Sustainable Production of

Amazonian Round Fishes

Sustainable Production of Amazonian Round
Fishes

Topic 1 - What to know before starting?

Opening

Welcome to the first topic of the Sustainable Production of Amazonian Round Fishes module.
In this material, you will be introduced to important knowledge needed start breeding
Amazonian round fishes, such as the physiological characteristics of these animals and the
overall structure of their organism. Next, you will study the main attributes of the so-called
round fish, including their classification, and you will also get to know their farmed hybrids.

Learning objectives
• Know structures, organs, and anatomic/physiological systems of round fish relevant to
farming and management.
• Understand the classification of the Amazonian species considered here as round fishes.

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Fishes

1.1 Knowing a little more about fishes

Fish constitute about 50% of all known vertebrate animal species, being the largest and most
diverse group in this Class. About 29 thousand species of fish are known today, 12 thousand
of which are freshwater; of these 4,550 are occur in the tropical region of the planet. There
are species with the most varied morphological, physiological and behavioral adaptations,
which guarantees success and ability to survive the most diverse types of aquatic
environments.

Fish are divided into two classes:

Class of Chondrichthyes, which comprises all cartilaginous

fish, such as sharks and stingrays.

Class of Osteichthyes, which is composed of bony

fishes - this is the class where round fish are included.

The species used for production can be either exotic (aloctone) or native (indigenous). For
example in Brazil, aquaculture production of those that naturally occur in hydrographic basins
(endemic or not) are called native, and of those that are not Brazilian are called exotic (e.g.
tilapia, panga, etc).

The Amazon is located in a tropical climate zone (neotropical region) where it is possible to
find a high number of fish species with potential for aquaculture, such as round fish. However,
the development of more competitive technologies and protocols for this chain are still
needed. On the other hand, for exotic species, such as tilapia, carp, trout and American
catfish, there is a vast technological development, which currently allows for a lower
production cost, in addition to the supply of fish with greater regularity and more
advantageous prices to consumers.

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Attention
The difference in technological development puts Amazonian native species at a
certain disadvantage compared to the exotic ones. Even so, the round fish
production chain does not stop growing year after year.

1.2 Fish: form and function

Throughout the evolutionary process of fish in the aquatic environment, they underwent
several forms of adaptation, which made these animals able to effectively explore
environments different in many aspects from the terrestrial one. Among the different
characteristics which allowed fish to explore the immense range of habitats present in the
aquatic environments:

• mechanisms to maintain its position in the water column;

• highly effective sensorial structures;
• diversity of eating habits;
• ability and tactics for obtaining food.

By studying the anatomy and physiology of fish, it is easier to understand their behavior and their
strategies of adaptation to the environment in which they live. Understanding these aspects is
fundamental for the management of fish in farming systems and for the control of the system itself.

Next, we will delve a bit deeper into the physiological systems of fish based on some important aspects:
locomotion structures, the sensory and protective function of the outer covering, the regulation of body
temperature, the factors that influence animal behavior, the main functions and characteristics of fish
physiological systems and the way in which all this is related to fish farming practices.

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1. The heart has two chambers and is divided into four regions: venosus sinus, atrium,
ventricle and arterial bulb.

2. The outer covering is an important aspect of the morphology. The skin of fish is composed
of two layers: the external epidermis with a protective function, and the internal dermis, a
germinative layer.

3. Excretory system is responsible for eliminating metabolic waste and undigested food,
such as feces, nitrogen compounds, salts, water and ammonia.

4. Respiratory system is composed of gills, which composed of gill arches composed of

rows of gill filaments; each filament, in turn, has numerous gill lamellae.

1.2.1 Outer covering

The fish's outer covering – or integument – is an important element of its morphology. The
fish skin is composed of two layers: the epidermis, which is external and has a protective
function, and the dermis, which is internal and germinative. The mucous glands are
responsible for the secretion of mucus, a glycoprotein substance whose function is to lubricate
and protect fish outer coat. The mucus also reduces the animal's friction with water and
provides protection by preventing the entry of infectious agents.
In addition to mucous glands, the dermis of most orders of fish has scales that form an external
skeleton.
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The scales vary in their morphological types; in round

fish, they are of the ctenoid type. The scales are
arranged in rows, overlapping each other to cover the
entire body of the animal.
Illustration: Hortência Granair

The skin also has a wide variety of pigments, which are

produced in cells called chromatophores. These
pigments can, for example, protect against ultraviolet
solar rays, which are believed to be responsible for the
darker color of tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum)
when kept in very transparent water or in tanks with a
clear bottom.
Picture: Jefferson Christofoletti.

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Curiosity

When it comes to aquaculture, it should be noted that the rearing of

different species of fish can be affected by the dominance or hierarchy
in schools. Management is influenced by different factors, such as
stocking density, lot heterogeneity, tank format and feeding.
Biochemical, physiological, and behavioral disruption can occur for both
subordinates and dominants, who expend energy to maintain their
position within the group. All this energy cost results in stress, in
detriment of productive functions (growth and reproduction) and the
immune system. So that the dominance relationship within a shoal be
blocked and a homogeneous growth of the lot can be achieved, some
measures can be adopted in aquaculture. It includes adjusting the
density of the animals to keep the shoal as uniform as possible,
periodically performing biometrics and selection of individuals, in
addition to selective fishing. The appropriate density to minimize the
effect of heterogeneity varies according to the different species.

1.2.2 Circulatory system

The circulatory system is the path where blood circulates inside the body. In fish, this system
is considered closed (blood cells are always inside a blood vessel and reach all regions and
cells of the animal's body) and simple (only unoxygenated blood circulates through the heart,
characterizing a single flow). The heart has two chambers (an atrium and a ventricle) and is
divided into four regions: venosus sinus (thin wall; devoid of valves and small), atrium (thin
wall; propels blood into the ventricle), ventricle (thick wall; propels blood to the gills and the
body) and arteriosus bulb (thick wall; deposit to even out blood flow).

The main vessels that make up the circulatory system of fish are:

Ventral aorta

Branchial afferent artery. This artery is cut for bleeding fish in the industry.

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Other arteries

Carotid, subclavian, caudal, superior mesenteric, celiac, and branchial efferent.

Dorsal aorta and veins

Jugular, anterior cardinal, posterior cardinal, common cardinal and caudal (through
the latter blood is collected in most fish).

Blood leaves the heart, circulates through the gills – where it is oxygenated –, travels through
the capillaries of the body and returns to the heart at the end of the cycle.
Therefore, the fish heart receives only blood with little oxygen (venous), discharging
through the arterial (with a lot of oxygen). Blood volume varies according to species and is
normally around 2% of body weight.

Figure 1.1. Schematic representation of the circulatory system of fish. Adapted from Rodrigues et
al. (2013).

1.2.3 Excretory system

The excretory system of fish is responsible for eliminating waste products from metabolism
and undigested food, such as feces, nitrogen, salts, water and ammonia. Between the
excreted nitrogen compounds, ammonia is the most toxic form of them and requires large
amounts of water for its dilution.

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About 70% of the nitrogen products excreted by fish are in the form of ammonia, passively
released from the gills into the water. The rest is eliminated by the urinary bladder in the form
of glutamine or urea.

Food
Water

Ammonia (NH3) Feces

Water and salts

Figure 1.2. Simplified scheme of excretion in fish. Adapted from Jefferson Christofoletti.

By living in an environment where the availability of water is great enough to dilute nitrogen
compounds, fish spend less energy to excrete these metabolites. The excreted ammonia
leaves the fish gills directly into the water through passive diffusion.

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Attention
The amount of ammonia excreted is directly related to the protein
content of the diet, to the temperature of the medium (greater appetite
and, consequently, greater food intake and amino acid degradation)
and to the pH of the environment (when the cytoplasmic pH is lower
than that of the medium), there will be a retention of ammonia in the
bloodstream). Lethal concentrations of ammonia for fish range
between 9.4 and 64.7 µmol.L-1 (micromoles per liter) – but these
numbers vary between species. Lethal levels of ammonia cause
increased water flow into the gills due to increased movement of the
operculum, followed by convulsions, coma, and ultimately death.
Animals that are living in an environment with high concentrations of
ammonia for a long period, such as an eutrophic pond, may experience
reduced growth, increased blood cortisol levels, with consequent
reduction in appetite, immunosuppression, and behaviors with
irregular breathing and locomotion.

1.2.4 Respiratory system

The respiratory system of fish is closely related to the excretory system, as gas exchange
occurs, in most species, through the gills. These are composed of four gill arches with two
rows of gill filaments. Each of these filaments is composed of numerous gill lamellae, in
which gas exchange takes place. Blood flow in these lamellae is contrary to that of water,
which allows an efficiency of 90% in gas exchange (efficiency would be only 50% if the flow
occurred in the same direction). The interior of the gill lamellae is composed of extremely
small channels, which allow the passage a single blood cell at a time, a condition that also
allows for efficient gas exchange.

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Figure 1.3. Schematic diagram of a fish respiratory system. Adapted from

Rodrigues et al. (2013).

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Compared to the aerial world, the aquatic environment has a lower oxygen concentration:
while the oxygen concentration in atmospheric air is around 20%, water has an average oxygen
concentration of 4%. Throughout the evolution of bony fish, we can mention some
consequences caused by the low concentration of oxygen in the aquatic environment: the
development of gills with greater surface area and, consequently, the increase in the
efficiency of gas exchange; the emergence of organs adapted for air-breathing in some species,
such as the arapaima; and regulation of acid-base balance, with greater dependence on ion
concentration than on gill ventilation. Among the various factors that affect the respiratory
rate of fish, we can mention the decrease of oxygen in the environment, the performance of
fast swimming movements (as in escapes), the ingestion of food, as well as the stress and
pollution of the water.

The way round fish breathe varies according to the

stage of life they are in. Regarding larval respiration,
larvae depend on cutaneous respiration early in life
and lack circulating hemoglobin.

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After the larval stage, round fish use aquatic

respiration and, with opercular and mouth
movements, push the water through the gills to
obtain oxygen.

1.2.5 Nervous system

The nervous system of fish is divided into central (CNS), which receives, analyzes and
integrates information, and peripheral (PNS), responsible for transmitting information from the
sensory organs to the central, as well as information from the central nervous system to the
organs.
The brain of teleost fish varies in size, depending on the species, but normally does not exceed
1% of the total body mass. It is subdivided into eight regions and generally has ten pairs of
cranial nerves. The interface between the central nervous system and the endocrine system is
called the hypothalamic-pituitary-axis, which can be divided into three main areas:
hypothalamus (part of the diencephalon), neurohypophysis and adenohypophysis.

Some of the most important functions of the hypothalamic-pituitary system are: control of
hormonal pathways, synthesis of neurohormones by the hypothalamus, stimulation of the
pituitary gland to release trophic hormones, stimulation of glands and organs to secrete
peripheral hormones. It is important to emphasize that fish are sentient animals, that is, they
have the ability to consciously perceive what happens to them and to the environment they
inhabit – they can, for example, feel pain.

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1.2.6 Digestive system

In the oral cavity and pharynx are the lips, mouth, teeth, tongue and gill arches, where the
processes of selection, apprehension and conduction of food to the esophagus take place.
Such structures have a strong relationship with the behavior and food preference of fish in
nature, influencing the choice of granulometry and density of the feed pellet (floating or not).

In the case of round fish, the teeth are incisors or

molariforms (similar to the incisors and molars of
mammals), which allows them to break seeds, fruits
and shells of crustaceans to take advantage of the
nutrients in these foods more effectively.

They present rays in the gill arches (gill rakers) that

have a filtering function, mainly during the beginning
of growth, but that continue until the adult form,
serving to filter the zooplankton present in the water.

1.2.7 Immune system

The structure and shape of the organs that make up the immune system differ among fish and
other vertebrate groups, although some cells and molecules are similar.

Fish do not have bone marrow or lymph nodes, with the kidney being the main lymphoid
organ, followed by the thymus, spleen and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.

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Kidney

Figure 1.4. Tambaqui kidney. Illustration: Hellen Kato.

The skin, intestine and gills of fish are structures constantly in contact with the external
environment, protected by the mucosa-associated with lymphoid tissue, represented mainly by
leukocytes, mucus, and epithelial tissue. Some studies demonstrate that the mucus produced
in the epithelium of fish contains molecules of immune action, such as lysozyme, complement
and immunoglobulins.

Attention
The addition of some microorganisms to the diet or to the aquatic
environment has been used due to the role they play in the immune
response in the intestine. When appropriate, they protect the host, as
they will coexist in a dynamic balance, that is, the microorganisms will
compose the intestinal microbiota, which will bring benefits to the fish.
These microorganisms are called probiotics.

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1.3 Round fish species – main features

This topic is dedicated to the study of the main characteristics of the called round fish.

The popular term “round fish” is suggestive of the shape of the animals that make up this group
of species: tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus), pirapitinga
(Piaractus brachypomus) and their hybrids.
They are fish of the Serrasalmidae family and are characterized by having a robust body with
rounded shapes, high back and a wide rib region, which allows good cuts for the industry.

They have a mouth with molariform teeth and strong jaws that
allow food to be crushed

They have developed gill rakers capable of capturing plankton

as a food source

They present omnivorous feeding habits with frugivory

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In nature, they feed on leaves, soft stems, flowers, fruits, seeds,
zooplankton (the tambaqui is very skillful and efficient in capturing it),
arthropods, mollusks and other fish.

Of the native fish, round ones are the most produced in the country, with approximately 26%
of the total fish from Brazilian fish farming. The popularity in the production of rounds is due
to their rusticity and good growth and feed conversion rates.

The tambaqui and pirapitinga, for example, are grown mainly in the North, Northeast and
Midwest of Brazil, in dam systems and excavated ponds. Pacu is preferably raised in the
South, Southeast and Center-West regions of Brazil, in excavated ponds or in net-tanks.
Sustainable Production of Amazonian Round
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PACU
TAMBAQUI

PIRAPITINGA

Figure 1.5. Geographic regions where round fish are produced in Brazil. Illustration: Hortência Granair.

The formation of hybrids between fish species is practiced by many fish farmers with the
expectation of cultivating animals with favorable characteristics for production. The most used
species for this creation are the tambaqui, pacu and pirapitinga.

Tambaqui is a fish native to the Amazon basin and, in

general, has better growth rates than pacu and
pirapitinga. Picture: Jefferson Christofoletti.

Pacu is native to the Rio Prata basin and presents

itself as a species resistant to lower temperatures.
Picture: Jefferson Christofoletti.
Sustainable Production of Amazonian Round
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Pirapitinga is native to the northern watersheds of the

country (Tocantins-Araguaia and Amazonas) and
appreciated due to the greater muscle deposition in the
loin region. Picture: Jefferson Christofoletti.

Some parameters for the production of these hybrid species in captivity have already been
defined, such as the ideal level of crude protein in the diet, which should be between 22 and
28%, depending on the stage of development; the energy level, from 2,600 to 4,000 kcal.kg-
1
; the percentage of lipids, around 7%; and the inclusion of a maximum of 40% of
carbohydrates. The feed with more protein should be used for fish at the beginning of the
cultivation, while in the final phase a feed with less protein is commonly used.

One of the main problems in processing these species is the presence of Y-shaped
intramuscular spines that make it difficult to consume fish weighing less than 1.5 kg. In fish
larger than 1.5 kg, the row of spines is removed using techniques for cutting and filleting
already available, although they are still not widespread. There are also special cuts, such
as tambaqui ribs, sold in trays for snacks with excellent prices for sale and high acceptance
in the market. However, to obtain this type of cut, larger fish weighing more than 2.5 kg are
needed.

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Synthesis
We finished this topic, in which we learned about general aspects of fish physiology and about
round fish, with their main characteristics and their hybrids. In the next topic, we will study
intensive, semi-intensive and extensive production systems, from the choice of site to the
correct preparation of the ponds. Check it out!

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References
Rodrigues APO, Lima A., Alves A., Rosa D., Torati L.; Santos V. 2013.
Freshwater fish farming: multiplying knowledge. Brasília: Embrapa, 440p.

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