a population by genetic drift. If a deleterious
mutation arises in an organism, it is likely to be selected against and will generally not
increase in frequency. While recombination during meiosis can shuffle genes into new
combinations, mutation is the only source of new genes.

▪ Genetic Drift (Bottlenecks, Founder Effects): In a small population, gene frequencies can
change rapidly due to random events. For example, in a population of only 10 individuals,
each one carries 10% of the genes. In a population of 100 individuals, each one carries
only 1% of the genes. In a population of 1000 individuals, each one carries only 0.1% of
the genes. If an accident happens to one individual in each of these populations, it is more
likely to significantly change gene frequencies in the small population.

▪ Non-random Mating: With respect to the gene of interest, the population must be mating
at random. If for example, white haired rabbits prefer to mate with other white haired
rabbits, and brown haired rabbits prefer to mate with other brown haired rabbits, the
population can fragment and gene frequencies within each sub-population would shift.
Non-random mating is a special form of natural selection called sexual selection, which is
performed by the members of a species on each other during mate choice. Some of the
most extreme examples of sexual selection are in birds like the peafowl, where the females
are drab and well camouflaged, but the males, who have to attract a female to mate with,
put on elaborate displays and have incredibly colorful plumage. While this dramatic
coloration may be good for their reproductive success, it can be a survival disadvantage.
Such trade-offs can lead to interesting evolutionary compromises.
Genetic equilibrium
Genetic equilibrium, as defined by obedience to the Hardy-Weinberg principle, is the basis of
measuring all evolutionary change. Study populations (of real organisms) are compared to the
ideal of genetic equilibrium, and if they do not measure up to the ideal in any way, this is a
force that is bringing about evolutionary change.

Evolution is measured at the population level with genetic equilibrium as the standard.
According to the Hardy-Weinberg principle, both the ratios of genotypes and the frequency
of alleles remain constant from one generation to the next in a sexually reproducing
population, provided other conditions are stable.

So long as any population remains free of outside interference, it will remain in genetic
equilibrium. Real populations like our peccaries, however, are rarely free from outside
influences, and they never totally meet the following five basic conditions for stability:
1 Reproduction must be totally random. If either the males or the females show strong
preferences during the mate-selection and/or the mating process, then only certain
genotypes will get to pass on their genes to the next generation. The genotype frequencies
will be different in each generation.
Peccaries mate completely randomly and with no preferences; therefore, they meet this
condition for stability.
2 There must be no gene flow. There must be no immigration or emigration of individuals
to or from the population. Exchanging individuals between populations acts to reduce
variety in the population losing the individual and to increase variety in the population
receiving the individual.
Peccaries rarely exchange individuals between groups because these animals have very
strong social ties to one another.
3 Populations must be large. In large populations, the elements of pure chance are not a
significant factor.
Unfortunately, peccaries exist in small populations; therefore genetic drift (loss of an
individual by pure chance) can cause rapid and wide deviations from the original gene
pool frequencies.
4 There must be no mutations. Mutations change genes into different alleles, either
changing the ratio of alleles or introducing new ones.
No populations are ever free from mutational events, including peccaries. Spontaneous
mutations arise all the time in any gene and in any individual.
5 There must be no selection. Natural selection differentially removes certain genotypes
from the population, and thus increases the frequency of certain alleles in the next
generation.

1. Plants contains poisons to protect themselves from being eaten. Explain how humans are
not getting sick from these poisons? [3]

Poisons are chemicals capable of eliciting a harmful response in a consumer to kill, injure
or deter them from ingesting the substance again in the future. Poisons are employed by
many plant species as a defense mechanism.
Over the course of evolution, we have evolved to retain specific traits that enhance our
survival, one of which is the ability to tolerate poisonous chemicals in plants. These traits
 often arise from mutations that give certain individuals better survival advantages than
others, allowing them to produce more offspring and pass on these beneficial traits.

2. How coevolution can occur in competitive relationships between crabs and snails [3]
The crab is the natural predator of the snail. Natural selection favors snails with thicker
shells and spines. Through natural selection, crabs evolve more powerful claws that can
pierce the snail’s thick, spiny shells. In response, natural section favors snails with even
thicker shells and spines.

3. Curved beaks and long beaks help Tiwi birds to get nectar from tubular lobelia flowers.
Explain how coevolution relationship between these two species [3]
The beak of Tiwi birds has coevolved to match the shape of the lobelia flowers. Over
time, Tiwi birds with long, curve beaks were more successful at surviving and producing
offspring than birds without these traits. If lobelia flowers die out, the Tiwi birds would
have to adapt to a new food source or they would also die out.

4. Wolves contains a very powerful sense of smell even better than humans due to their
genes. This is one of the results of natural selection. It means wolves that have a better
sense of smell will survive longer and have bigger chances to produce more offspring.
Give and explain three more examples of adaptations that may have resulted from
variations that were favoured by natural selection. [6]

- Elephants have big ears that allow them to dissipate more heat (natural selection maybe
have acted to increase ear size in elephants because it helped them survive the heat
better).
- Bats are excellent at using echolocation (natural selection may have acted to improve the
use of echolocation in bats because it helped them find their prey at night better).
- Humans have opposable thumbs (natural selection may have acted to increase the
opposability of thumbs because it helped ancient human ancestors make tools better to
survive).

5. a. Why is the advantage of having thick fur for bears that are living in the north poles? [2]
Thick fur helps keep bears warm, which will let them survive and reproduce more than
bears with thin fur that freeze to death.

b. Over the next 50 years, the climate gets significantly hotter because of global warming.
Why might this thick fur polar bear species unable to survive? What type of natural
selection factors is related? [3]

When the climate got hotter, the bears all had thick fur, and they overheated and died.
There was no variation for selection to act on, so the population went extinct. Type of
natural selection related is adaption. The thick fur species is not able to adapt to the
new environment, they more they won’t able to survive.
Pattern of evolution
1. Extinction
The extinction of species is not normally considered an important element of Neodarwinian
theory, in contrast to the opposite phenomenon, speciation. This is surprising in view of the
special importance Darwin attached to extinction, and because the number of species
extinctions in the history of life is almost the same as the number of originations; present-day
biodiversity is the result of a trivial surplus of originations, cumulated over millions of years.
For an evolutionary biologist to ignore extinction is probably as foolhardy as for a
demographer to ignore mortality.
A species becomes extinct when there are no more individuals of that species left. An extinct
species has gone forever, although some scientists hope that they might bring back some
extinct species using genetic engineering.
Changes in the environment may leave individuals less well adapted to compete successfully
for resources such as food, water and mates. Sometimes an entire species may become unable
to compete successfully and reproduce. These problems can lead to extinction. Here are some
of the changes in the environment that can cause a species to become extinct:
• a new disease
• a new predator
• a change in the physical environment, such as climate change
• competition from another species that is better adapted, including competition from
humans
The dodo

The dodo was a flightless bird found on the island of Mauritius. It became extinct in the 17th
century because of human activities. Humans disturbed the dodo's habitat and also brought
new predators to the island, like dogs. The dodo was slow, did not fear humans and was
easily caught. It only took about 100 years after its discovery for it to become extinct.

2. Speciation
Speciation, the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. Speciation
involves the splitting of a single evolutionary lineage into two or more genetically
independent lineages.
evolution: new species
There are many hypotheses about how speciation starts, and they differ mainly in the role of
geographic isolation and the origin of reproductive isolation (the prevention of two
populations or more from interbreeding with one another).

3. Gradualism
Gradualism is an evolutionary model that refers to the tiny variations in an organism or in
society that happen over time to make a better fit for animals and humans in their
environment. These variations allow them to survive and thrive, resulting in a slow and
consistent process of change in the whole population.
Over a period of many, many years, a population of elephants develops larger ears to help
protect the elephants from the sun and keep them cool. This larger ear eventually becomes a
physical feature of the entire population of elephants. In addition, as time goes on, the
fossilized remains get larger and larger. Eventually you find fossils that
resemble horses today. What this shows is the gradual evolution from small-bodied horses to
large-bodied horses
4. Punctuated equilibrium
Gradualism and punctuated equilibrium are two ways in which the evolution of a
species can occur. A species can evolve by only one of these, or by both. Scientists
think that species with a shorter evolution evolved mostly by punctuated equilibrium,
and those with a longer evolution evolved mostly by gradualism.
In punctuated equilibrium, change comes in spurts. There is a period of very little
change, and then one or a few huge changes occur, often through mutations in the
genes of a few individuals. Mutations are random changes in the DNA that are not
inherited from the previous generation, but are passed on to generations that follow.
Though mutations are often harmful, the mutations that result in punctuated
equilibrium are very helpful to the individuals in their environments. Because these
mutations are so different and so helpful to the survival of those that have them, the
proportion of individuals in the population who have the mutation/trait and those who
don't changes a lot over a very short period of time. The species changes very rapidly
over a few generations, then settles down again to a period of little change.
A long time ago, there were a lot of tiger-like animals, but without stripes. One time, a
mutation occurred in a few of the animals, causing a huge change: they were born wit h
stripes! This was so helpful to survival that out of the whole population, none or
almost none of those with stripes died of hunger. They lived to reproduce, and their
striped offspring also did very well. Over only a few generations, the whole populatio n
was born striped.
5. Adaptive radiation (divergent evolution)
Divergent evolution occurs when related species develop unique traits due to different
environments or selective pressures. A classic example of divergent evolution is the
Galapagos finch which Darwin discovered that in different environments, the finches'
beaks adapted differently. The individual Galapagos finches looked so different from one
another that he was surprised when he found that they were all related.
As the name implies, divergent evolution shows how species can change slightly over time
and separate (diverge) into new forms. For example, in vertebrates like pigs, birds, monkeys
and whales, the forelimbs have the same general sets of bones, but they have been modified
over time so the animals can use their forelimbs in very different ways. Divergent evolution
is studied on a larger scale such as how the current diversity of life on Earth evolved from the
first living cells, to a smaller scale where natural selection caused humans and apes to evolve
from a common ancestor.

6. Convergent evolution
Convergent evolution is seen in how distinct species have evolved similar traits in response
to a similar environment or pressure due to natural selection. An example of this is the
streamlined, bullet-type shape of sharks and dolphins that allows them to swim fast through
the water. However, sharks are fish and dolphins are mammals and they are very far apart on
the evolutionary tree. Because organisms that do not have a common ancestor can evolve in
the same ways is powerful evidence for natural selection.
Three main differences between convergent and divergent evolution are:
• Convergent evolution shows how species have evolved separately but have similar
(analogous) structures. Divergent evolution demonstrates how species can have common
(homologous) anatomical structures which have evolved for different purposes.
• Convergent evolution happens in organisms that are not closely related while divergent
evolution is observed in organisms that are closely related.
• The relationship between the analogous structures in different species that evolved
through convergent evolution can be less distinct compared to the homologous
structures seen in divergent evolution which have the same basic structural plan.

7. Coevolution
Evolution occurs in response to a change in the environment. Environmental change often
involves other species of organisms. In fact, species in symbiotic relationships tend to evolve
together. This is called coevolution. As one species changes, the other species must also
change in order to adapt.
Coevolution occurs in flowering plants and the species that pollinate them. The flower and
bird in Figure below are a good example. They have evolved matching structures.
Results of coevolution in a flower and its Pollinator. The very long mouth part of this
hummingbird has coevolved with the tubular flower it pollinates. Only this pecoes of bird ca
reach the nectar deep in the flower.
In coevolution, relationships may be positive for one species or both, or may be an
evolutionary arms race between predator and prey. Flowering plants depend on insects for
pollination, so have evolved colors, shapes, scents, and even food supplies that are attractive
to certain insect species. Insects, in turn, have evolved mouthparts, senses, and flight patterns
that allow them to respond to and benefit from specific floral “offerings,” shown in
the Figure below.

Impressive proboscis and vivid colors. Hawk moths and the zinnias influence each other’s
evolution because the flower depends on the moth for pollination, and the moth feeds on the
flower.

1. Two types of worms: nocturnal who are in their burrows during day time and diurnal
who are in their burrows during the night time. Eventually, the birds as a predator are
only eating during the day time. Due to bird predation and other factors, not all worms
produced live to the age of reproduction.
a. Which worm will be successfully selected by the nature? Why? [2]
The nocturnal worm because birds are eating during day time when nocturnal worms
are inside their burrows.
b. How is the population change over time? [2]
There will be an increase population in nocturnal worms and a decline in diurnal
worms.
c. How this case is related to the variation [2]
There won’t diversity for the worms population since it is only one species is able to
survive
2. Explain what does it mean by possession of inherited adaptations that maximize fitness,
give one example. [3]
According to Darwin's theory of natural selection, individuals who survive are the ones
best adapted for their environment. Their survival is due to the possession of inherited
adaptations that maximize fitness. Adaptations are physical or behavioral traits that make
an organism better suited to its environment. Heritable variation comes from random
mutations. Random mutations are the initial cause of new heritable traits. For example, a
rabbit can't choose to have a different fur color.

3. Suggest two reasons why two or more species can evolve together through coevolution.
[2]
– evolutionary paths become connected
– species evolve in response to changes in each other

4. Describe how traits gives populations an advantage for survival based on variations. Give
one example [4]
Having variation in a population buffers the population against changes in the
environment. This is important, because the environment is constantly changing.
Populations with more variation have more adaptive potential.
Natural selection needs some starting material, and that starting material is heritable
variation. For natural selection to act on a feature, shere must already be variation, and that
variation must be able to be passed on to offspring

5. Describe the relationship between kit fox and red fox based on divergent evolution [3]

The kit fox and the red fox share a common ancestor, but are different species living in
different environments. The kit fox has evolved to stay cool in the desert, and the red fox
warm‐ this is homologous structures (similar coats, but perform different functions

Evidence of evolution
There is evidence of evolution in 5 major fields of science:
1. Paleontology: the study of prehistoric life
Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as those
found today; fossils show a progression of evolution. Scientists determine the age of
fossils and categorize them all over the world to determine when the organisms lived
relative to each other. The resulting fossil record tells the story of the past, and shows the
evolution of form over millions of years (figure below).
For example, highly detailed fossil records have been recovered for sequences of species
in the evolution of whales and modern horses. The fossil record of horses in North
America is especially rich and many contain transition fossils: those showing intermediate
anatomy between earlier and later forms. The fossil record extends back to a dog-like
ancestor some 55 million years ago that gave rise to the first horse-like species 55 to 42
million years ago in the genus Eohippus. The series of fossils tracks the change in
anatomy resulting from a gradual drying trend that changed the landscape from a forested
one to a prairie.
Successive fossils show the evolution of teeth shapes and foot and leg anatomy to a
grazing habit, with adaptations for escaping predators, for example in species
of Mesohippus found from 40 to 30 million years ago. Later species showed gains in size,
such as those of Hipparion, which existed from about 23 to 2 million years ago. The fossil
 record shows several adaptive radiations in the horse lineage, which is now much reduced
to only one genus, Equus, with several species.

This illustration shows an artist’s renderings of these species derived from fossils of the
evolutionary history of the horse and its ancestors. The species depicted are only four
from a very diverse lineage that contains many branches, dead ends, and adaptive
radiations. One of the trends, depicted here is the evolutionary tracking of a drying
climate and increase in prairie versus forest habitat reflected in forms that are more
adapted to grazing and predator escape through running. Przewalski’s horse is one of a
few living species of horse

2. Biogeography: where living things are located

The geographic distribution of organisms on the planet follows patterns that are best
explained by evolution in conjunction with the movement of tectonic plates over
geological time. Broad groups that evolved before the breakup of the supercontinent
Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) are distributed worldwide. Groups that evolved
since the breakup appear uniquely in regions of the planet, for example the unique flora
and fauna of northern continents that formed from the supercontinent Laurasia and of the
southern continents that formed from the supercontinent Gondwana.
The presence of Proteaceae in Australia, southern Africa, and South America is best
explained by the plant family’s presence there prior to the southern supercontinent
Gondwana breaking up figure below

The Proteacea family of plants evolved before the supercontinent Gondwana broke
up. Today, members of this plant family are found throughout the southern
hemisphere (shown in red). (credit “Proteacea flower”: modification of work by
“dorofofoto”/Flickr)
3. Embryology: the study of the embryonic development of organisms
Embryology, the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult form
also provides evidence of relatedness between now widely divergent groups of organisms.
Structures that are absent in some groups often appear in their embryonic forms and
disappear by the time the adult or juvenile form is reached. For example, all vertebrate
embryos, including humans, exhibit gill slits at some point in their early development.
These disappear in the adults of terrestrial groups, but are maintained in adult forms of
aquatic groups such as fish and some amphibians. Great ape embryos, including humans,
have a tail structure during their development that is lost by the time of birth. The reason
embryos of unrelated species are often similar is that mutational changes that affect the
organism during embryonic development can cause amplified differences in the adult,
even while the embryonic similarities are preserved.

4. Anatomy: the study of the structures of organisms

Another type of evidence for evolution is the presence of structures in organisms that
share the same basic form. For example, the bones in the appendages of a human, dog,
bird, and whale all share the same overall construction (figure below). That similarity
results from their origin in the appendages of a common ancestor. Over time, evolution led
to changes in the shapes and sizes of these bones in different species, but they have
maintained the same overall layout, evidence of descent from a common ancestor.
Scientists call these synonymous parts homologous structures. Some structures exist in
organisms that have no apparent function at all, and appear to be residual parts from a past
ancestor. For example, some snakes have pelvic bones despite having no legs because they
descended from reptiles that did have legs. These unused structures without function are
called vestigial structures. Other examples of vestigial structures are wings on flightless
birds (which may have other functions), leaves on some cacti, traces of pelvic bones in
whales, and the sightless eyes of cave animals.

The similar construction of these appendages indicates that these organisms share a
common ancestor.

5. Biochemistry: the study of the chemical processes in organisms

Like anatomical structures, the structures of the molecules of life reflect descent with
modification. Evidence of a common ancestor for all of life is reflected in the universality
of DNA as the genetic material and of the near universality of the genetic code and the
 machinery of DNA replication and expression. Fundamental divisions in life between the
three domains are reflected in major structural differences in otherwise conservative
structures such as the components of ribosomes and the structures of membranes. In
general, the relatedness of groups of organisms is reflected in the similarity of their DNA
sequences—exactly the pattern that would be expected from descent and diversification
from a common ancestor.
DNA sequences have also shed light on some of the mechanisms of evolution. For
example, it is clear that the evolution of new functions for proteins commonly occurs after
gene duplication events. These duplications are a kind of mutation in which an entire gene
is added as an extra copy (or many copies) in the genome. These duplications allow the
free modification of one copy by mutation, selection, and drift, while the second copy
continues to produce a functional protein. This allows the original function for the protein
to be kept, while evolutionary forces tweak the copy until it functions in a new way.

Phylogenetics
Phylogenetics is the scientific study of phylogeny. Phylogeny pertains to the evolutionary
history of a taxonomic group of organisms. Thus, phylogenetics is mainly concerned with the
relationships of an organism to other organisms according to evolutionary similarities and
differences.

Taxonomy
Taxonomy (which literally means “arrangement law”) is the science of classifying organisms
to construct internationally shared classification systems with each organism placed into
more and more inclusive groupings. Think about how a grocery store is organized. One large
space is divided into departments, such as produce, dairy, and meats. Then each department
further divides into aisles, then each aisle into categories and brands, and then finally a single
product. This organization from larger to smaller, more specific categories is called a
hierarchical system.
In the eighteenth century, a scientist named Carl Linnaeus first proposed organizing the
known species of organisms into a hierarchical taxonomy. In this system, species that are
most similar to each other are put together within a grouping known as a genus. Furthermore,
similar genera (the plural of genus) are put together within a family. This grouping continues
until all organisms are collected together into groups at the highest level. The current
taxonomic system now has eight levels in its hierarchy, from lowest to highest, they
are: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain. Thus species are grouped
within genera, genera are grouped within families, families are grouped within orders, and so
on
Kingdom
A taxonomic category of the highest rank
Phylum
The phylum is second highest unit of classification after Kingdom. It includes one or more
related classes of animals. In plants, instead of phylum, the term ‘division’ is used.
Class
The class is a taxonomic group consisting of one or more related orders. For example, the
class, Reptilia, Amphibia, Mammalia, includes many orders like Primata (Man), Carnivora
(tiger) etc.
Order
Order is a taxonomic group containing one or more families. For example, the order,
carnivora, includes many families.
Family
Family is a taxonomic group containing one or more related genera (sharing common
attribute), eg., Family hominidae contains apes, monkeys and man. In plants, families are
categorized on the basis of vegetative
and reproductive features.
Genus
Genus is a taxonomic group including closely related species. For example, the genus,
Solanum, includes many species such as nigrum, melongena, tuberosum, etc.

Evolutionary history
• Phylogeny - evolutionary history of a species or a group of related species.
• Phylogenetic Tree – diagram that biologists use to predict the evolutionary relationships of
organisms - Organized based on evidence as well as taxonomy
- Constructed to make the simplest relationships possible
Phylogenic tree
• A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among
organisms. Phylogenetic trees are hypotheses, not definitive facts.
• The pattern of branching in a phylogenetic tree reflects how species or other groups
evolved from a series of common ancestors.
• In trees, two species are more related if they have a more recent common ancestor
and less related if they have a less recent common ancestor.
• Phylogenetic trees can be drawn in various equivalent styles. Rotating a tree about its
branch points doesn't change the information it carries.

In a phylogenetic tree, the species or groups of interest are found at the tips of lines referred
to as the tree's branches. For example, the phylogenetic tree below represents relationships
between five species, A, B, C, D, and E, which are positioned at the ends of the branches:
The pattern in which the branches connect represents our understanding of how the species in
the tree evolved from a series of common ancestors. Each branch point (also called
an internal node) represents a divergence event, or splitting apart of a single group into two
descendant groups.
At each branch point lies the most recent common ancestor of all the groups descended
from that branch point. For instance, at the branch point giving rise to species A and B, we
would find the most recent common ancestor of those two species. At the branch point right
above the root of the tree, we would find the most recent common ancestor of all the species
in the tree (A, B, C, D, E).
[Why is this the most recent common ancestor of all the species?]

Each horizontal line in our tree represents a series of ancestors, leading up to the species at its
end. For instance, the line leading up to species E represents the species' ancestors since it
diverged from the other species in the tree. Similarly, the root represents a series of ancestors
leading up to the most recent common ancestor of all the species in the tree.
Others use diagonal lines, like the tree at right below. You may also see trees of either kind
oriented vertically or flipped on their sides, as shown for the blocky tree.

The three trees above represent identical relationships among species A, B, C, D, and E. You
may want to take a moment to convince yourself that this is really the case – that is, that no
branching patterns or recent-ness of common ancestors are different between the two trees.
The identical information in these different-looking trees reminds us that it's the branching
pattern (and not the lengths of branches) that's meaningful in a typical tree.
Another critical point about these trees is that if you rotate the structures, using one of the
branch points as a pivot, you don’t change the relationships. So just like the two trees above,
which show the same relationships even though they are formatted differently, all of the trees
below show the same relationships among four species:

If you don’t see right away how that is true (and I didn’t, on first read!), just concentrate on
the relationships and the branch points rather than on the ordering of species (W, X, Y, and
Z) across the tops of the diagrams. That ordering actually doesn’t give us useful information.
Instead, it’s the branch structure of each diagram that tells us what we need to understand the
tree.
1. Describe how is evidence in biogeography helps us reconstruct their evolutionary histories
[3]
The fossil record is not a complete record of evolutionary history, but it confirms the existence
of now-extinct species and sometimes captures potential "in-between" forms on the path to
present-day species. Fossils document the existence of now-extinct species, showing that
different organisms have lived on Earth during different periods of the planet's history. They
can also help scientists reconstruct the evolutionary histories of present-day species.

2. Explain how analogous structure in different type of bird shows the evidence in anatomy
[3]
In general, organisms that share similar physical features and genomes tend to be more closely
related than those that do not. Such features that overlap both morphologically (in form) and
genetically are referred to as homologous structures; they stem from developmental similarities
that are based on evolution. For example, the bones in the wings of bats and birds have
homologous structures
3. Draw a phylogenetic tree from the information provided below [4]
Bass Leopard Lancelet Lamprey Turtle Frog
Vertebral     
(backbone)
Hinged jaws    
Four walking   
legs
Amnion  
Hair 
Additional sources
Principle of natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, evolution, extinction and speciation,
gradualism vs punctuated equilibrium, divergent vs convergent, coevolution, phylogenic tree