CHAPTER 7

FISHCULTURE

take the challenge!

At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:
Lesson 1: Understand the Aspects, Classification s, Methods of
Fish Culture
Lesson 2:RecognizeTerminologies Used inFish Culture
Lesson 3: Identify the Facilities, Parts of Fish Pond and
their
Functions. Illustrate Fish PondLayout
Lesson 4: Identify the Cultivable Fish danCrustacean Species
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Fish Cage – is a structured-based net that is ether stationary or movable.

Fish Conservation – is the scientific means of conserving fish and other fishery aquatic
products/resources.

Fish Cultivation – is the rearing of fish under controlled and semi-controlled condition.

Fish Pen – is an enclosure of net or bamboo slats with sturdy posts staked at the bottom
of water and used for the culture of fish from fry to marketable size.

Fish Pond – is a confined body of water where fish are raised under controlled
conditions.

Fish Propagation – is the process of increasing fish life either by natural or artificial
means of reproduction.

Fish Tank – is a structure made of brick tile, concrete or polyvinyl chloride (pvc) used
for the purpose of culturing fish from fry, to marketable size. It also can be used as a
breeding tank, or as conditioning tank.

Hapa – is a small unframed net enclosure with the entire upper opened.

Raceway – is an enclosure of concrete soil or added materials.

LESSON 1:

ASPECTS, CLASSIFICATIONS AND METHODS

OF FISH CULTURE

Many
programs and activities had been done in response to the problems regarding the shortage
of the supply of fish in the country. One of which these program is Fish Culture. Fish
culture then must be introduced to enhance awareness and adopt some of the technology
and its adoption as additional source of food and income.

Nature and Scope of Fish Culture

It is the rearing of fish from fry to marketable size. It also cultivates other aquatic
products such as crabs, prawns and shrimps. Fish cultivation is undertaken in fresh,
brackish and marine waters based from the environment and water supply.
The fresh water type of fish cultivation is carried out in lakes, rivers, dams or reservoirs
and marshes. Structures used for this type are fish ponds, fish pens, fish cage, fish tank
and raceways. The species of fish that are usually raised are tilapia, carp, catfish, mudfish
and milkfish.

The brackish water type of fish cultivation is carried out in tidal flats or along margins of
estuarine areas. The structures as those in freshwater are used in this type is the same,
except the raceways. The major species of fish cultivated are tilapia, milkfish, shrimps
and crabs. Fish pond is the predominant type of fish cultivation in the country. It
contributes utmost production of inland waters. Milkfish is the number one product.
The marine water type of fish cultivation is carried out in salt waters or open ocean
waters. The farms are positioned in deeper and less sheltered waters, where currents are
stronger than they are inshore. The structures used for this type are fish cage, fish tank,
fish pond and raceways. The species of fish that are shellfish like prawns, or oysters and
seaweed.

Phases or Aspects of Fish Culture:

1. Fish Cultivation
The rearing of fish under controlled and semi-controlled condition.
2. Fish Propagation
The process of increasing fish life either by natural or artificial means of
reproduction.

3. Fish Conservation
The scientific means of conserving fish and other fishery aquatic
products/resources. It helps to keep the sport of fishing alive. Also, helps to maintain the
balance of certain ecosystems. Fish are important to the planet and fish conservation can
help maintain nature’s balance.
Classification of Fish Culture

1. . According to extent of financial investment

a. Intensive - utilizes limited area with very high investment
b. Extensive - utilizes wide area with minimal capital and very low production
c. Semi-intensive - employ some or the majority of the modern techniques of
production

2. According to purpose
a. for commerce or for business
b. for recreation or for enjoyment
c. for educational and cultural or scientific pursuit
d. for food production

3. According to design
a. natural pond
b. artificial pond

4. According to state of water

a. still water
b. running water

5. According to salinity
a. freshwater
b. brackish-water
c. marine or saltwater
6. According to temperature
a. warm water or hot water
b. cold water

7. According to species raised

a. freshwater species
b. brackish-water species
c. marine or saltwater species
Methods of Fish Culture

Based on the structures used in fish cultivation, they can be classified into five methods.
These are the fish pond, fish pen, fish cage, fish tank and open-water method.
Fish pond is the most widely used. Fry or fingerlings of one or more species are stocked
and reared in pond up to harvest time. Natural food is grown in pond. The supplementary
feed is added. The method of harvesting is draining the pond. Retrieval of fish in this
way is complete. Another method of harvesting is freshening in case of bangus. Having
positive rheotaxism, the fish are induced to go against water current by the gate and
concentrated into a catching pond where they are scooped.
The fish pen method of fish cultivation is undertaken in net enclosures in shallow
protected areas of inland waters. Bamboo and wood materials ate used as post and
braces. Its lower end is embedded in the mud to prevent escape of stock by excavating
under, while the upper end is extended two meters or more beyond the water level to
escape of fish by jumping out. Harvest of fish is done by seining or shocking them with
electricity.
The fish cage method of fish cultivation is also undertaken in inland bodies of water,
both in flowing and still water ones. The structure used is also made of nets. PVC pipes
as framing materials is preferred to that of wood or bamboo. A cage is much smaller than
a fish pen. The cage is closed on all sides and installed in suspension. Fish cage is
stationary and movable. Floating and fixed cages have open top. Growth rate of fish is
dependent on the kind and amount of food given and suitability of the environment.
Harvesting of stock is relatively easy and complete. The fish is either scooped or the cage
is merely brought out of the water to empty the fish.
The fish tank method of fish cultivation is practiced primarily by fish hobbyists and in
pet shops. The method employs varying sizes and shapes of fish culture structures. These
include glass bowls or aquaria and wooden or concrete tanks. This method cultivation is
done outdoor and indoor. The method involves rearing or breeding of ornamental or
fancy, colourful species of fish.
A fifth method of fish cultivation is open-water method. It is done in bays, coastal
lagoons, canals and similar environments.
LESSON 2:

DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGIES USED IN FISH CULTURE

In every
area of specialization, there are terminologies used to give a specific meaning for a matter.
This will served as a common idea to the professionals in their respective fields. So as is in
this area, there are scientific terminologies. In this lesson, it will tackle about various
common terminologies used in fish culture.

Terminologies Used in the Study of Fish Culture

1. Anadromous - are species of fish that go upstream from salt
water to freshwater to spawn. ex: bangus

2. Biomass - is the total weight of the animal in the given

environment.

3. Cannibalistic - are species of fish that feed on their

own kind.

4. Carnivorous - are species of fish that feed on other

 animals.

5. Catadromous - are species of fish that go down from

freshwater to saltwater to spawn.
ex: eels

6. Competition - is the rivalry for food, space and

oxygen inside the fishpond.

7. Endemic or indigenous - is native to the locality

8. Exotic or digenous - is introduced by other countries

9. Fecundity - is the number of eggs laid by a female

fish in one spawning.

10. Food chain - is the linear relationship of

undergoing the process of eating and
being eaten.

11. Habitat - is the place where plants and animals

grow and naturally live.

12. Herbivorous - are species of fish that feed on plants

and vegetables only

13. Lab-lab - is the vernacular term for all the

greenish, brownish or yellowish crust
of micro benthic fauna and flora,
which are found growing in matrix or
mat at the pond floor.

14. Milt - is the male reproductive gland of

fishes

15. Omnivorous - are species of fish that feed on both

plants and animals
16. Oviparous - are species of fish whose eggs are
fertilized and developed outside the
body. ex: tilapia

17. Ovoviviparous - are species of fish whose eggs are

fertilized and developed within the
body but the young when born alive
do not receive nourishment from the
mother fish. ex: Rays and Sharks

18. pH - is the hydrogen ion-concentration of

water.

19. Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants

manufacture their food with the aid of
sunlight.

20. Plankton - is the biological association of minute

plants and animals which are found
growing on the surface of the water.

21. Predators - are species of fish feeding on other

fishes specially the cultivable ones.

22. Prolific - is the process of producing young in great numbers

23. Sabalo - is the bangus breeder or spawner

24. Salinity - is the degree of freshness and

saltiness of water.

25. Scavenger - are species of fish that feed on

decaying organic matter.

26. Spat - is the larvae of oyster and mussel which are free swimming in water.

27. Standing crop - is the total number of fish stocked at a

given area at a given time.
28. Temperature - is the degree of coldness and hotness of water.

29. Tide - is the periodic rise and fall of

seawater.

30. Viviparous - are species of fish that bring forth

living young which during their early
development receive nourishment
from their mother fish.
LESSON 3:

FISH CULTURE FACILITIES

Many
facilities that can operate in fish culture. In this lesson, we only tackle the common and
frequently used facilities. They are Fish Pond, Fish Cage, Fish Pen, Fish Tank, Hapa and
Raceway. All of them will be discussed below.

1. FISH POND
According to the www.agriculturenigeria.com that fish pond is a confined body of
water where fish are raised under controlled conditions. Fish can also be raised in
plastics, fiber stars and wooden rafts. There are three main types of ponds in
construction. This either be earthen pond, concrete pond and riprap.
 Fish Earthen Pond

Fish Concrete Pond

Fish Riprap Pond

Compartments of a Fish Pond and each Function

1. Nursery pond - is the smallest and the cleanest compartment
where fish are reared from fry up to pre-
fingerling size.
 2. Transition pond - is a compartment where fish are reared from
pre-fingerling size to post fingerling size
before stocking compartments, it is also
known as stunting pond.

3. Rearing pond - is the largest compartment of a fishpond

where fishes are reared from post fingerlings
up to marketable size.

4. Breeding pond - is a compartment where spawners are

confined and are used purposely for the
production of fry.

5. Catching pond - is an area that serves as catchment basin for

fish harvest.

6. Head pond - is an area that serves as water reservoir

where water is stored before going to other
pond compartments.

7. Water supply canal - is a canal used to supply water throughout

the whole fish pond system.

Interpreting Plans and Layout

 Fish Pond Layout

Legend:
][ - Main Gate
)( - Secondary Gate
| | – Tertiary Gate
HP – Head Pond
NP – Nursery Pond
TP – Transition Pond
RP – Rearing Pond
WSC – Water Supply Canal
CP – Catching Pond

Kinds of Dikes
1. Main dike – is the largest of all dikes that surrounds the whole fishpond project.

2. Secondary dike – is the dike that surrounds the big compartment.

3. Tertiary dike – is the dike that surrounds the small compartment.

Kinds of Gates
1. Main gate – is the largest gate that serves as water entrance in the whole fishpond
system.

2. Secondary gate – is the gate that can be found in the large compartment.

3. Tertiary gate – is the gate that can be found in the small compartment.
2. Fish Cage
Fish Cage is a structured-based net that is ether stationary or movable. Set in
water and surrounded all sides by bamboo slats and provided with an anchor at the
bottom. It is used for the culture of fish from fry to marketable size.

3. Fish Pen
It is an enclosure of net or bamboo slats with sturdy posts staked at the bottom of
water and used for the culture of fish from fry to marketable size. The fish pen is
fastened permanently against sturdy post and frames.
4. Fish Tank
It is structure made of brick tile, concrete or polyvinyl chloride (pvc) used for the
purpose of culturing fish from fry, to marketable size.
It also can be used as a breeding tank, or as conditioning tank.

5. Hapa
A small unframed net enclosure with the entire upper opened. It is suspended by
poles with ample portion extending beyond the water level to prevent the fish
from jumping out.
6. Raceway
It is an enclosure of concrete soil or added materials. The shape is likely of the
canal through which constant water flows. Fish are raised in the raceway at high
density and their waste products are carried out by the water passing through the
areas.
LESSON 4:

CULTIVABLE FISH AND CRUSTACEAN SPECIES

There are vast species of aquatic animals with their unique characteristics around the
globe in freshwaters, brackish waters and saltwater yet not all of them are edible to
consume by human for food because of health issues if eaten and the threat of extinction
to their race which are protected by local governments. So, there are only specific species
of fish for food and legally to produce and commerce. In this lesson, it will discuss about
the Philippine common species of cultivable fish and crustaceans in fish facilities, their
characteristics and natural food according to their water habitats.
Common Cultivable Fish Species:

Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is a tropical species that prefers to live in shallow
water. The lower and upper lethal temperatures for Nile
Tilapia are 12˚C and 42˚C, respectively, while the preferred temperature ranges from
31˚C to 36˚C. It is an omnivorous grazer that feeds on phytoplankton, periphyton aquatic
plants, small invertebrates, benthic fauna, dentitus and bacterial films associated with
detritus. Nile Tilapia can live longer than 10 years and reach an exceeding weight of 5
kg.

Mozambique Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) is a freshwater and brackish water

inhabitant. It lives in warm, weedy pools of sluggish stream, canals and ponds. Is mainly
diurnal, occurs at temoeratures ranging from 8˚C to 42˚C. Omnivorous, feeds on almost
anything from algae to insects but also crustaceans and fishes. Mozambique Tilapia
reaches a maximum size to 36 cm.
Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) is live in the middle and lower streams of rivers, in
inundated areas, and shallow confined waters such as lakes and water reservoirs. Carps
are mainly bottom dwellers but search for food in the middle and upper layers of water
body. Best growth is obtained when water temperature ranges between 23˚C and 30˚C.
The fish can survive cold winter periods. It is omnivorous, with a high tendency towards
the consumption of animal food such as water insects, larvae of insects, worms, molluscs,
and zooplanktons. Common carps can reach 0.6 to 1 kg body weight within one season in
the polycultural fish ponds of tropical and subtropical areas.

Bighead Carp (Hypopthalmichthys nobilis) is a eurythermic fish, being to tolerate

water temperatures of 0.5˚C to 38˚C. It inhabits lakes, rivers and reservoirs. Bighead carp
normally dwell in the upper layer of the water column and prefers high fertility water
with abundant natural food. Basically, it is a zooplankton eater throughout its life under
natural conditions yet also consumes artificial feed in culture ponds. Bighead Carp are
fast growing and become very large in size reaching a maximum weight of 40 kg.
 Philippine Catfish (Clarias batrachus) is an air breathing fish inhabit in lowland
streams, swamps, ponds, ditches, rice paddies and pools left in low spots after flood. It
can walk and leave the water to migrate to another water bodies using its auxiliary
breathing organs. It usually confined to stagnant, muddy water and tolerates temperature
from 10˚C to 28˚C. Omnivorous that feed on insect larvae, earthworms, shell, shrimps,
small fishes, aquatic plants and debris. Approximately, its maximum length is 47 cm and
maximum weight of 1.2 kg.

Bighead Catfish (Clarias macrocephalus) is an air breathing fish lives in lowland

wetland and rivers. Occurs in shallow, open water and is capable of lying buried mud for
lengthy period in the time of ponds and lakes evaporate during dry seasons. It can also
extend its fins to move out of the water. Found in medium to large-sized rivers, stagnant
water bodies including sluggish flowing canals and flooded fields. It can tolerate
temperatures from 10˚C to

28˚. Omnivorous that feed on aquatic insect, young shrimps, small fishes and aquatic
plants. Its maximum length is 120 cm and maximum weight is 45 kg.
North African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) is found in lakes, streams, rivers, swamps
and floodplains, many of which are subject to seasonal drying. The most common
habitats are floodplain swamps and pools where they can survive during the dry season(s)
due to their accessory air breathing organs. It undertake lateral migrations from the
larger water bodies, in which they feed on aquatic insects, worms, gastropods, small
crustaceans, small fishes, aquatic plants, terrestrial seeds and berries, small birds and
small mammal as being an omnivorous. It can live in the temperature of 10˚C to 28˚C.
The record individual from Country of Malawi was 16.1 in kg and the max length is 150
cm.

Snakehead Murrel (Channa striata) is a ray-finned fish that perchlike in form

and its head is like of a snake. It is a fresh and brackish water inhabitant such as ponds,
streams, rivers, stagnant and muddy plains. Found mainly in swamps but also occurs in
lowland rivers. It can survive in dry season by burrowing in bottom mud of lakes, canals
and swamps as long as skin and breathing apparatus remain moist and subsists on the
stored fat. Feed on fish, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, tadpoles and small
crustaceans as being a carnivore. Snakehead murrel can live in temperature of 23˚C to
27˚C. Its maximum length is 100cm and weight of 3kg.
 Giant Gourami (Osphronemus gouramy) is a laterally compressed
(compressiform) fish. It has the ability to breath air through a specific organ called
labyrinth (a much-folded suprabranchial accessory breathing organ), which appears in
juviniles about 30 days after hatching and become functional around 40 days. This fish is
omnivorous but with a strong vegetarian tendency, it can ingest various aquatic and
terrestrial plants, although it can also eat a wide range of other food resources such as
frogs, tadpoles, snails, small fishes and other small aquatic animals. Giant gourami
prefers calm fresh waters especially slow-moving areas such as lakes and large rivers.
They are also found in flood plains and irrigation canals. It lives in tropical temperature
of water. It can reach a remarkable size but normally the maximum size is 45-50 cm.
Growth rate is quite slow and may reach commercial size of 500 to 750 g within 9-14
months of growout. To achieve larger sizes 1 to 2 kg, an extended period of growout
rearing is required, generally compromising 25 to 35 months in total.

Barramundi (Lates calcarifer) is also known as seabass, it inhabit freshwater, brackish

water and marine habitats including streams, lakes, billabongs, estuaries and coastal
waters. Barramundi are opportunistic predators; crustaceans and fish predominate in the
diet of adults. It is highly fecund; a single female (120 cm) may produce 30-40 million
eggs. Consequently, only small numbers of broodstock are necessary to provide adequate
numbers of larvae for large-scale hatchery production. Larvae recruit into estuarine
nursery swamps where they remain for several months before they move out into the
freshwater reaches of coastal rivers and creeks considering them as a diadromous fish.
They usually occur at a temperature range of 26˚C to 29˚C and between 10 to 40 m deep.
Its size is commonly between at 25 to 100 cm.

Orange-spotted Grouper (Epinephelus coioides) has body elongated, not very

compressed, light greyish brown dorsally, shading to whitish on side and ventrally, with
numerous brownish orange or brownish yellow spots on the size of pupil or smaller on
head and body. It inhabits turbid coastal reefs and is often found in brackish water over
mud and rubble. Juveniles are common in the shallow waters of estuaries over sand, mud,
gravels and among mangroves. It feeds on small fishes, shrimp and crabs. It is generally
cultured in floating net cages or earthen pond, but cage culture is more common in
Southeast Asia. Most of the brooders are collected from wild and reared for 1 to 7 years
using seawater at a constant temperature of 27˚C to 28˚C. The fish are fed with frozen
sardines, mackerels, cuttlefish, squids and top-shell clams because these foods have high
contents of cholesterol, phospholipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
 Malabar Grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus) is a ray-finned fish and has
perch-like body. It has light grey to yellowish brown color; five slightly oblique dark
brown bars that bifurcate ventrally; numerous small black spots and blotches in head and
body. It inhabits in marine, brackish, reef-associated waters such as coral and rocky reefs,
tide pools, estuaries, mangrove swamps and sandy or mud bottom from shore to depths of
150 m. It feed primarily on fishes and crustaceans. Malabar grouper can tolerate water
temperature from
26˚C to 29˚C. Its common maximum length is 234 cm and maximum weight of 150 kg.

Orange-spotted Spinefoot (Siganus guttatus) is also known as rabbit fish by the

similarity of the nose. It is a ray-finned fish with perch-like body. It has a bright yellow
spot adjacent to last few rays of dorsal fin, head with lines and spots. Its spine is stout,
pungent and venomous. Inhabits in marine and brackish water to include turbid inshore
reefs among mangroves; tolerates or even prefers low salinities. Fry settlers in seagrass
beds around river mouths and adults enter and leave rivers with tides but also found on
drop-offs of inshore fringing reefs down to 6 m. It feeds on benthic algae. Unlike other
siganids, this species is reported to be active at night as being a nocturnal fish.
It can tolerate water temperature from 24˚C to 28˚C. Its common maximum length is 42
cm.
Vermiculated Spinefoot (Siganus vermiculatus) is is also known as rabbit fish by the
similarity of the nose. It is a ray-finned fish with perch-like bluish white body, head
brown to brownish or golden yellow with irregular lines. Its spine is stout, blunt or
pungent and venomous. It inhabits in marine and brackish water, juveniles live among
mangroves then move out to lagoon and coastal reefs as they mature. It feeds on algae
growing on seagrass, mangrove roots and rocks. Adult congregate inshore in groups of
several hundreds to spawn in summer. Adults on coastal reefs are subject to strong
currents. The species has a high fecundity of 350,000 per spawning season. It can tolerate
water temperature from 19˚C to 38˚C. Its common maximum length is 45 cm.

Spotted Scat (Scatophagus argus) is a ray-finned fish with perch-like quadrangular

body shape. Juveniles with a few large roundish blotches, about size of eye, dorsal head
profile is steep. Eye moderately large and snout is rounded. It inhabits in fresh, brackish
and marine waters such as harbors, natural embayments, brackish estuaries and lower
reaches of freshwater streams, frequently occurring among mangroves. It feeds on
worms, crustaceans, insects and plant matters. The dorsal, anal and pelvic spines are
believed by Philippine fishers to be venomous and capable of inflicting wounds. It can
live in the water temperature from 20˚C to 28˚C and usually its maximum length is 38
cm.

Milkfish (Chanos chanos) is a fusiform, elongated, moderately compressed, and

smooth streamline body fish. It has body color silvery on belly and sides grading olive-
green or blue on back, transparent tissue covers eye. It is the only species in the Family
Chanidae. Its distribution is restricted to either low latitude tropics or the subtropical
northern hemisphere along continental shelves and around islands, where temperatures
are greater than 20˚C. Milkfish only spawn in saline waters. Spawning takes place near
coral reefs during the warm month of the year. Juveniles and adults eat a wide variety of
relative soft and small food items, from microbial mats to detritus, epiphytes and
zooplankton. It attains typical length of 1m but may reach maximum length of 1.8m.

Common Cultivable Prawn/Shrimp Species:

Giant Tiger Prawn (Penaeus monodon) is similar to all penaeid shrimp, the rostrum
well developed and toothed dorsally and ventrally. Its carapace has without longitudinal
or transverse sutures. Depending on substratum, fees and water turbidity, body colors
vary from green, brown, red, grey, blue and transverse band colors on abdomen and
carapace are alternated between blue or black and yellow. Penaeus monodon was
originally harvested together with other shrimp species from traditional trapping-growing
ponds or as a significant by-product of extensive milkfish ponds. It is mature and breeds
only in tropical marine habitats and spends their larval, juvenile, adolescent and sub-adult
stages in coastal estuaries, lagoons or mangrove areas. In the wild, they show marked
nocturnal activity, burrowing into bottom substratum during day and emerging at night to
search for food as benthic feeder. Under natural conditions, the giant tiger prawn is more
of a predator than an omnivorous scavenger or detritus feeder than other penaeid shrimp.
Adults are often found over muddy sand or sandy bottoms at 20 to 50 m depth in offshore
waters. The females are highly fecund with gravid females producing as many as 500,000
to 750,000 eggs. Hatching occurs 12 to 15 hours after fertilization. It feeds on benthic
detritus, polychaete worms and small crustaceans. Healthy adult females can grow 25 to
30cm and weighted of 200 to 320g while healthy adult males can grow 20 to 25cm and
weighted of 100 to 170g.

Indian White Prawn (Penaeus indicus) is similar to all penaeid shrimp, carapace rather
smooth, lacking gastro frontal and hepatic crest, ad rostral crest extending as far as or just
before epigastric tooth, rostrum slightly curve at tip and sigmoidal-shaped, usually
bearing 7 to 9 upper teeth (including those on carapace) and 3 to 6 lower teeth, rostral
crest generally slightly elevated in large specimen including adult females. Its body color
is semitranslucent, somewhat yellowish white (small specimens) or greyish green and
covered with numerous minute dark brown dots, eyes light brown mesh-like stripes,
rostral and abdominal dorsal crests reddish brown to dark brown. The methods of
brackish water aquaculture are applied whether in cultures practices followed such as
traditional, extensive, modified extensive, semi-intensive or intensive. It inhabits the
coast of East and South Africa, Southwest and East coast of India, Bangladesh, Thailand,
Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Southern China and Northern coast of Australia.
Penaeus indicus is nonburrowing, active both day and night, and prefers a sandy mud
bottom. Adults are normally found at depths less than 30m but have also been caught
from 90m. The shrimp mature and breed mostly in marine habitats and spend the juvenile
and sub-adult stages of 30 to 120 mm total in length (TL) in coastal estuaries, backwaters
or lagoons. Juveniles can tolerate a much wider range of salinity (5-40%) than asults. On
the southwest coast of India the juveniles support a good commercial fishery in the
backwaters and paddy fields. It is also highly fecund, ranging from 68,000 to 1,254,200
eggs from females of 140200mm TL. Depending upon the temperature, hatching takes
place within 8-12 hours after spawning. The postlarvae migrate into the estuaries, settle
and feed on benthic detritus, polychaete worms and small crustaceans, and remain there
until they attain 110-120 mm TL. These sub-adults then return to the sea and get
recruited into the fishery. The size of Penaeus indicus used for broodstock development
should preferably be above 145mm TL (20g) for females and 140mm (17g) for males.

Banana Prawn (Fenneropenaeus merguinsis) is widely distributed in the Indo-West

Pacific region in both tropical and subtropical waters. To include from Persian Gulf to
Thailand, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea, New Caledonia and
North Australia. It inhabits in the bottom mud, estuarine and marine about 10 to 45 m in
depths. Its usually maximum total length is 240 mm (female). It has been cultured in
extensive ponds with natural seeding for a long time in Asia and recently in semi-
intensive and intensive ponds. Supplementary feeding occurred only later in improved
extensive farming, with usually stocked with wild caught or hatchery-produced
postlarvae. Although F. merguinsis does not grow as fast as P. monodon, their ability to
mature and spawn in captivity and their short life cycle ensure a consistent production of
postlarvae and a great opportunity to domesticate the species. This would eliminate the
reliance of the prawn farming industry on wild broodstock and more importantly, allows
the development of fast growing or pathogen-free stocks through selective breeding.
Such low cost of broodstock, ease in larvae rearing and potentially low feed cost.

Greasyback Prawn (Metapenaeus ensis) is commonly called mud prawn, sand prawn
in catering trade. It is popular due to its rich-tasting nutritious flesh. Cahracteristics of M.
ensis include a wide distribution, strong adaptability, omnivorous feeding habit, fast
growth and high commercial value. It breeds in seawater or brackish water but it can also
be bred in freshwater after domestication. After 100 days in cultivation with a favourable
environment and abundant food, juveniles will grow into adult commercial shrimps of
10cm in length.

Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) is the largest Macrobrachium

species. The maximum recorded size for males and females are 33cm and 29cm in
length. Mature male prawns are larger than females. The head of the male is also
proportionately larger and the abdomen is narrower. M. rosenbergii is nocturnal, bottom
dwelling and sluggish in nature and is territorial. During the day they remain half buried
in sediments and prefers shallow, detritus rich and vegetated areas. In temperature
regions, the breeding season is summer while in tropical regions it is to the onset of the
rainy season.
Its spawning occurs two or more times per season.
Common Cultivable Crab Species:

Swamp Crab (Scylla serrata) is a crab with smooth carapace and strong transversal
ridges. Its gastric zone is on the carapace with deep Hshaped groove. Front with 4 broad
lobes, all more or less in line with each other, 9 broad teeth on each anterolateral margin,
all of them with similar size and projecting obliquely outwards. It has a strong chelipeds
with well developed spines on the outer surface of carpus and on the anterior and
posterior dorsal parts of propodus. Its carapace color is green to almost black with legs
that may be marbled. The three other Scylla species prefer less saline water. Farming of
this species has developed from low density pond polyculture with fish and shrimp, using
wild seeds introduces tidally or intentionally, to monoculture in ponds and pens.
Typically associated with mangroves in estuaries and sheltered coastal habitats, they are
found in soft muddy bottoms where they dig deep burrows. Their courtship and mating
occur in estuaries. Mature S. serrate migrates offshore (up to 50km) to spawn. They may
spawn at any time during the year. The number of eggs produces may range from 1 to 6
million in a single spawning with at least 3 batches. Males can grow up to 3kg with 28cm
carapace width. Mature females have wide and dark abdomens and dark orange ovaries
that fill the cavity under the carapace.
Mud Crab (Scylla paramamosain) is a crab with a carapace usually green to light
green, plam green to greenish blue with lower surface and base of fingers usually pale
yellow to yellowish orange. Its carapace common width is between 15 and 18cm.
Inhabits rock areas, near reef and mangroves. Members of the order Decapoda are mostly
gonochronic. Mating behaviour: Precopulatory courtship ritual is common (through
olfactory and tactile cues); usually indirect sperm transfer. Its recorded maximum
carapace length is 20cm.

Common Cultivable Lobster Species:

Ornate Spiny Lobster (Panulirus ornatus) is a lobster under the family of Palinuridae.
It has maximum total body length of 50cm but usually much smaller (30 to 35cm). It is
found in shallow, sometimes slightly turbid coastal waters from 1 to 8m depth, with a
record of 50m deep. It inhabits sandy and muddy substrates, sometimes on rocky bottom,
often near the mouth of rivers but also on coral reefs. Juveniles occur in holes and
crevices which are partially covered by seagrass or macroalgae. It is solitary, may live in
pairs and has been found in larger concentrations. It is an omnivore species. Members of
the order Decapoda are mostly gonochronic. Mating behaviour: Precopulatory courtship
ritual is common (through olfactory and tactile cues); it is also indirect sperm transfer. It
can found in the Indo-West Pacific region.
Common Cultivable Mollusk Species:

Slipper Cupped Oyster (Crassostrea iredalei) is a shell medium sized, very variable in
shape but generally higher than long, roughly rounded, oblique triangular or elongate
ovate in outline. It’s left (lover) valve rather thick but light weighted, more convex and
larger than right (upper) valve. The color of outside shell is dirty white, often flushed
with pale greyish brown. The right valve is frequently with a few darker purplish grey
radial bands in early stages of growth. The interior of valves are whitish and shiny, often
with irregular areas of chalky white, deep puple-brown on posterior adductor scar. Its
geographical distribution is restricted to the Philippine Archipelago and Malaysia. C.
iredalei attached to hard objects or growing in bunches, on various soft bottoms,
especially in bays and estuaries with somewhat reduced salinity, intertidal and shallow
subtidal water, and suspension-feeding. This brackish water species is noted for its tasty
creamy flesh and its culture required a salinity range of 15 to 25ppt. Its recorded
maximum shell height is 15cm and commonly 8cm in length.

Donkey’s Ear Abalone (Haliotis asinina) is actively collected in the Southeast Asian
countries for its shell and large fleshy animal. It is common but not aggregating in dense
populations. The depth where they are usually found is at 0 to 10m. In life, the
exceptionally large green mantle almost covers the shell which is them devoid of
encrusting marine growths, unlike of the other species. It is active at night, feeds on
epilithic algae by grazing. Found in intertidal, on coral reefs. H. asinine is mostly
gonochronic and broadcast spawners. Life cycle: Embryos develop into planktonic
trocophore larvae and later into juvenile veligers before becoming fully grown adults. Its
recorded maximum length is 12cm and its common size is 9cm.

Green Mussel (Perna viridis) is an economically important mussel, a bivalve belonging

to the family of Mytilidae. It is harvested in the wild and grown in aquaculture facilities
in its native area. The shell tapers to a sharp, downturned beak and has a smooth surface
covered with a periostracum. The ventral margin of the shell is straight or weakly
concave. The ridge which supports the ligament connecting the two shell valves is finely
pitted. The beak has interlocking teeth; one in the right valve and two in the left. The
wavy posterior end of the paleal line and the large kidney-shaped adductor muscle are
diagnostic features of this species. Periostracum can be vivid green to dark brownish-
green near the outer edge and olive-green near the attachment point. The interior of the
shell valves is shiny and pale bluish green. It can usually found up to 10m depth and
forms dense population (up to 35,000 individuals per square meter). This species in an
efficient filter feeder, feeding on small zooplankton, phytoplankton and other suspended
fine organic material. Sexes are separate and fertilisation is external. Spawning generally
occurs twice a year between early spring and late autumn, however, in the Philippines
and Malaysia spawning occurs year round. Sexual maturity occurs at 15 to 30mm shell
length. Life span is about 3 years. It is found in estuarine habitats with salinities ranging
from 18 to 33 ppt and temperatures from 11˚C to 32˚C. It can reach 150mm.
Common Enemies of Fish and Crustacean

1. Predator - fish and other animals that prey on the cultured species of fish and
crustacean

2. Competitors - fish and other animals that compete with the

cultured species in terms of food, space and oxygen

3. Nuisances - crustaceans and other animals that do a lot of damage to the food
and in the habitat of fish Characteristics of Fish and Crustacean that are
Suitable for Pond Culture

1. Fish should be palatable and good tasting – the fish must have a delicate
flavour.

2. Fish must be a fast grower – the fish must be able to grow rapidly or can give a
possibility of four or more harvests a year.

3. Fish should be resistant to pests, diseases and parasites – the fish should not
succumb to abrupt changes in temperature or salinity and can tolerate such
conditions in all its existence.

4. Fish should be a universal feeder – the culture fish require food which can be
grown easily and abundantly under favourable conditions.

5. Fish should have high market demand – the fish must command a high price to
recover the expenses incurred.

6. Fish should not be destructive in confinement, either to its kind or to other

species or to its environment – the fish should be prolific which means that
reproduce very often to have a continuous supply of fry or stocks.